Cardiovascular System Pericardium – a double serous membrane

Visceral pericardium - Next to heart

A closed system of the heart and blood
vessels.
Parietal pericardium - Outside layer

The heart is a muscular double pump with

Serous fluid fills the space between the
two functions
layers of pericardium
1. Its right side receives oxygen-poor
blood from the body tissues and then
The Epicardium (“upon the heart”)
pumps this blood to the lungs to pick up
oxygen and dispel carbon dioxide. The
● The Outside layer, the parietal
blood vessels that carry blood to and from
pericardium which is a connective
the lungs form the pulmonary circuit tissue layer
(pulmonos = lung).
The Myocardium (“muscle heart”)
2. Its left side receives the oxygenated
blood returning from the lungs and pumps
● Forms the bulk of the heart, the
this blood throughout the body to supply layer that actually contracts.
oxygen and nutrients to the body tissues.
The vessels that transport blood to and The Endocardium (“inside the heart”)
from all body tissues and back to the heart
form the systemic circuit.
● located deep to the myocardium, is
a sheet of simple squamous
epithelium resting on a thin layer
of connective tissue. Endocardium
lines the heart chambers and covers
the heart valves

The heart lies in the thorax

posterior to the sternum and costal
cartilages and rests on the superior surface
of the diaphragm.
The right atrium forms the entire right ● Cardiac veins
border of the human heart. It is the ● Blood empties into the right atrium
receiving chamber for oxygen-poor blood via the coronary sinus
returning from the systemic circuit.

Receives blood via three veins: the

superior vena cava and inferior vena cava Heart Contractions
and the coronary sinus.

● Contraction is initiated by the

The right ventricle forms most of the sinoatrial node
anterior surface of the heart. It receives ● Sequential stimulation occurs at
blood from the right atrium and pumps it other autorhythmic cells
into the pulmonary circuit via an artery
called the pulmonary trunk.

The left atrium makes up most of the

heart’s posterior surface, or base. It
receives oxygen-rich blood returning from
the lungs through two right and two left
pulmonary veins.

The left ventricle forms the apex of the

heart and dominates the heart’s inferior
surface. ). It pumps blood into the systemic
circuit.

Thin, strong bands called chordae

tendineae holds the valves in place

Vessels

Aorta -Leaves left ventricle

Pulmonary arteries - Leave right ventricle

Vena cava - Enters right atrium

Pulmonary veins (four) - Enter left atrium ● Atria contract simultaneously

● Atria relax, then ventricles contract
● Systole = contraction
● Diastole = relaxation
Coronary Circulation
Cardiac cycle – events of one complete
● Blood in the heart chambers does heartbeat
not nourish the myocardium
● The heart has its own nourishing
Mid-to-late diastole – blood flows into
circulatory system
ventricles
● Coronary arteries
Ventricular systole – blood pressure builds Increased heart rate
before ventricle contracts, pushing out
blood
Sympathetic nervous system

Early diastole – atria finish re-filling,

● Crisis
ventricular pressure is low
● Low blood pressure

Cardiac output (CO)

Hormones

Amount of blood pumped by each side of

● Epinephrine
the heart in one minute
● Thyroxine

CO = (heart rate [HR]) x (stroke volume

Exercise
[SV])

Decreased blood volume

Stroke volume

Volume of blood pumped by each ventricle Decreased heart rate

in one contraction
● Parasympathetic nervous system
● High blood pressure or blood
volume
● Decreased venous return

Stroke volume usually remains relatively

constant

Starling’s law of the heart – the more that

the cardiac muscle is stretched, the
stronger the contraction

Changing heart rate is the most common

way to change cardiac output
Blood Vessels
➢ Walls of arteries are the thickest
Taking blood to the tissues and back ➢ Lumens of veins are larger
➢ Skeletal muscle “milks” blood in
1. Arteries veins toward the heart
2. Arterioles ➢ Walls of capillaries are only one
3. Capillaries cell layer thick to allow for
4. Venules exchanges between blood and
5. Veins tissue

Movement through Vessels

● Most arterial blood is pumped by

the heart
● Veins use the milking action of
muscles to help move blood

Capillary beds consist of two types of

vessels

1. Vascular shunt – directly connects

an arteriole to a venule
2. True capillaries – exchange vessels
● Oxygen and nutrients cross
to cells
Three layers (tunics)
● Carbon dioxide and
metabolic waste products
Tunic intima cross into blood

● Endothelium

Tunic media

● Smooth muscle
● Controlled by sympathetic nervous
system

Tunic externa

● Mostly fibrous connective tissue

Diffusion at Capillary beds

Major Arteries of Systemic Circulation

Arterial Supply of the Brain

Major Arteries of Systemic Circulation

 Temperature

● Heat has a vasodilation effect

● Cold has a vasoconstricting effect

Chemicals

● Various substances can cause

increases or decreases

Diet

Hepatic Portal Circulation

Pulse – pressure wave of blood

Monitored at “pressure points” where

pulse is easily palpated

Measurements by health professionals are

made on the pressure in large arteries

❖ Systolic – pressure at the peak of

ventricular contraction
❖ Diastolic – pressure when
ventricles relax

Pressure in blood vessels decreases as the

distance away from the heart increases
Human normal range is variable
Neural factors
Normal
● Autonomic nervous system
adjustments (sympathetic division) ● 140–110 mm Hg systolic
● 80–75 mm Hg diastolic
Renal factors
Hypotension
● Regulation by altering blood
volume ● Low systolic (below 110 mm HG)
● Renin – hormonal control ● Often associated with illness
Hypertension

● High systolic (above 140 mm HG)

● Can be dangerous if it is chronic

Capillary Exchange

Substances exchanged due to

concentration gradients

● Oxygen and nutrients leave the

blood
● Carbon dioxide and other wastes
leave the cells
● Direct diffusion across plasma
membranes
● Endocytosis or exocytosis
● Some capillaries have gaps
(intercellular clefts)
○ Plasma membrane not
joined by tight junctions
● Fenestrations of some capillaries
○ Fenestrations = pores

Developmental aspects

● A simple “tube heart” develops in

the embryo and pumps by the
fourth week
● The heart becomes a
four-chambered organ by the end
of seven weeks
● Few structural changes occur after
the seventh week
Blood
The only fluid tissue in the human body
Classified as a connective tissue
Living cells = formed elements
Non-living matrix = plasma
Color range
● Oxygen-rich blood is scarlet red
● Oxygen-poor blood is dull red
pH must remain between 7.35–7.45
Blood temperature is slightly higher than
body temperature.
Co2 - Increases the Alkaline level
C2 - Increases Acidity
Composition Of Blood:
Composed of approximately 90 percent
water.
Includes many dissolved substances
● Nutrients
● Salts (metal ions)
● Respiratory gasses
● Hormones
● Proteins
● Waste products
Blood Plasma is a straw-colored, sticky
fluid. It is 90% water, it contains over 100
different kinds of molecules:
Plasma Proteins:
Albumin – regulates osmotic pressure
Clotting proteins – help to stem blood loss
when a blood vessel is injured
Antibodies – help protect the body from
antigens
Formed Elements of blood or Blood Cells:
Neither erythrocytes nor platelets are true
cells: Erythrocytes lack nuclei and
organelles, and platelets are merely cell
fragments.
Chemotaxis - Migration of blood cells
Erythrocytes Erythrocytes, or red blood
cells (RBCs), are small, oxygen
transporting cells that are about 7.5 μm in
diameter. The most numerous formed
elements.
Form: erythrocytes are shaped as
biconcave discs—discs with a depressed
center.
Their cytoplasm is packed with molecules
of hemoglobin, an oxygen-carrying
protein. Their cytoplasm is packed with
molecules of hemoglobin, an
oxygen-carrying protein.
Erythrocytes pick up oxygen at the lung
capillaries and release it across other tissue
capillaries throughout the body. Each of
their special structural characteristics
contributes to their respiratory function.
Erythrocytes live for 100–120 days, much
longer than most other types of blood
cells. They originate from cells in red bone
marrow, where they expel their nucleus
and organelles before entering the
bloodstream.
Leukocytes, or white blood cells (WBCs),
are far less numerous than erythrocytes but
they are crucial to the body’s defense
against disease. leukocytes are the only
formed elements that are complete cells,
with the usual organelles and prominent
nuclei.
Leukocytes in effect constitute a mobile
army that continuously protects the body
from infectious microorganisms such as
bacteria, viruses, and parasites.
leukocytes function outside the
bloodstream in the loose connective
tissues, where infections occur. Various
chemicals produced or released at
infection sites attract circulating
leukocytes. In response, leukocytes leave
the capillaries by actively squeezing
between the endothelial cells that form the
capillary walls, a process called diapedesis
There are five types of leukocytes, divided
into two groups based on the presence or
absence of membrane-bound cytoplasmic
granules.
1. Granulocytes (neutrophils,
eosinophils, and basophils) contain
many obvious granules
Granulocytes are larger and much shorter
lived than erythrocytes.
They have non spherical nuclei with
purple-staining lobes (rounded masses)
joined by bandlike constrictions
Functionally, all granulocytes are
phagocytic; that is, they engulf and digest
foreign cells or molecules.
2. Agranulocytes (lymphocytes and
monocytes)
lack obvious granules (Although the two
agranulocytes resemble each other
structurally.
3. Neutrophils Bacteria-destroying
neutrophils (nu′tro-f˘ılz)
Multilobed nucleus with fine granules
Act as phagocytes at active sites of
infection
Neutrophils are the most abundant class of
leukocyte, constituting about 60% of all
white blood cells in healthy people.
Neutrophils function to consume and
destroy bacteria.
-ontain greater quantities of the enzymes
that specifically destroy the cell walls of
bacteria

4. Eosinophils
Large brick-red cytoplasmic granules
Found in response to allergies and
parasitic worms
phagocytizing allergens (substances that
induce allergy)
The eosinophils then secrete enzymes that
degrade histamine and other chemical
mediators of inflammation that are
released in the allergic reaction
In response to a parasitic infection,
eosinophils attach to parasites, and their
granules release enzymes that digest and
destroy the invaders.
Fighting parasites is the most important
function of eosinophils, and these cells
gather in the wall of the digestive tube,
where parasites are most likely to be
encountered.
5. Basophils
Have histamine-containing granules
Initiate inflammation during allergic
responses and parasitic infections
A simple mnemonic can help you
remember the relative abundance of
leukocytes, from the most abundant to the
least abundant type: “Never Let Monkeys
Eat Bananas” (neutrophils, lymphocytes,
monocytes, eosinophils, basophils).
Lymphocytes The most important cells of
the immune system
Like other leukocytes, they function not in
the bloodstream, but instead in the
connective tissues. In lymphoid connective
tissues, where they play a crucial role in
immunity. Fights against a specific
molecule.
Antigen - Any molecule that induces a
response from a lymphocyte.
Two classes of lymphocytes:
1. T cells - Attack foreign cells
directly
2. B cells - Differentiate and produce
antibodies,, proteins that bind to
the antigen and thus mark the
foreign cell for destruction by
macrophages.
Monocytes
Functions as macrophages that are
important in fighting chronic infection.
Ingests a wide variety of pathogens, the
largest leukocytes.
Platelets
Are also called Thrombocytes functions
with the clotting process.
Platelets plugs small tears in the walls of
blood vessels to prevent bleeding. any
blood cells that are trapped by the strands
are called clots.
Hematopoiesis

The synthesis of blood cells that occurs in

the red bone marrow.

Only the red bone marrow generates

blood, the red color derives from the
immature erythrocytes while the yellow
bone marrow is dormant and is composed
of fat.

Homeostasis

All blood cells are derived from a Stoppage of blood flow when there is a
common stem cell (hemocytoblast) break in a blood vessel

Hemocytoblast differentiation Hemostasis involves three phases

-Lymphoid stem cell produces 1. Platelet plug formation

lymphocytes 2. Vascular spasms
3. Coagulation
-Myeloid stem cell produces other formed
elements 5 Signs of injury

1. Color
2. Swelling
3. Loss of function
4. Temperature
5. Pain

The rate of erythrocyte production is Edema - Swelling caused by too much

controlled by a hormone (erythropoietin) fluid trapped in a tissue (Often in the feet)

Kidneys produce most erythropoietin as a

response to reduced oxygen levels in the
blood

Homeostasis is maintained by negative

feedback from blood oxygen levels
Platelet plug formation Blood Clotting

Collagen fibers are exposed by a break in a Blood usually clots within 3 to 6 minutes
blood vessel
The clot remains as endothelium
Platelets become “sticky” and cling to regenerates
fibers
The clot is broken down after tissue repair
Anchored platelets release chemicals to
attract more platelets

Platelets pile up to form a platelet plug

Vascular spasms

Anchored platelets release serotonin

Serotonin causes blood vessel muscles to

spasm Undesirable Clotting

Spasms narrow the blood vessel, Thrombus

decreasing blood loss
A clot in an unbroken blood vessel

Can be deadly in areas like the heart

Coagulation
Embolus
Injured tissues release thromboplastin
A thrombus that breaks away and floats
PF3 (a phospholipid) interacts with freely in the bloodstream
thromboplastin, blood protein clotting
factors, and calcium ions to trigger a
clotting cascade Can later clog vessels in critical areas such
as the brain
Prothrombin activator converts
prothrombin to thrombin (an enzyme) Embolus present in…

Thrombin joins fibrinogen proteins into The brain - CVT (Cerebral Venous
hair-like fibrin Thrombosis)

Fibrin forms a meshwork (the basis for a Heart - Myocardial Infarction

clot)
Kidney - Renal Infarction

Intestine - Intestinal Infarction

Bleeding Disorders

Thrombocytopenia

-Platelet deficiency

-Even normal movements can

cause bleeding from small blood
vessels that require platelets for
clotting

Hemophilia

-Hereditary bleeding disorder

-Normal clotting factors are

missing
The Endocrine System
The second messenger system of the body
Uses chemical messages (hormones) that
are released in the blood
Hormone Mediated Processes
● Reproduction
● Growth and Development
● Mobilization of Body Defenses
● Maintenance of much of
homeostasis
● Regulation of metabolism
Life Cycle of A Hormone
A Specific cell produce a specific hormone
Cells secrete hormones into the
extracellular fluids
Blood transfers hormones to target sites
These hormones regulate the activity of
other cells
The Chemistry of Hormones
3 main cellular composition of hormones
1. Amino Acid - based hormones
Proteins
Peptides
Amines
2. Steroids - made from cholesterol
3. Prostaglandins - made from highly
active lipids
Hormone Action
● Hormones affect only
certain tissues or organs
(target cells or organs)
● The target cells have
specific receptors where the
hormone binds.
Steroid Hormone Action
● Diffuses through the plasma
membrane of target cells
● Enters the nucleus and binds to a
specific protein in the cell’s dna
● Activates gene to synthesize
protein
Non Steroid Hormone Action
● Hormone binds to a membrane
receptor
● Hormone does not enter the cell
● Sets off activation to enzyme
● Catalyzes a reaction that produces
a second messenger molecule
● Oversees additional intracellular
changes to promote a specific
response.
Control of Hormone Release
Hormone levels in the blood are
maintained by negative feedback (-)
A stimulus or low hormone levels in the
blood triggers more hormone level (+)
Hormone release stops once an appropriate
level in the blood is reached
Stimuli of The Endocrine Gland
● Humoral - Fluid levels in terms of
ions
● Hormonal - Secondary hormone
activation
● Neural - Nerve Impulses that
stimulate hormone release
 Anterior Pituitary

Six anterior pituitary hormones

1. Growth hormone (GH)
a. Growth of the skeletal
muscles and long bones
b. Builds protein from amino
acids
c. Breaks down fats as a
source of energy
2. Prolactin (PRL)
a. Milk production

3. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

a. Regulates the endocrine activity
of the adrenal cortex

4. Thyroid-stimulating Hormone (TSH)

a. Growth and activity of the thyroid

Gonadotropic Hormones (FSH and LH)

Hormone Glands 5. Follicle Stimulating hormone (FSH)

a. Stimulates follicle development in
1. Pituitary ovaries and sperm development in
2. Thyroid testes
3. Adrenal
4. Pineal Gland 6. Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
5. Thymus a. Triggers ovulation
6. Ovaries/Testes b. Testosterone production

The releasing of the hormones is

Pituitary Gland (The master gland) controlled by the hypothalamus

The pituitary gland is a grapelike Posterior Pituitary

gland that hangs from the hypothalamus
that is protected by the sphenoid bone 1. Oxytocin
- Contractions of the uterus
It has 2 functional lobes and milk ejection
1. Anterior Pituitary
2. Posterior Pituitary 2. Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)

- Urine production
- Can increase blood pressure
 Parathyroid Gland
Thyroid

Produces 2 Hormones Parathyroid Hormone

1. Thyroid hormone
a. Major Metabolic Hormone
b. 2 Iodine containing Hormone
Thyroxine (T4) - Secreted by thyroid
follicles
Triiodothyronine (T3) - conversion of T4
at target tissues
a. Stimulates osteoclasts to
remove calcium in the bone
b. Stimulate kidneys to absorb
more calcium
c. Rise Calcium in blood
d. Antagonist with the calcitonin
hormone

2. Calcitonin

a. Decrease blood calcium levels

b. Antagonistic to the parathyroid
hormone
c. Produced by C (parafollicular)
cells
Adrenal Glands
Adrenal Medulla

1. Catecholamines

Epinephrine and Norepinephrine

a. Prepares body for short term

stress

Pancreatic Islets (Islets of

Langerhans)
Hormones of the Adrenal Glands

Adrenal Cortex

1. Mineralocorticoids
(aldosterone)
a. Regulate mineral
content in blood and
water
b. Electrolyte balance

Stimulated by renin and aldosterone

Target organ: Kidney
2. Glucocorticoids ( cortisone
and cortisol)
a. Promotes cell metabolism
b. Resists long term stressors
Stimulated by the increased blood
levels of ACTH
1. Insulin - allows glucose to
cross plasma membranes into
the cells of beta cells
2. Glucagon - allows glucose to
enter the blood from alpha
cells
These hormones are antagonists that
maintain blood sugar homeostasis
Pineal Gland

2. Sex Hormones 1. Melatonin

Sleep hormone, maintains circadian
Androgen -Male rhythm
Estrogen - Female
Thymus Produced by the corpus luteum

Acts with estrogen in menstrual

cycle

Helps implantation of the embryo

in the uterus

Testes
1. Thymosin
Matures WBC
Develops the immune system

Ovary

1. Testosterone
a. Adult male secondary
1. Estrogen sex characteristics
Produced by Graafian follicles ot the b. Growth and maturation
placenta of the male
reproductive system
Matures the female reproductive c. Sperm cell production
organ

Prepares the uterus

Maintains the pregnancy and

produces milk
Other Hormone Producing Cells

● Parts of the small intestine

● Parts of the stomach
● Kidneys
● Heart
● Many other areas have
scattered endocrine cells

The Father Of Postmodern

Anaphy: Elymir Sheen Bajao
(2006-Present)

Achievements:
● Top 1 Bsn1G
● RN 2027 Topnotcher
● Highest Anaphy Exam
(85/100)
● Best friend of Robert and Rey
● Otherwise known as “skrtt
skrrt”