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Conceptual Integrated Science, 2e (Hewitt et al.)

Chapter 2 Describing Motion

Multiple-Choice Questions

1) Whereas Aristotle relied on logic in explaining nature, Galileo relied on

A) observation.
B) patterns. C)
experiment. D)
mathematics.
Answer: C Diff:
1 Objective: 2.1

2) The scientist to first introduce the concept of inertia was

A) Aristotle.
B) Galileo.
C) Newton.
D) Copernicus.
Answer: B
Diff: 1
Objective: 2.2

3) Galileo's interpretation of motion differed from Aristotle's in that Galileo

emphasized A) the acceleration of free fall.
B) time rates.
C) the role of distance in describing motion.
D) all of the above
E) none of the above
Answer: B
Diff: 1
Objective: 2.2

4) Which has the greater mass?

A) a king-size pillow
B) an automobile battery
C) both about the
same Answer: B
Diff: 1
Objective: 2.3

1
Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
5) A kilogram is a measure of an object's
A) weight.
B) force.
C) mass.
D) gravity.
E) center of mass.
Answer: C Diff: 1
Objective: 2.3

6) Compared with a 1-kg block of solid iron, a 2-kg block of solid iron has twice as
much A) inertia.
B) mass.
C) volume.
D) all of the above
E) none of the above
Answer: D
Diff: 1
Objective: 2.3

7) Compared with a 1-kg block of solid iron, a 2-kg block of solid iron has the same
A) mass.
B) volume.
C) weight.
D) all of the above
E) none of the above
Answer: E
Diff: 1
Objective: 2.3

8) Your weight is
A) actually your mass.
B) the gravitational attraction between you and the Earth.
C) a property of mechanical equilibrium.
D) all of the above
E) none of the above
Answer: B
Diff: 1
Objective: 2.4

2
Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
9) One object has twice as much mass as another object, and also has twice as much
A) inertia.
B) velocity.
C) gravitational acceleration.
D) volume.
E) all of the above
Answer: A Diff: 1
Objective: 2.3

10) Compared with the mass of a certain object on Earth, the mass of the same object on
the Moon is
A) less.
B) more.
C) the same.
Answer: C
Diff: 1
Objective: 2.3

11) A 1-kg mass at Earth's surface weighs about

A) 1 N.
B) 5 N.
C) 10 N.
D) 12 N.
E) none of the above
Answer: C
Diff: 2
Objective: 2.3

12) In which of the following locations would a chunk of gold weighing 1 N have the
largest mass?
A) the Moon
B) Earth
C) the planet Jupiter
Answer: A
Diff: 3
Objective: 2.3

13) An object weighs 30 N on Earth. A second object weighs 30 N on the Moon. Which has the
greater mass?
A) the one on Earth
B) the one on the Moon
C) They have the same mass.
D) not enough information given
Answer: B
Diff: 3
Objective: 2.3

3
Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
14) Density is the ratio of
A) weight to volume.
B) mass to volume.
C) mass to weight.
D) weight to mass.
Answer: B
Diff: 1
Objective: 2.3

15) When a loaf of bread rises, its

density A) increases.
B) decreases.
C) stays the
same. Answer: B
Diff: 1 Objective:
2.3

16) Which has the greatest density?

A) 1 kg of feathers
B) 10 kg of feathers
C) 1 kg of
lead Answer:
C Diff: 1
Objective: 2.3

17) An object is pulled northward with a force of 10 N and southward with a force of 15 N.
The magnitude of the net force on the object is
A) 0N.
B) 5N.
C) 10 N.
D) 15 N.
E) none of the above
Answer: B
Diff: 1
Objective: 2.4

18) Which has zero acceleration?

A) an object at rest
B) an object moving at constant velocity
C) an object in mechanical equilibrium
D) all of the above
E) none of the above
Answer: D
Diff: 1
Objective: 2.4

4
Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
19) Whenever the net force on an object is zero, its acceleration
A) may be zero.
B) is zero.
Answer: B
Diff: 1
Objective: 2.4

20) An object in mechanical equilibrium is an object

A) at rest.
B) moving with constant velocity.
C) having no acceleration.
D) all of the above
Answer: D
Diff: 1
Objective: 2.5

21) If a nonrotating object has no acceleration, then we can say for certain that it is
A) at rest.
B) moving at constant nonzero
velocity. C) in mechanical equilibrium.
D) all of the above
E) none of the above
Answer: C
Diff: 2
Objective: 2.5

22) When you stand at rest on a pair of bathroom scales, the readings on the scales will
always A) each be half your weight.
B) each equal your weight.
C) add to equal your
weight. Answer: C
Diff: 2
Objective: 2.5

23) Hang from a pair of gym rings and the upward support forces of the rings will always
A) each be half your weight.
B) each be equal to your weight.
C) add up to equal your
weight. Answer: C
Diff: 2
Objective: 2.5

5
Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
24) A man weighing 800 N stands at rest on two bathroom scales so that his weight is distributed
evenly over both scales. The reading on each scale is
A) 200 N.
B) 400 N.
C) 800 N.
D) 1600 N.
E) none of the above
Answer: B
Diff: 2
Objective: 2.5

25) Which direction does a table push a book resting on it?

A) up
B) left
C) right
D) down
Answer: A
Diff: 1
Objective: 2.6

26) When can an object be in a state of equilibrium?

A) when two or more forces are acting on it
B) when it is at rest and no forces are acting on it
C) only when one force is acting on the object
D) when an object is not moving
Answer: A
Diff: 1
Objective: 2.7

27) The force of friction on a sliding object is 10 N. The applied force needed to maintain a
constant velocity is
A) more than 10 N.
B) less than 10 N.
C) 10 N.
Answer: C
Diff: 1
Objective: 2.8

28) A 300-kg bear grasping a vertical tree slides down at constant velocity. The friction force
between the tree and the bear is
A) 30 N.
B) 300 N.
C) 3000 N.
D) more than 3000 N.
Answer: C
Diff: 3
Objective: 2.8

6
Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
29) Where is friction most
evident? A) on the road
B) in a cup of coffee
C) in the atmosphere
D) everywhere
Answer: A
Diff: 2
Objective: IS 2A

30) The two measurements necessary for calculating average speed are
A) acceleration and time.
B) velocity and time.
C) distance and time.
D) distance and
acceleration. E) velocity and
distance. Answer: C
Diff: 1
Objective: 2.9

31) The average speed of a horse that gallops a distance of 10 km in a time of 30 min is
A) 10 km/h.
B) 20 km/h.
C) 30 km/h.
D) more than 30 km/h.
Answer: B
Diff: 1
Objective: 2.9
32) What is the acceleration of a car that maintains a constant velocity of 100 km/h for 10 s?
2
A) 0 m/s
B) 10 km/h/s
2
C) 10 m/s
D) 1000 km/h/s
Answer: A
Diff: 1
Objective: 2.9

33) As an object freely falls, its

A) velocity increases.
B) acceleration increases.
C) both of the above
D) none of the
above Answer: A
Diff: 1
Objective: 2.9

7
Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
34) The gain in speed each second for a freely falling object is about
A) 0 m/s.
B) 5 m/s.
C) 10 m/s.
D) 20 m/s.
E) depends on the initial speed
Answer: C
Diff: 1
Objective: 2.9

35) If a freely falling object were somehow equipped with a speedometer, its speed
reading would increase each second by about
A) 5 m/s.
B) 10 m/s.
C) 15 m/s.
D) a variable amount
E) depends on its initial
speed Answer: B
Diff: 1
Objective: 2.9

36) If a freely falling object were somehow equipped with a speedometer on a planet where the
2
acceleration due to gravity is 20 m/s , then its speed reading would increase each second by
A) 10 m/s.
B) 20 m/s.
C) 30 m/s.
D) 40 m/s.
E) depends on its initial
speed Answer: B
Diff: 1
Objective: 2.9

37) If a freely falling object were somehow equipped with an odometer to measure the distance
it travels, then the amount of distance it travels each succeeding second would be
A) constant.
B) less and less.
C) greater than the second
before. Answer: C
Diff: 1
Objective: 2.9

8
Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
38) Ten seconds after starting from rest, a freely falling object on Earth will have a speed
of about
A) 10 m/s.
B) 50 m/s.
C) 100 m/s.
D) more than 100
m/s. Answer: C
Diff: 1
Objective: 2.9

2
39) A car accelerates from rest at 2 m/s . What is its speed 3 s after the car starts moving? A)
2 m/s
B) 3 m/s
C) 4 m/s
D) 6 m/s
E) none of the above
Answer: D
Diff: 2
Objective: 2.10
nd
40) An object travels 8 m in the 1st second of travel, 8 m again during the 2 second of travel, and 8 m
rd
again during the 3 second. Its acceleration is therefore
2
A) 0 m/s .
2
B) 5 m/s .
2
C) 8 m/s .
2
D) 10 m/s .
2
E) more than 10 m/s .
Answer: A
Diff: 2
Objective: 2.10

41) An object is in free fall. At one instant, it travels at a speed of 50 m/s. Exactly 1 s later,
its speed is about
A) 25 m/s. B)
50 m/s. C) 55
m/s. D) 60 m/s.
E) 100 m/s.
Answer: D
Diff: 2
Objective: 2.10

9
Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
42) Disregarding air resistance, objects fall at
constant A) velocity.
B) speed.
C) acceleration.
D) distances each successive
second. Answer: C
Diff: 2
Objective: 2.10

43) A ball is thrown upward and caught when it comes back down. In the presence of air
resistance, the speed with which it is caught is
A) more than the speed it had when thrown upward.
B) less than the speed it had when thrown upward.
C) the same as the speed it had when thrown
upward. Answer: B
Diff: 2
Objective: 2.10

44) Starting from rest, the distance a freely falling object will fall in 10 s is about
A) 10 m.
B) 50 m.
C) 100 m.
D) 500 m.
Answer: D
Diff: 2
Objective: 2.10

45) Starting from rest, the distance a freely falling object will fall in 0.5 s is about
A) 0.5 m.
B) 1.0 m.
C) 1.25 m.
D) 5.0 m.
E) none of the above
Answer: C
Diff: 2
Objective: 2.10

46) One-half second after starting from rest, a freely falling object will have a speed of
about A) 20 m/s.
B) 10 m/s.
C) 5 m/s.
D) 2.5 m/s.
E) none of the above
Answer: C
Diff: 2
Objective: 2.10

10
Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
47) An apple falls from a tree and hits the ground 5 m below. It hits the ground with a speed
of about
A) 5 m/s.
B) 10 m/s.
C) 15 m/s.
D) 20 m/s.
E) not enough information given to estimate
Answer: B
Diff: 2
Objective: 2.10

48) It takes 6 s for a stone to fall to the bottom of a mine shaft. How deep is the shaft?
A) about 60 m
B) about 120 m
C) about 180 m
D) more than 200
m Answer: C
Diff: 2
Objective: 2.10

49) In each second of fall, the distance a freely falling object will fall is
A) about 5 m.
B) about 10 m.
C) the same, but not 5 m or 10 m.
D) increasing.
E) none of the above
Answer: D
Diff: 2
Objective: 2.10
2
50) A car accelerates at 2 m/s . Assuming the car starts from rest, how far will it travel in 10 s? A)
2m
B) 10 m C) 40
m D) 100 m E)
200 m Answer:
D Diff: 2
Objective: 2.10

11
Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
51) The muzzle velocity of a certain gun is 100 m/s. Neglecting air resistance, at the end of 1 s
a bullet fired straight up into the air will have traveled a distance of about
A) (100 - 5) m.
B) (100 + 5)
m. C) 100 m.
D) 5 m.
E) none of the above
Answer: A
Diff: 3
Objective: 2.10

52) A bullet is dropped into a river from a very high bridge. At the same time, another bullet is
fired from a gun, straight down towards the water. Neglecting air resistance, the acceleration just
before striking the water
A) is greater for the dropped bullet.
B) is greater for the fired bullet.
C) is the same for each bullet.
D) depends on how high they started.
E) none of the above
Answer: C
Diff: 3
Objective: 2.10

53) Someone standing at the edge of a cliff throws one ball straight up and another ball straight
down at the same initial speed. Neglecting air resistance, the ball to hit the ground below the cliff
with the greatest speed will be the one initially thrown
A) upward.
B) downward.
C) They will both hit with the same
speed. Answer: C
Diff: 3
Objective: 2.10

54) A ball is thrown upward. Neglecting air resistance, what initial upward speed does the
ball need to remain in the air for a total time of 10 s?
A) 50 m/s B)
60 m/s C) 80
m/s D) 100 m/s
E) 110 m/s
Answer: A
Diff: 3
Objective: 2.10

12
Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
55) A ball is thrown 125 m upward and then falls the same distance back to the Earth. Neglecting
air resistance, its total time in the air is about
A) 5 s.
B) 10 s.
C) 15 s.
D) more than 20 s.
Answer: B Diff: 3
Objective: 2.10

56) A pot falls from a ledge and hits the ground 45 m below. The speed with which it hits the
ground is about
A) 30 m/s.
B) 60 m/s.
C) 120 m/s.
D) more than 120
m/s. Answer: A
Diff: 3
Objective: 2.10

57) If a car increases its velocity from zero to 60 km/h in 10 s, its acceleration is
A) 3 km/h ∙ s
B) 6 km/h ∙ s
C) 10 km/h ∙ s
D) 60 km/h ∙ s
E) 600 km/h ∙ s
Answer: B
Diff: 3
Objective: 2.10

58) Consider drops of water that leak from a dripping faucet. As the drops fall, they
A) get closer together.
B) get farther apart.
C) remain at a relatively fixed distance from one
another. Answer: B
Diff: 3
Objective: 2.10

13
Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
59) Disregarding air drag, how fast must you toss a ball straight upward in order for the ball
to remain in the air for a total time of 2 s?
A) 5 m/s B) 7.5
m/s C) 10 m/s
D) 15 m/s E)
20 m/s Answer:
C Diff: 3
Objective: 2.10

60) If a baseball being thrown goes from zero to 30 m/s in 0.1 s, what is its average
2
acceleration? A) 3 m/s
2
B) 30 m/s C)
2
300 m/s
2
D) 3000 m/s
E) none of the above
Answer: C
Diff: 3
Objective: 2.10

2
61) If a rocket initially at rest accelerates at a rate of 50 m/s for 1 min, its speed will be A)
50 m/s.
B) 500 m/s.
C) 3000 m/s.
D) 3600 m/s.
E) none of the above
Answer: C
Diff: 3
Objective: 2.10
2
62) If a rocket accelerates from rest at a rate of 50 m/s for 10 s, the distance it will cover during
this time is about
A) 250 m.
B) 500 m.
C) 2500 m.
D) 5000 m.
E) none of the above
Answer: C
Diff: 3
Objective: 2.10

14
Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
63) The vertical height attained by a basketball player who achieves a hang time of a full 1 s
is about
A) 0.8 m.
B) 1 m.
C) 1.2 m.
D) 2.5 m.
E) more than 2.5 m.
Answer: C
Diff: 3
Objective: IS 2B
2
64) Drop a rock from a 5-m height and it accelerates at 10 m/s and strikes the ground 1 s later.
Drop the same rock from a height of 2.5 m and its acceleration of fall is
A) about half.
B) the same.
C) twice as much.
Answer: B Diff: 2
Objective: 2.10

65) A ball tossed vertically upward rises, reaches its highest point, and then falls back to
its starting point. During this time, the acceleration of the ball is always
A) in the direction of motion.
B) opposite its velocity.
C) directed upward.
D) directed downward.
Answer: D
Diff: 2
Objective: IS 2B

66) While a car travels around a circular track at constant speed, its
A) acceleration is zero.
B) velocity is zero.
C) both A and B
D) none of the
above Answer: D
Diff: 2
Objective: 2.10

67) The hang time of professional basketball players is

typically A) less than 1 s.
B) 1 s.
C) more than 1 s.
D) more than 2 s.
Answer: A Diff:
2 Objective: IS
2B

15
Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
68) Suppose a jumper claims a hang time of 2 s. Then that jumper must be able to jump a height
of
A) 1 m.
B) 2 m.
C) 3 m.
D) 4 m.
E) 5 m.
Answer: E
Diff: 3
Objective: IS 2B

69) When a basketball player jumps to make a shot, once his or her feet are off the ground,
the jumper's acceleration
A) depends on launch speed. B)
varies with body orientation.
C) is usually greater for taller players (but not
always). D) depends on all the above.
E) is g, no more, no less.
Answer: E
Diff: 2
Objective: IS 2B

Essay Questions

1) Clearly distinguish between mass, weight, and volume.

Answer: Mass has to do with the quantity of matter in a body. The more matter, or the more the
number of its atoms, the more mass. Mass is measured in kilograms. Weight is the gravitational
force on the matter in a body. Weight is measured in newtons. In the same locality, mass and
weight are directly proportional. That is, twice the mass has twice the weight. Volume is a
measure of a body's size—its physical dimensions. Volume is measured in such units as cubic
meters.
Diff: 1
Objective: 2.3

2) What does it mean to say Σ F = 0 for an object in equilibrium?

Answer: It means that if the object is not accelerating, all the forces acting on it combine to be
zero.
Diff: 1
Objective: 2.5

16
Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
3) If you stand on a pair of bathroom scales, explain how the readings change as you shift
your weight gradually from side to side. What rule governs the readings on the scales?
Answer: The equilibrium rule guides the scale readings. That is, the total of the readings adds to
equal your weight. Then the net force on you is zero at all times. The scales push up as much as
gravity pulls you down. For example, stand evenly and the readings are the same. Shift more
weight on your left foot and the reading on the left scale increases. Its gain is equal to the loss of
reading on the scale supporting your right foot.
Diff: 2
Objective: 2.5

4) Distinguish between velocity and acceleration, and apply each to a ball tossed straight upward.
Answer: Velocity has to do with how fast a body travels; acceleration has to do with how quickly
a body changes velocity. An upward thrown ball has an initial velocity that decreases with time.
This rate of decrease is the acceleration, g, which remains the same during the time the ball is in
the air. When the ball gets to the top its velocity is instantaneously zero but its acceleration is
still g. As the ball returns, its velocity picks up at the same rate it decreased while ascending
(barring air drag). So during the ball toss, velocity changes with time while acceleration doesn't.

Diff: 1
Objective: 2.10

5) Does a car undergo acceleration when it moves at constant speed in a straight-line direction?
When it rounds a corner at constant speed? Explain.
Answer: No, a car does not accelerate at constant speed in a straight line because its velocity
doesn't change. But when it rounds a corner it is changing direction at every instant. This means
a change in velocity, which by definition, means an acceleration. (Later we will learn that
whenever a net force acts on something, that something accelerates in the direction of the net
force. In the case of a car rounding a curve, the force that acts is friction on the tires.)
Diff: 2
Objective: 2.10

17
Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Another random document with
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 Fig. 555.—Atropa belladonna: A is reduced.]
Zygomorphic flowers occur, and thus form a transition to the closely allied
Scrophulariaceæ; the zygomorphy sometimes shows itself only in the relative
length of the stamens, sometimes also in the corolla (Hyoscyamus).—Nicandra is
5-merous throughout all the whorls.—The peculiar relative leaf-arrangement in this
order occurs from sympodial branching and displacement. The most simple is, e.g.
Datura (Fig. 556 A); each shoot-generation in the floral parts of the plant has only
2 foliage-leaves (f1 and f2), and then terminates in a flower; the axillary buds of
both the foliage-leaves are developed and form a dichasium, but since the leaves
are displaced on their axillary-shoots as far, or almost as far, as the first leaf of
these axillary-shoots, the flowers are borne singly on the dichasial branches, and
all the branches appear to be without subtending leaves (Shoot I is white, II
shaded, III white, etc., diagram A). Scopolia and others (Fig. 556 B) differ in that
the lowest and smallest (f1) of the two leaves on each shoot is barren, and is
therefore not displaced; but the upper one (the second bracteole, f2) is displaced
as in the first instance, and consequently it assumes a position near the first leaf
(the shaded leaf f2 of shoot I being placed near the white leaf f1 of shoot II, etc.,) of
the next youngest shoot-generation, and hence the leaves are borne in pairs; the
flower placed between the two leaves of a pair is therefore the terminal flower of
the shoot to which the smaller of the two leaves belongs, and the larger leaf is the
subtending leaf for the floral shoot itself.

Fig. 556.—Diagrammatic representation of the branching in Solanaceæ.

The various shoot-generations are white or shaded.
Fig. 557.—Fruit of Hyoscyamus niger after removal of
calyx.

Fig. 558.—Fruit of Datura

stramonium.
 A. Fruit a capsule. Nicotiana (Tobacco) has a 2-valved capsule
with septifragal dehiscence; the valves separate at the apex; the
corolla is funnel-shaped, tubular, salver-shaped or campanulate. The
flowers in panicles.—Datura (D. stramonium, Thorn-apple) has a
(frequently spiny) capsule (Fig. 558), which is falsely 4-locular (at the
top, bilocular) and opens septifragally with 4 valves. The lower part
of the calyx persists as a thick collar (see Fig. 558). The corolla is
funnel-shaped. The flowers are solitary, large.—Hyoscyamus (H.
niger, Henbane) has a pyxidium (Fig. 557) enclosed in the
campanulate, completely persistent, thick-walled calyx. The flowers
are slightly zygomorphic, and borne in unipared scorpioid cymes.
Scopolia (pyxidium); Fabiana (Heather-like shrub); Petunia (slightly zygomorphic
flower; funnel-shaped corolla); Nierembergia; Brunfelsia (almost a drupe);
Franciscea; Browallia.—Among those with capsular fruits are found the
most anomalous forms, which by their zygomorphic flowers and
often didynamous stamens present the transition to the
Scrophulariaceæ: Salpiglossis; Schizanthus (lobed petals; 2 perfect,
and 3 rudimentary stamens).

Figs. 559–561.—Solanum tuberosum.

Fig. 559.—Flower (1/1).

 Fig. 560.—Stamen,
ejecting pollen.

Fig. 561.—Longitudinal
section of seed.
B. Fruit a berry. Solanum (Nightshade); rotate corolla (Fig.
559). The stamens have short filaments, the anthers stand erect,
close together round the style, like a cone in the centre of the flower,
and open by pores at the apex (Fig. 560). S. tuberosum (the Potato-plant);
the Potato-tuber is a swollen, underground stem; the “eyes” are buds, situated in
the axils of its scale-like, quickly-perishing leaves.—Lycopersicum resembles
Solanum in the flower, but the united anthers open by longitudinal
clefts and have an apical appendage. The cultivated species, L.
esculentum (Tomato), has often a higher number than 5 in the flower,
and in the fruit several loculi of unequal size.—Physalis (Winter
Cherry); the calyx ultimately swells out in the form of a bladder,
becomes coloured, and loosely envelopes the spherical berry.—
Capsicum (Guinea Pepper-plant); some species have very large,
irregular, rather dry (red, yellow, black) berries, which are unilocular
in the upper part.—Lycium (false Tea-plant); the corolla is salver- or
funnel-shaped; shrubs; often thorny.—Atropa (A. belladonna, Deadly
Nightshade, Fig. 555); corolla campanulate; the calyx projects
beneath the spherical, black berry. The flowers are borne singly.—
Mandragora; (Mandrake); Nicandra (ovary often 5-locular).—A small
tropical group: Cestreæ (Cestrum, Habrothamnus, etc.) has an almost straight
embryo, which may also be found e.g. in species of Nicotiana. Related to the
Scrophulariaceæ.
About 1,500 species; the majority within the Tropics, outside these limits
especially in America. Solanum nigrum is a common weed.—The Potato-plant
(Solanum tuberosum), from Peru and Chili, was introduced into Europe in 1584 by
Sir Walter Raleigh. (Potatoes = Batatos). The fruits of several serve as
condiments: Chilies or Pod-pepper (Capsicum annuum and longum), and the
Cayenne-pepper (C. baccatum and others), whose fruits also are officinal, were
brought to Europe from S. America by Columbus, and are commonly cultivated in
Tropical America; Lycopersicum esculentum (Tomato) and others from Peru;
Solanum ovigerum (Egg-plant); Solanum melongena, etc. Poisonous, acrid,
narcotic properties (alkaloids, etc., solanine, nicotine, atropine, hyoscyamine) are
found in many: Atropa belladonna (from S. Europe; the roots and leaves are
officinal); Solanum dulcamara (Bitter-sweet; formerly officinal), S. toxicarium
(Guiana); Datura stramonium from Asia (leaves and seeds officinal), D. sanguinea,
metel, tatula, and others; Hyoscyamus (officinal: the leaves and seeds of H. niger);
Nicotiana tabacum (Virginian tobacco, officinal: the leaves), N. rustica and others
from Trop. America (Tobacco was introduced into Europe in 1560); Cestrum-
species. Duboisia myoporoides (Australia); the leaves contain hyoscyamine and
are used in medicine. A number of species of these genera are ornamental plants.
Order 2. Nolanaceæ. These most resemble the Convolvulaceæ in the corolla,
but the Solanaceæ in their branching, and leaf-arrangement (in pairs, etc.). The
diagram is the same as in Nicandra with 5 carpels, but the fruits of this order most
frequently form, by invaginations in various directions, an ovary (with 1 style)
consisting of numerous and irregularly grouped, 1-ovuled cells; the fruit is a
schizocarp with many 1-seeded fruitlets.—Nolana (Western S. America): a few are
ornamental plants.

Order 3. Scrophulariaceæ. The flower is hypogynous, ☿,

zygomorphic, with the usual type: S5, P5, A5, and G2, the latter
placed in the median plane; some genera have all 5 stamens
developed (Fig. 562 A), but most frequently the posterior one is
suppressed and the flower becomes didynamous (Fig. 562 B). The
fruit, as in the capsular-fruited Solanaceæ, is a bilocular, 2-valved
capsule, with a thick, axile placenta, and most often septicidal
dehiscence (Fig. 563 C). The numerous seeds are not reniform as in
many Solanaceæ, and have a straight, or only slightly curved
embryo, with abundant endosperm (Fig. 563 D).—The majority are
herbs; some are arborescent; the leaves are opposite or scattered,
but stipules are wanting as in the whole family.
The Scrophulariaceæ are closely allied to the Solanaceæ, and there is, properly
speaking, no characteristic feature which absolutely separates them. The
somewhat irregular corolla, with five stamens of unequal length in Verbascum, is
also found in Hyoscyamus; curved and straight embryos are found in both orders.
The activation of the corolla in the Scrophulariaceæ is simple imbricate, in the
Solanaceæ most frequently folded imbricate (in Atropa and those allied to it,
imbricate without folding). The genera (about 164) are distinguished according to
the form of the corolla, number of stamens, inflorescence, arrangement of the
leaves, etc. Verbascum belongs to the most primitive 5-stamened forms, and from
it proceed a long series down to Veronica, with only two stamens and most
frequently the posterior sepal suppressed.
 Fig. 562.—Diagrams. A Verbascum; B Linaria; C Veronica.
1. Antirrhineæ, Snapdragon Group. This has most frequently
a descending æstivation of the petals (the posterior petals are
outside the lateral ones, which again enclose the anterior; Fig. 562
A, B). The plants belonging to this group are not parasites.
a. 5-stamened.—Verbascum (Mullein, Fig. 563 A) has a slightly
irregular, rotate corolla; five stamens (frequently covered with woolly
hairs), of which the two anterior ones are the longer and differ often
also in other respects. The inflorescences are racemose, often with several
series of accessory dichasia in the axil of each primary floral-leaf. The leaves are
scattered and, together with the stems, are often covered with a grey felt of
branched hairs.
Fig. 563.—Verbascum thapsiforme.
Fig. 564.—Antirrhinum majus. A flower, and the
upper lip of a flower with the stamens.
 Fig. 565.—Scrophularia nodosa. Protogynous flower in various stages:
A ♀ stage; g the stigma projecting from the throat of the corolla; B the
same in longitudinal section; C ♂ stage, the stigma is bent down and its
former position occupied by the stamens; s staminode; g stigma; d
nectary.

Fig. 566.—Digitalis
purpurea.
 b. 4-stamened, didynamous (Fig. 564).—Scrophularia (Fig-wort,
Fig. 565) has cymose inflorescences in a panicle; the corolla (Fig.
565) is urceolate, short two-lipped; the posterior stamens are present
as a scale below the upper lip of the corolla (Fig 565 s). S. nodosa has
a tuberous rhizome.—Pentstemon; the posterior stamen is barren and very long.
—Antirrhinum (Snapdragon). The corolla (Fig. 564) is personate, i.e.
bilabiate, but with the under lip arched to such an extent that it meets
the upper lip, closes the corolla throat, and entirely conceals the
stamens and style; the corolla-tube is produced into a short pouch at
the base on the anterior side. The capsule is oblique and opens by
2–3 pores, formed by small, dentate valves. In Linaria (Toad-flax) the
pouch is produced into a spur. Sometimes there are traces of the
posterior stamens. The capsule opens by large pores (one for each
loculus), produced by large, many-partite valves. L. vulgaris
reproduces by suckers.—Digitalis (Foxglove, Fig. 566) has long
racemes with drooping flowers; the posterior sepal is small (a step
towards complete suppression, as in Veronica); the corolla is
obliquely campanulate, and generally nearly 4-lobed, the two
posterior petals coalescing.—Alonsoa; Nemesia; Chelone;
Herpestis; Mimulus; Torenia; Vandellia; Limosella (L. aquatica, Mud-
wort, native); Scoparia; Capraria; Erinus (found on the Roman Camp
at Chesters, Northumberland, and supposed to have been
introduced from Spain by the Roman soldiers); Celsia (near
Verbascum); Maurandia; Lophospermum; Rhodochiton; Collinsia;
Nycterinia, etc.
 Fig. 567.-Flower of Veronica.
c. 2-stamened.—Gratiola (Water-hyssop). 5-partite calyx. The
upper lip of the corolla is undivided or slightly bifid; the two anterior
stamens are either entirely absent or are reduced to staminodes (a
transition to Veronica).—Veronica (Speedwell), most frequently 4-
partite calyx; 4-lobed, rotate, zygomorphic corolla with 2 perfect
stamens and no trace of the others (Figs. 567, 562 c); capsule with
loculicidal dehiscence. Calceolaria; the corolla has two slipper-like
lips.
2. Rhinantheæ, Yellow-rattle Group. Herbs, all of which (with
the exception of Lathræa) are annual parasites with green foliage-
leaves. They attach themselves by haustoria to the roots of other
plants and draw nourishment from them. The majority turn black
when dried. Racemose inflorescences. In many the calyx is 4-partite,
the posterior sepal being absent, or very small. The corolla is
distinctly bilabiate (Fig. 568), with most frequently ascending
æstiration; in the majority it does not become detached at the base,
but by means of a ring-like cut some distance up the tube; 4
didynamous stamens; pollen-grains dry, easily falling out; the
anthers are often furnished at the base with bristles or hairs (Fig.
568) which play a part in the pollination, the probosces of the
insects, being forcibly pushed against them, agitate the anthers and
shake out the pollen-grains. Capsule with loculicidal dehiscence.—
Euphrasia (Eye-bright), Melampyrum (Cow-wheat), Rhinanthus
(Yellow-rattle), Odontites (Bartsia), Pedicularis (Louse-wort), and
Lathrœa (Tooth-wort) all have native species. The last named is pale
yellow, or reddish (without chlorophyll); it is a parasite on the roots of the
Hazel, Beech and other shrubs, having an aerial stem, and an underground,
perennial rhizome, covered with opposite, scale-like, more or less fleshy leaves
with a number of internal glandular, labyrinthine cavities. The inflorescence is a
unilateral raceme. It approaches Gesneriaceæ in having a unilocular ovary with
two parietal placentæ.

Fig. 568.—Euphrasia officinalis. Flower of the large and the small-flowered

forms; showing the anthers and stigmas.
The mechanical contrivances for pollination are so numerous that no general
principle can be laid down. Personate flowers, like those of Antirrhinum are only
accessible to strong insects, such as humble-bees, which can force themselves
between the two lips, and so become dusted with pollen on the back. In Euphrasia
and other Rhinantheæ the insects become covered with smooth, powdery pollen
when they shake the anther-apparatus in touching the hairs and bristles mentioned
above. Scrophularia nodosa is protogynous (Fig. 565). Digitalis purpurea,
however, is protandrous. Mimulus luteus and some others have sensitive stigmatic
lobes, which shut up on being touched. The Veronica-species constitute a series,
from large-flowered down to small-flowered forms, and parallel with them are
found various gradations from insect-to self-pollination. In some (as Euphrasia
officinalis, Rhinanthus crista galli) there are two kinds of flowers: large, which are
pollinated by insects, and small, which are self-pollinated (Fig. 568). Lathræa
squamaria (Tooth-wort) is a protogynous spring-flowering plant, largely visited by
humble-bees. Others have cleistogamic flowers. Nycterinia capensis opens its
flowers at night.
2,000 species; chiefly from the Temp. Officinal: Digitalis purpurea (the leaves;
Europe), a poisonous plant. Verbascum thapsus and thapsiforme, Veronica
officinalis (“Herba V.”), Gratiola officinalis (“Herba”) have medicinal uses. The
whole of the Scrophulariaceæ are more or less suspicious, if not actually
poisonous, and none serve as food. Many are ornamental plants: Mimulus
luteus (N. America), Paulownia imperialis (the only species; in Japan; a tree),
Antirrhinum vulgare (S. Eur.), Linaria, Pentstemon, Veronica, Calceolaria (Peru,
Chili, etc.).
 Fig. 569.—Leaf of Utricularia vulgaris, with bladder.
Median longitudinal section through a bladder
containing a Cyclops. At a a hair of the upper-lip, at i 2
bristles of the under-lip of the entrance (a, b); in the
latter are placed 4 bristles h; k stalk of the bladder, in
which is seen a vascular bundle. (After Cohn.)
Order 4. Utriculariaceæ. To this order belong only perennial,
insectivorous, aquatic, and marsh-plants (200 species) with a more
or less characteristic appearance. They differ from the
Scrophulariaceæ, especially in having 2 stamens (the anterior) and a
unilocular ovary, with free, central placenta (like that of the
Primulaceæ). For the rest the flower is distinctly bilabiate, both in the
calyx and corolla. Two-valved capsule; no endosperm.
 Pinguicula (Butter-wort) has a rosette of leaves close to the
ground; these are sticky, covered with glandular hairs, and roll round
any small insects which may be caught upon them; flowers solitary,
terminal on a long scape; calyx, 5-partite; corolla with spur. The
embryo germinates with 1 cotyledon.—Utricularia (Bladder-wort).
Our native species are floating, without roots, with hair-like, divided
leaves, studded with peculiar bladders (in the Tropics there are
terrestrial species, with ordinary foliage). The bladders (Fig. 569)
have an aperture, closed by a valve opening inwards, so that small
aquatic animals are allowed to enter, but are not able to escape; they
are thus entrapped in the bladders, and are probably used as food.
Calyx bipartite; corolla personate with spur.
The embryo of Utricularia is very imperfect, scarcely more than a spherical,
cellular mass, with a few slight leaf-rudiments. On the germination of U. vulgaris,
several bristle-like leaves develop into a compact rosette; the stem then develops,
and also the finely-divided, bladder-bearing leaves. A primary root is not
developed. The stems branch copiously and in a very peculiar manner. The
growing-point of the stem is rolled spirally.—The stigmatic lobes are sensitive and
close on being touched; self-pollination often takes place, however, in Pinguicula.
Order 5. Gesneriaceæ. The flower in this order may be both epigynous
(Gesnerieæ) and hypogynous (Cyrtandreæ), but otherwise is nearly the same as
in Scrophulariaceæ, only that the ovary is unilocular, with 2 parietal, often bifid,
placentæ. Of the 5 stamens the posterior is rudimentary, or (more rarely) entirely
wanting, and the others are didynamous (Cyrtandreæ have often only 2 stamens);
their anthers are generally glued into a quadrangular mass. The majority are herbs
with juicy stems, opposite, verticillate or scattered leaves without stipules, often,
like the stems, thick and juicy, soft-haired or glabrous. The corollas are often
highly-coloured (scarlet, red-yellow, etc., and spotted internally), large and
magnificent, so that many species are ornamental plants. Gesnerieæ (often
epigynous) have endosperm; S. Am.—Cyrtandreæ, hypogynous, without
endosperm; Asia, S. Africa.—Streptocarpus, neither the primary root nor primary
shoot attains development; one of the cotyledons dies, while the other grows and
becomes a very large foliage-leaf, from which spring adventitious roots and
adventitious inflorescences.
500 species. Gloxinia, Achimenes, Gesneria, Alloplectus, Tydæa, Columnea,
Nægelia, Æschynanthus, and others, especially in the forests of tropical America.
Some are epiphytes on trees, others prefer the leaf-mould of the forest and
crevices of cliffs. Several genera have peculiar, catkin-like, underground shoots,
with scale-like compact leaves; others have tubers.
 Orobanche (Broom-rape) is allied to this order as a parasitic form. It is a
parasite on the roots of other plants, not like Lathræa by means of thin
rootbranches with haustoria, but growing with the base of its stem in close contact
with its host, and probably even often protruding a kind of thallus into it, in a
manner similar to the Loranthaceæ. Its aerial shoots are not entirely destitute of
chlorophyll, but are not green; they only bear scale-leaves and terminate in a
raceme or spike-like inflorescence.—Some Orobanche-species are detrimental to
various cultivated plants (Hemp, Lucerne, Tobacco, etc.). The flowers are strongly
zygomorphic; the posterior sepal is often wanting, and the anterior are united to
the two lateral ones. Ovary unilocular, as in Gesneraceæ, with 2 or 4 parietal
placentæ.—The exceedingly small seeds have a very rudimentary embryo, formed
of an ellipsoidal, cellular mass, without indication of cotyledons or other organs.—
About 100 species; especially in the Mediterranean region.
Order 6. Bignoniaceæ. 500 species; nearly all trees and shrubs, and to a great
extent lianes, climbing by tendrils (modified leaves), which are sometimes
terminated by a special clasping apparatus. These lianes have, as a rule, an
anomalous stem structure, the wood being either divided into four wedges at right
angles to each other, separated by four grooves filled with secondary wood-
parenchyma, or a greater number of wedges occur, by the cambium ceasing to
form wood in several places. The leaves are most frequently opposite and
compound; the flowers in the main are similar to the didynamous
Scrophulariaceæ, and especially resemble those of Digitalis purpurea; they are
bilabiate, large, and beautiful, campanulate or trumpet-shaped, many of the
prettiest ornamental plants in the Tropics belonging to this order. The fruit is most
frequently a large, woody, 2-valved, siliqua-like, septifragal capsule, whose valves
separate from the flat and broad partition-wall, which bears the large, generally
winged seeds: Tecoma; Bignonia.—In gardens: Catalpa syringæfolia (Trumpet-
wood); Tecoma radicans (from S. Am.).—“Palisander”-wood is from Jacaranda (S.
Am.).—Eccremocarpus (N. Am.) forms, by its unilocular capsule, a transition to the
Gesneriaceæ (E. scaber; herbaceous).
Crescentia is allied to this order; C. cujete (Calabash) is its best known species.
The fruit (unilocular with 2 parietal placentæ) is a very large, spherical or ellipsoidal
berry, with a firm, finally woody outer layer. After the removal of the juicy interior,
these are commonly used as drinking vessels in Tropical America.
Order 7. Pedaliaceæ. Sesamum (orientale and indicum); very important oil-
plants, which from olden times have been cultivated in tropical Asia and Africa for
food and as medicinal plants, and are now cultivated in America also. The seeds
are used as a raw material in the manufacture of soap in Europe.—To this order
also belong Martynia and Craniolaria, which have a long horned capsule and
sensitive stigmas.—46 species.
 Order 8. Acanthaceæ. 1,500 species; mostly erect, slender, branched herbs or
shrubs, rarely arborescent, especially in S. Am. and Ind. The branches frequently
have swollen nodes; the leaves are opposite, penninerved, undivided, more or less
lanceolate or elliptical, and generally leave a distinct scar when they fall off.
Stipules are wanting. The flowers are solitary or in dichasia, which are arranged in
4-rowed spikes or racemes, each flower with its subtending bract, which may be
brightly coloured, and most frequently also with two bracteoles. With regard to the
corolla (which is often labiate, in any case irregular, and frequently prettily
coloured), the 2 or 4 didynamous stamens (of whose anthers one half is inserted
lower than the other, or suppressed) and the gynœceum, the Acanthaceæ are true
Personatæ, approaching most nearly to the Scrophulariaceæ: they differ from the
other orders especially in the fruit, which is a bilocular, 2-valved, often elastically
dehiscing capsule, which never has more than 2 rows, and in some only 2 seeds
in each loculus, the seeds being often compressed and borne on strong, curved or
hook-like funicles (retinacula) which persist after dehiscence. Embryo curved
without endosperm; radicle pointed downwards.—Cleistogamic flowers are found
in several species. Cystoliths are common.
The following grow wild in Europe: Acanthus (spinosus and mollis, whose
pinnatifid leaves served as models for the capitals of the Corinthian columns). The
posterior sepal is the largest of all the leaves of the flower, and covers the other
parts like a helmet; the 2 anterior sepals are united, and the two lateral ones are
small and greenish; the corolla has no upper-lip, but only a 3-lobed under-lip. The
anthers are bilocular; the filaments ultimately become very firm.—Justicia,
Eranthemum, Goldfussia, Thunbergia (a twiner), Ruellia, Dicliptera, etc.—
Ornamental plants in conservatories.

Order 9. Plantaginaceæ (Plantains). The flowers (Figs. 570,

571) are regular, ☿, hypogynous, with a 4-partite, persistent calyx, a
gamopetalous, scarious corolla with 4 projecting lobes, 4 stamens,
incurved in the bud, later on projecting considerably, about equal in
length, and a bilocular ovary with one long, filamentous, undivided,
feathery, papillose style (see Fig. 571). The ovary is most frequently
bilocular with 1–few ovules in each loculus. An hypogynous disc is
wanting. The fruit is a pyxidium with 1–few peltate seeds attached in
each loculus (Littorella is in several respects an exception). All
species are herbs, the majority with leaf-rosettes near the ground,
and the flowers in spikes or capitula.
The labiate-like flowers are in this case entirely concealed under a regular,
apparently 4-merous exterior. The structure of the flower, however, is the same as
in the Scrophulariaceæ, only the reduction, which is found in Veronica (compare
Figs. 562 C, 567 with 570, 571), is also present in this instance and the lobes are
also more equally developed; the posterior petal corresponds to the bilobed upper-
lip; the posterior stamen and the posterior sepal also are entirely wanting. In the
development of the flower there is no trace of posterior sepal or stamen, and the
posterior petal arises from one primordium, but the two anterior sepals arise before
the lateral ones. The position of sepals and petals does not agree with that of a
true 4-merous flower, which is represented in Fig. 361 E. The bracteoles are
always suppressed in Plantago.
Plantago (Plantain, Rib-grass). The foliage-leaves are most
frequently scattered, entire, with curved veins, arranged in a rosette
close to the ground on an unlimited rhizome; the spike-like
inflorescence is borne on a long scape; in some (P. psyllium) the
leaves are opposite on a stem with well-developed internodes, and
the inflorescences are borne in their axils. The order also presents a
transition from insect-pollinated to wind-pollinated flowers. The flowers
are protogynous, wind-pollinated in P. major and P. lanceolata, partly also in the
other species, but insect pollination also occurs, and P. media has three kinds of
flowers, some of which are adapted for wind-pollination (Fig. 571), others, with
short filaments, for insects. Littorella lacustris (Shore-weed) is the most
reduced of the Plantaginaceæ: an aquatic plant with rosettes of
round, awl-like leaves and diclinous (monœcious) flowers. In the axils
of the foliage-leaves is a very short 3-flowered spike, formed by 2 sessile ♀ -
flowers, and above them a long-stalked ♂ -flower; all the flowers are lateral, the
terminal one being absent, as in Plantago. The ♂-flower is essentially the same as
in Plantago, but the ♀ -flower has a scarious corolla, with a narrow, 3–4-dentate
mouth, which closes tightly round the nut-like fruit.