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Chapter 2: Computer Arithmetic and Digital Logic

1. Why is binary arithmetic employed by digital computers?
SOLUTION
Binary arithmetic is used entirely because digital systems are constructed with two‐state logic elements. If
semiconductor manufacturing processes changed and allowed logic elements with five states, then base‐5
arithmetic would be used.
2. We said that binary values have no intrinsic information (that is true of all other number representations). The
Voyager I spacecraft, containing samples of human music and other messages, was the first human artifact to
leave the solar system to travel to the stars. How is it possible to communicate with aliens in binary form if
there is no intrinsic meaning to the data?
SOLUTION
It is, of course, true that binary data has no intrinsic information, and a pattern of 1s and 0s has no intrinsic
meaning other than that given to it by the programmer; for example, we agree that the binary code 01000001
represents the letter ‘A’ in ASCII and represents 65 as an 8421‐weighted, unsigned binary, integer.
Science Fiction writers have long thought about how communication might take place between different
civilizations. One possible solution is to construct a language using information that can be shared. For example,
there are universal constants such as the speed of light, the spectral lines of the hydrogen spectrum, the periodic
table and the number of protons in each element. Similarly, there are mathematical concepts such as prime
numbers, constants such as π and e, and so on. So, by transmitting, say, a series of prime numbers or the atomic
numbers of members of the periodic table, an alien intelligence would be able to guess the sequenceand then
work out how the numbers have been encoded.
An interesting case of decoding in the face of little information took place in WW2. The British had German Enigma
machines but needed to see a translation of known data before they could perform general decoding. So, they
arranged for bombs to be dropped onto empty sea near a German submarine. The German submarine observed
the bombs and transmitted their position back to base. The message was intercepted and the decoding
performed by looking for the encoded position of the bombs using the known actual position.
3. How much more inaccurate is binary integer arithmetic than decimal integer arithmetic? Can the accuracy of
binary computers be improved to make them as accurate as decimal computers?
SOLUTION
16
© 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated, or posted to a publicly available we bsite, in whole or in part.
This is a trick question. In the absence of actual errors (faulty hardware or software), any digital logic system is
perfectly accurate; that is, a calculation in one base yields the same result as a calculation in another base. Any
17
so‐called inaccuracies result from finite word‐lengths (e.g., a 10‐bit binary value represents a number to one part
in 210 (one in in 1,000) whereas a 10‐bit decimal number allows a representation of 1 part in 10,000,000,000).
Inaccuracies arise in fractional calculations (remember that a number like π cannot be represented in a finite
number of digits). Similarly, not all decimal fractions can always be represented exactlyin binary by a finite
number of bits.
4. Why are computers byte‐oriented?
SOLUTION
There is no logical reason – it is a matter of custom and historical development. During the development of
computers many different wordlengths were used. Some early computers actually had a 6‐bit byte. First‐
18
generation microprocessors had 8‐bit data registers. 8 bits were called bytes. By using the byte as a basic unit of
data it means that 16, 32, and 64‐bit addresses fit exactly in an integer number of bytes (which is, of course, why
we choose these address widths). If an address were 34 bits wide in a byte‐oriented world, then it would require
a 40‐bit word of 5 bytes to store the address with 6 bits unused.
More importantly, a byte is 8, bits which is 23 and that fits well in a binary word. Another reason for employing
an 8‐bit byte is that it allows 28 = 256 different characters which fit in well with the extended ASCII character set.
I sometime wonder whether the basic unit of data in a computer should have been 12 bits. That would permit a
wider range of representation using the basic unit (1 in 2 12 = 4,096) which would have provided for (a) greater
precision in simple calculations and (b) a greater ability to encode alphabets. Moreover, a 12‐bit unit would allow
a feasible address in simple control applications (4K locations), whereas an 8‐bit unit has to be used to create a
16‐bit address.
5. Calculations are to be performed to a precision of 0.001%. How many bits does this require?
SOLUTION
A precision of 0.001% is one part in 100,000. The nearest power of two above this value is 217. Therefore, 17 bits
are required.
6. What are the decimal equivalents of the following values (assume positional notation and unsigned integer
formats):
a. 110011002
b. 110011003
c. 110011004
d. 11001100‐2
SOLUTION
a. 110011002 1 × 22 + 1 × 23 +1 × 26 + 1 × 27 = 4 + 8 + 64 + 128 = 204

b. 110011003 1 × 32 + 1 × 33 +1 × 36 + 1 × 37 = 2,952
c. 110011004 1 × 42 + 1 × 43 +1 × 46 + 1 × 47 = 20,560
d. 11001100‐2 1 × (‐2)2 + 1 × (‐2)3 +1 × (‐2)6 + 1 × (‐2)7 = 4 – 8 + 64 – 128 =‐68
7. Why do we have octal and hexadecimal arithmetic?
SOLUTION
Computers operate with base 2 arithmetic. However, it is difficult for people to handle binary numbers (for
example 29810 is 1001010102) because binary numbers involve long strings of bits and we are not good at
remembering long sequences. Hexadecimal arithmetic has 16 digits from 0 to F representing 4 binary bits.
Therefore, a binary number can be easily represented in hexadecimal form by replacing each four bits by a
hexadecimal character. For example, 29810 is 12A16 (easier for people to remember than 000100101010).
Octal arithmetic uses base 8 with the digits 0 to 7. Each octal digit replaces three bits. It has the same advantage
as hexadecimal numbers; for example the binary number 111101011 is 753 in octal. However, octal arithmetic
is hardly used today.
19
8. Convert the following decimal numbers into (a) binary and (b) hexadecimal forms
a. 25
b. 250
c. 2500
d. 25555
SOLUTION
a. 25 11001 19
b. 250 11111010 FA
c. 2500 100111000100 9C4
d. 25555 110001111010011 63D3
9. Convert the following unsigned binary numbers into decimal form
a. 11
b. 1001
c. 10001
d. 10011001
SOLUTION
a. 11 3
b. 1001 9
c. 10001 17
d. 10011001 153
10. Convert the following hexadecimal numbers into decimal form
a. AB
b. A0B
c. 10A01
d. FFAAFF
SOLUTION
a. AB 10101011 171
b. A0B 101000001011 2571
c. 10A01 10000101000000001 68097
d. FFAAFF 111111111010101011111111 16755455
11. Convert the following hexadecimal numbers into binary format
a. AC
b. DF0B
c. 10B11
d. FDEAF1
SOLUTION
a. AC 10101100
b. DF0B 1101111100001011
c. 10B11 10000101100010001
d. FDEAF1 111111011110101011110001
20
12. Convert the following fractional decimal numbers into 16‐bit unsigned binary form. Use eight bits of precision.
a. 0.2
b. 0.046875
c. 0.1111
d. 0.1234
SOLUTION
a. 0.2 0.0011001100110011 0.00110011

b. 0.046875 0.0000110000000000 0.00001100
c. 0.1111 0.0001110001110001 0.00011100
d. 0.1234 0.0001111110010111 0.00100000
13. Perform the following calculations in the stated bases
a. 001101112
+010110112
b. 001111112
+010010012
c. 0012012116
+0A01503116
d. 00ABCD1F16
+ 0F00800F16
SOLUTION
a. 001101112
+010110112
100100102
b. 001111112
+010010012
100010002
c. 0012012116
+0A01503116
0A13515216
d. 00ABCD1F16
+0F00800F16
0FAC4D2E16
14. What is arithmetic overflow? When does it occur and how can it be detected?
SOLUTION
Arithmetic overflow takes place when one or more two’s complement numbers take part in an arithmetic
operation and the sign‐bit of the result is incorrect. For example, arithmetic overflow takes place when two
positive integers are added and the result (when interpreted as a two’s complement value) is negative, or when
two negative numbers are added and the result is positive. In 4‐bit arithmetic, the signed two’s complement
21
values 1100 and 1000 are added to give 1 0100, where the most‐significant bit is a carry out. The sign of the result,
0100, is 0 indicating a positive value. Since the numbers we added were both negative, arithmetic overflow has
occurred.
In two’s complement addition, arithmetic overflow can be detected by saying, “If the sign bits of the two source
operands are the same, and differ from the sign bit of the result operand, then arithmetic overflow occurred.”
15. The n‐bit two’s complement integer N is written an‐1, an‐2, . . . a1, a0. Prove that (in two's complement notation)
the representation of a signed binary number in n + 1 bits may be derived from its representation in n bits by
repeating the leftmost bit. For example, if n = ‐12 = 10100 in five bits, n = ‐12 = 110100 in sixbits.
SOLUTION
In n bits the positive number N is represented by an‐1, an‐2, . . . a 1, a0. We can extend this to n+1 bits by appending
a 0 to the left without changing its value; that is 0, an‐1, an‐2, . . . a 1, a0.
Now consider the value ‐N in n bits. This is represented as 2n ‐ N. If we extend this to n + 1 bits, it becomes 2n+1 ‐
N or 2n + 2n ‐ N. This is, of course, the original negative representation with a leading 1 to the left. Consequently,
a positive number is extended by appending a 0, and a negative number by adding a 1; that is, by extending the
sign bit.
16. Convert 1234.125 into 32‐bit IEEE floating‐point format.
SOLUTION
1234 = 100110100102 0.125 = 0.0012 Therefore, 1234.125 = 10011010010.0012
This is 1.0011010010001 × 210 (normalized binary)
The IEEE floating point sign is 0 (positive)
The fractional mantissa in 23 bits (with suppressed leading 1) is 00110100100010000000000
The biased exponent is 10 + 127 = 137 or 100010012
The floating point number is 0 10001001 00110100100010000000000 or 449A420016
17. What is the decimal equivalent of the 32‐bit IEEE floating‐point value CC4C0000?
SOLUTION
The binary equivalent of CC4C0000 is 11001100010011000000000000000000
This can be split into sign, biased exponent, and fractional mantissa. That is
S = 1, E = 10011000, F = 10011000000000000000000
The sign is negative, and the exponent is 10011000 2 ‐ 127 = 110012 = 25 (remember the stored exponent is
biased by 127, which has to be subtracted)
The mantissa, after the insertion of the leading 1, is 1.10011000000000000000000
Combining mantissa and exponent we get

1.10011000000000000000000 × 225 = 11001100000000000000000000.0 = 53,477,37610
22
18. What is the difference between overflow in the context of two’s complement numbers and overflow in the
context of floating‐point numbers?
SOLUTION
In two’s complement arithmetic, arithmetic overflow occurs when a result goes out of range (that is, more
positive than 2n‐1‐1 or more negative than ‐2n‐1. When arithmetic overflow occurs, the sign of the computed result
is different to the correct result.
In floating‐point arithmetic, overflow occurs when the exponent of a floating‐point number becomes too large to
be represented in the format in use. The number is now too big to be stored and, usually, an exception is
generated.
19. In the negabinary system an i‐bit binary integer, N, is expressed using positional notation as:
N = a0 × (‐1)0 × 20 + a1 × (‐1)1 × 21 + … + ai‐1 × (‐1)i‐1 × 2i‐1
This is the same as conventional natural 8421 binary weighted numbers, except that alternate positions have
the additional weighting +1 and ‐1. For example, 1101 = (‐1 × 1 × 8) + (+1 × 1 × 4) + (‐1 × 0 × 2) + (+1 × 1 × 1) = ‐8
+ 4 + 1 = ‐3. The following 4‐bit numbers are represented in negabinary form. Convert them into their decimal
equivalents.
a. 0000
b. 0101
c. 1010
d. 1111
SOLUTION
a. 0
b. +4 + +1 = 5
c. ‐8 + ‐2 = ‐10
d. ‐8 + +4 + ‐2 +1 = ‐5
20. Perform the following additions on 4‐bit negabinary numbers. The result is a 6‐bit negabinary value.
a. 0000 b. 1010 c. 1101 d. 1111

+0001 +0101 +1011 +1111
SOLUTION
a. 0000 b. 1010 c. 1101 d. 1111

+ 0001 + 0101 1011 1111
000001 001111 110100 001010
23
21. Arithmetic overflow occurs during a two's complement addition if the result of adding two positive numbers yields
a negative result, or if adding two negative numbers yields a positive result. If the sign bits of A and B are the
same but the sign bit of the result is different, arithmetic overflow has occurred. If a n‐1 is the sign bit of A, bn‐ 1 is
the sign bit of B, and sn‐1 is the sign bit of the sum of A and B, then overflow is defined by
V = an‐1 bn‐1 s n‐1 + an‐1bn‐1 sn‐1
In practice, real systems detect overflow from Cin  Cout to the last stage. That is, we detect overflow from
V = c nc n‐1 + c nc n‐1.
Demonstrate that this expression is correct.
SOLUTION
The diagram illustrates the most‐significant stage of a parallel adder that adds together bits a n‐1, b n‐1, and c n‐1 to
generate a sum bit, s n‐1, and a carry‐out, c n. There are four possible combinations of A and B which can be added
together:
+A + +B
+A + ‐B
‐A + +B
‐A + ‐B
Because adding two numbers of differing sign cannot result in arithmetic overflow, we need consider only the
cases where A and B are both positive, and where A and B are both negative.
Case 1: A and B are positive; that is, an‐1 = 0, bn‐1 = 0
The final stage adds an‐1 + bn‐1 + cn‐1 to get cn. Because an‐1 and bn‐1 are both 0 (by definition if the numbers are
positive), the carry‐out, cn, is 0, and sn‐1 = cn‐1.
We know that overflow occurs if sn‐1 = 1 (i.e., the sign bit of the sum is negative), therefore overflow occurs if cn
Cn‐1 = 1.
Case 2: A and B are negative; that is, an‐1 = 1, bn‐1 = 1.
The final stage adds an‐1 + bn‐1 + cn‐1 = 1 + 1 + cn‐1, to get a sum, Sn‐1 = cn‐1, and a carry‐out cn = 1.
Overflow occurs if sn‐1 = 0. Consequently, overflow occurs when cn‐1 = 0 and cncn‐1 = 1.
Considering both cases, overflow occurs if cncn‐1 + cncn‐1 = 1.
24
22. What is the difference between a truncation error and a rounding error?
SOLUTION
A truncation error occurs when a number is rounded by chopping off bits; for example, 0.1110111 is truncated
to five bits as 0.11101 by chopping off the last two bits (11). Rounding is similar to truncation in the sense that
bits are removed. When a number is truncated, the bits removed are examined. If they are less than half the
value of the least‐significant bit, then the bits are just dropped. If they are equal to or greater than half the least‐
significant digit, the least significant digit is rounded up.
For example 0.1110111 would be rounded up to 0.11101 + 1 = 0.11110, whereas 0.1110001 would be rounded
down to 0.11100. Truncation leads to a systematic or biased error (the rounding is always down). Rounding leads
to an unbiased error (the error is sometimes positive and sometimes negative). However, rounding is more
difficult to perform as it requires an extra addition.
23. Positive and negative numbers can be represented in many ways in a computer. List some of the ways of
representing signed numbers. Can you think of any other ways of representing signed values?
SOLUTION
There are four common ways of representing signed numbers in computing:
a. One’s complement; the number begins with 0 for positive values and 1 for negative values. If the number
has n bits, n‐1 bits are used for the number and one for its polarity (i.e., sign). A negative number is obtained
from a positive number by inverting bits; for example, if 12 in six bits is 001100 then ‐12 is 110011. One’s
complement is little used today. It has the disadvantage that there are two values for zero: 000…0 is +0 and
111…1 is ‐0.
b. Two’s complement: like 1’s complement, the most‐significant bit is a sign bit. A two’s complement number
is formed by inverting the bits and then adding 1 (i.e., one’s and two’s complement negative values differ
by 1). If 12 is 001100, ‐12 is 110011 + 1 = 110100. A two’s complement number has a single value for zero,
000...0, and is a true complement because × + ‐x = 0 (e.g., 12 + ‐12 = 001100 + 110100 = 1 000000). The
addition of two numbers generates a carry bit that is not part of the result. Two’s complement representation
is the standard form of representing signed integers. It is used because addition andsubtraction are the same
operation; that is x ‐ y is evaluated by x + (‐y).
c. Sign and magnitude representation is the simplest way of representing signed values. You take the most‐
significant bit and use it as a sign (0 = + and 1 = ‐); for example, +12 = 001100 and ‐12 = 101100. Sign and
magnitude representation has two values for 0 and you can’t use the same hardware for addition and
subtraction. It is used largely to represent floating‐point values.
d. Excess notation. One way of dealing with negative values is to get rid of negative numbers. Six bits can
represent the unsigned integer range 0 to 63. Suppose we call these numbers ‐32 to 31 so that 000000 is ‐
32, 000001 is 31, … , 100000 is 0, 100001 is 1, …, and 111111 is 31. Now we have a continuous sequence of
positive numbers that represent ‐32 to 31 This representation is called ‘excess’, because we add a bias or
constant to each number to convert it to its excess representation form. For example, in 6 bits ‐5 becomes ‐
5 + 32 = 27 = 011011. The advantage of this representation is that numbers are monotonic from the most
negative to most positive (monotonic means that if two numbers differ by 1, their representation differs by
1 in two’s complement form, 0 is 0000..0 and ‐1 is 1111..11). This form of representing negative values is
used to represent exponents in floating‐point.
e. You can represent negative numbers in many ways; for example, negabinary numbers use positional
weighting with the nth digit being weighted by (‐2)n. The position values would be +64 ‐32 +16 ‐8 +4 ‐2 +1;
for example 0011011 would represent 0 + 0 + 16 ‐8 + 0 ‐ 2 + 1 = +7.
25
24. What is a NaN and what is its significance in floating‐point arithmetic?
SOLUTION
The IEEE 754 floating‐point standard represents real numbers and three special entities: plus infinity, minus
infinity, and not a number, NaN. The NaN cannot be interpreted as a normal floating‐point value. That is, a NaN
is a value that is outside the IEEE 754 standard. This mechanism allows the designer to use the bits of a floating‐
point value to represent anything that he or she wishes; it’s a form of escape code. The NaN has the curious
property that it is unordered and is not larger or smaller than another number including itself! A NaN is
represented by an all 1s exponent and a non‐zero mantissa.
Some literature divides NaNs into two categories: quiet NaNs that can be propagated in computer arithmetic, and
signalling NaNs that can be used to force an exception.
25. Write down the largest base‐5 positive integer in n digits and the largest base 7 number in m digits. It is necessary
to represent n‐digit base‐5 numbers in base‐7. What is the minimum number m of digits needed to represent all
possible n‐digit base‐5 numbers? Hint—the largest m‐digit base‐7 number should be greater than, or equal to,
the largest n‐digit base‐5 number.
SOLUTION
The largest base‐5 number in n digits is 444…4 (n fours) which is 5n‐1. Similarly, the largest base 7 number in m
digits is 7m ‐ 1. In order to represent all base 5 numbers we have
7m ‐ 1 ≥ 4n ‐ 1 or 7m ≥ 4n or m.log107 ≥ n.log104 or m ≥ n.log104 /log107
26. What is the largest three‐digit number in base 13?
SOLUTION
133 ‐ 1 = 2197 ‐ 1 = 2196 or CCC13 = 12 × 13 × 13 + 12 × 13 + 12 = 2028 + 156 + 12 = 2196
27. Consider x2 ‐ y2 where x = 12.1234 and y = 12.1111. If arithmetic operations are carried out to six decimal
significant figures , does it matter whether you evaluate this expression as x2 ‐ y2 or
(x + y)(x ‐ y)?
SOLUTION
x = 12.1234 x2 = 146.97682756 = 146.977 (six figures rounded up)

y = 12.1111 y2 = 146.67874321 = 146.679 (six figures rounded up)
2 2
x ‐ y = 146.977 ‐ 146.679 = 0.298000 (only three significant figures available)
x + y = 12.1234 + 12.1111 = 24.2345 (six figures)

x ‐ y = 12.1234 ‐ 12.1111 = 0.0123
(x + y)(x ‐ y) = 24.2345 × 0.0123 = 0.29808435 = 0.298084 (six figures)
Using a calculator the answer is 0.29808435. Clearly, the way in which we perform operations affects the result
when using finite precision.
26
28. You are evaluating the function x4 + 4x2 + 10x + 2 at x = 2. What is the estimated error if the error in x is Rx?
SOLUTION
To calculate the error, differentiate the polynomial and substitute the value of x. That is: 4x3 + 8x + 10 at x = 2 is
4 x 8 + 8 x 2 + 10 = 58. Consequently, the total estimated error is 58Rx where Rx is the error in x.
29. What does the following ASCII‐encoded message mean? Each character is given in hexadecimal form.
43, 6F, 6D, 70, 75, 74, 65, 72, 2E
SOLUTION
Simply read these values from the ASCII table to get Computer.
30. Floating‐point arithmetic is seldom used to perform financial calculations. Why?
SOLUTION
Floating‐point is generally used in engineering, scientific, and graphics calculations where wide‐ranging numbers
have represented (e.g., 5.97219 × 1024 or 9.10938188 × 10‐31). Floating‐point arithmetic is intrinsically slower than
fixed‐point integer arithmetic (but not necessarily so in practice if hardware acceleration techniques and
pipelining are used to implement a dedicated floating‐point processor). Binary floating‐point numbers do not
exactly represent real numbers, and there is an error of conversion between real and floating‐ point forms. Very
large numbers of financial transactions could lead to significant rounding errors in the long term.
31. Modern computers use unsigned integer arithmetic, fixed point arithmetic, two’s complement arithmetic, and
floating point arithmetic.
a. By examining a binary number, can you tell which number system it represents?
b. Why are there so many ways of representing numeric values?
c. Do we need them all?
SOLUTION
a. No. Remember that binary numbers have no intrinsic meaning and you cannot determine the meaning of
a given number. However, you can guess the meaning of a string of binary values because the string may
‘make sense’ when interpreted in a particular way. For example, if you see a string of bits and notice that
when interpreted as ASCII characters the string says ‘Hello world”, it is very likely to be ASCII text and not
a floating‐point number that looks like this string.
b. People invent things and then make improvements. Moreover, different representations have different
properties; for example, two’s complement representation makes the operation of addition and
subtraction identical although this complicates division and multiplication.
c. A single binary format could be devised to deal with all number types – but that would complicate the logic
circuits that are used to implement the system
27
32. For each of the following numbers, state the base in use; that is, what is p, q, r, s, t, u?
a. 100001p = 3310
b. 25q = 1310
c. 25r = 2310
d. 25s = 3710
e. 1010t = 6810
f. 1001u = 12610
SOLUTION
a. 100001p = 3310 p=2

b. 25q = 1310 q = 4 (2x4 + 5 = 13)
c. 25r = 2310 r=9
d. 25s = 3710 s = 16 (2 × 16 + 5 = 37)
e. 1010t = 6810 t = 4 (4 × 4 × 4 + 1 × 4 = 68)
f. 1001t = 12610 u = 5 (5 × 5 × 5 + 1 = 126)
33. A digital logic element represents the high state with an output of between 2.8 and 2.95 V. The same logic element
will see an input high state as a voltage in the range 2.1 to 3.0 V. What is the reason for this difference? What
are the practical implications?
SOLUTION
The output level for a high state is determined by the circuit of the gate and the electrical characteristics of the
transistors. When a circuit is designed, the output high level is made as close to the high‐voltage level in the circuit
as possible. The range of inputs that are interpreted as a high level is made wider. This is done so that a high‐level
signal can suffer from some degradation due to noise and still be interpreted as a high level state. In this example,
the lowest high‐level output of a gate is 2.8V, whereas an input of 2.1V will be recognized as a high‐level state.
This means that a 2.1V output can be corrupted by noise or otherwise degraded by 0.7V and STILL be recognized
as a high‐level state.
34. Draw a truth table to represent the intermediate values and output of the circuit below.
B
C
28
SOLUTION
We can redraw the circuit with intermediate gate outputs and then create the following truth table.
B A.(B+C)
C C B+C
B.(C+D)
D C+D A.(B+C)+B.(C+D)+(B.D)
B.D
D
A B C D C* D* B+C* C+D* A(B+C*) B(C+D*) B.D A(B+C*) +B(C+D*)+B.D

0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1
0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1
0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 1
0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1
1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1
1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1
1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1
35. In a digital system, what is the meaning of negative logic?
SOLUTION
In negative logic a low‐level is interpreted as the true state and a high‐level as the false state. Thus, a negative
logic AND gate gives a low output if, and only if, both its inputs are low. A negative logic AND gate is identical to
a positive logic OR gate.
36. The signal RESET is asserted. What does this statement mean?
SOLUTION
This means that a signal must be asserted active‐low to cause a reset to occur. The term asserted means put in
which ever state caused its named action to occur. Using the word asserted avoids the reader having to remember
which level (1 or 0) is the active state.
29
37. A digital system has four one‐bit inputs D, C, B, A, and an output F. The input represents a 4‐bit number in the
range 0 to 15, where A denotes the least‐significant bit. The output F is true if the binary input is divisible by 3,
4, or 7. Construct a truth table to represent this system and construct a logic circuit to implement it.
SOLUTION
DCBA Number ÷3 ÷4 ÷7 Divisible by 3, 4, or 7

0000 0 0 0 0 0
0001 1 0 0 0 0
0010 2 0 0 0 0
0011 3 1 0 0 1
0100 4 0 1 0 1
0101 5 0 0 0 0
0110 6 1 0 0 1
0111 7 0 0 1 1
1000 8 0 1 0 1
1001 9 1 0 0 1
1010 10 0 0 0 0
1011 11 0 0 0 0
1100 12 1 1 0 1
1101 13 0 0 0 0
1110 14 0 0 1 1
1111 15 1 0 0 1
DCBA + DCBA + DCBA + DCBA + DCBA + DCBA + DCBA + DCBA + DCBA
F = CB + CA + DBA + DCB

D
C B A
30
38. Consider the following circuit that takes a 4‐bit binary input and encodes it. Construct a truth table for the 16
inputs 0000 to 1111 and examine the output code. What is the characteristic feature of this code?
SOLUTION
8421 binary input
b4 b b b b0
3 2 1
g g g g g
4 3 2 1 0
Encoded output
The truth table for this circuit is:

Decimal value Natural binary value Gray code
0 0000 0000
1 0001 0001
2 0010 0011
3 0011 0010
4 0100 0110
5 0101 0111
6 0110 0101
7 0111 0100
8 1000 1100
9 1001 1101
10 1010 1111
11 1011 1110
12 1100 1010
13 1101 1011
14 1110 1001
15 1111 1000
The output code is called a Gray code and is an unweighted binary code; that is, the bit positions do not have
the binary weight 1,2,4,8. The important feature of this code is that two successive values (including from 15 to
0) differ in only one bit position, unlike natural binary where 7 (0111) and 8 (1000) differ in all four bit positions.
This code is used when data always monotonically increases or decreases (i.e., numbers step through all values
in sequence). Because only one bit changes at a time, there can never be any confusion between two
consecutive numbers. In weighted codes where two bits may change so that 0011 (3) goes to 0100 (4) the
sequence may change 0011 to 0000 to 0100 with the intermediate 0000 value being an error or glitch.
31
39. A logic circuit has two 2‐bit natural binary inputs A and B. A is given by A1, A0 where A1 is the most‐significant bit.
Similarly, B is given by B1, B0 where B1 is the most‐significant bit. The circuit has three outputs, X, Y, and Z. This
circuit compares A with B and determines whether A is greater or less than B, or is the same as B. The relationship
between inputs A and B, and outputs X, Y, Z is as follows.
Condition X Y Z
A>B 1 0 0
A<B 0 1 0
A=B 0 0 1
Design a circuit to implement this function.
SOLUTION
The truth table for this problem is obtained by treating the A and B inputs as 2‐bit numbers (i.e., 0,0 = 0, 0,1 = 1,
1,0 = 2, and 1,1 = 3) and then comparing the A and B inputs.
Inputs A>B A<B A=B
A1 A0 B1 B0 X Y Z
0 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 1 0 1 0
0 0 1 0 0 1 0
0 0 1 1 0 1 0
0 1 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 0 1 0 0 1
0 1 1 0 0 1 0
0 1 1 1 0 1 0
1 0 0 0 1 0 0
1 0 0 1 1 0 0
1 0 1 0 0 0 1
1 0 1 1 0 1 0
1 1 0 0 1 0 0
1 1 0 1 1 0 0
1 1 1 0 1 0 0
1 1 1 1 0 0 1
We can use a Karnaugh map to derive expressions for outputs X, Y, and Z. This example demonstrates symmetry
in Boolean systems. Notice the relationship between the column corresponding to the X output (A > B) and the
Y output (A < B). These outputs are complements for all cases except when A = B. You would expect this symmetry
from the very nature of the problem.
32
We can write down expressions for X, Y, and Z as
X = A1B1 +A1A0B0 + A0B1B0
Y = A1B1 + A1A0B0 + A0B1B1
Z = A1A0B1B0 + A1A0B1B0 + A1A0B1B0 + A1A0B1B0
A circuit for the comparator constructed from AND, OR, and NOT gates is give below. Note that we have
provided circuits for X and Y (although you might derive one from the other by means of an inverter).
40. Draw a truth table for the circuit below and explain what it does.
33
SOLUTION
A B P Q R C
0 0 1 1 1 0
0 1 1 1 0 1
1 0 1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1 1 0
The output is true if one and only one input is true. This is the exclusive or function, XOR (EOR). It is also a two‐
bit binary adder without carry‐out because it gives the sum of two bits.
41. The circuit below receives three pairs of inputs a0, b0, a1, b1, … a3, b3 and produces a four‐bit output c0, c1, …, c3.
Analyze the circuit and explain what it does in plain English.
F
a0 x0
a0 c0
a1 x1
b1 c1
a2
x2
b2 c2
a3
x3 c3
b3
SOLUTION
Since all inputs are in pairs connected to XOR gates, we can simplify the truth table by just using the XOR outputs
as variables. The diagram gives the intermediate variables to help us draw the truth table. As you can see the
circuit is a priority encoder so that c3 is asserted if X3 is asserted, C2 is asserted if X2 is asserted (but not X3), C1
is asserted if X1 is asserted (but not C2 and C3). In practice this means that if two 4‐bit words are matched, the C
outputs correspond to the highest matching bits. Note that F is asserted only of there are no matching bits.
34
X3 X2 X1 X0 P Q F S T C3 C2 C1 C0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0
1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0
1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0
1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0
42. Demonstrate that all logic circuits can be constructed from NOR gates by building an inverter, an and gate, and
an or gate from one or more nor gates.
SOLUTION
The logic function for a NOR gate is C = A + B.
If we connect its two inputs together so that B = A we get C = A + A = A; that is the circuit acts as an inverter.
Suppose we put two inverters in the input path of a NOR gate (the inverters themselves constructed from
NORs). We get
C = A + B = A  B = A  B; that is, the circuit functions as an AND gate.
If we put an inverter on the output of a NOR gate we get
C = A + B = A + B which is an OR gate.
So, with a NOR gate you can make a NOT gate, AND gate, and OR gate.
43. Design a logic circuit to implement the logical function X = ABC + ABC
SOLUTION
The following circuit performs this operation. Note that this is a direct implementation of the Boolean algebra.
We could have simplified the equation and, therefore, the circuit.
C A.B.C
B
A
A.B.C + A.B.C
A.B.C
A
35
44. Simplify the following Boolean expressions.
a. F = A∙B∙C∙D + A∙B∙C∙D + A∙B∙C∙D + A∙B∙C∙D
b. F = A∙B∙C + A∙B∙C + A∙C∙D + A∙B∙C∙D
c. F = A∙C∙D + A∙B∙C∙D + A∙B∙C
SOLUTION
a. F = A∙B∙C∙D + A∙B∙C∙D + A∙B∙C∙D + A∙B∙C∙D

= CD(AB + AB) + A∙B∙C∙D + A∙B∙C∙D
= CDA + B∙C∙D(A + A) since AB + AB = A
= CDA + B∙C∙D since A + A = 1
b. F = A∙B∙C + A∙B∙C + A∙C∙D + A∙B∙C∙D

= B∙C(A + A) + A∙C∙D + A∙B∙C∙D
= B∙C + A∙D(C + B∙C)
= B∙C + A∙D(C + B)
= B∙C + A∙CD + ABD
= B∙C + A∙CD
c. F = A∙C∙D + A∙B∙C∙D + A∙B∙C
= A∙C∙D  A∙B∙C∙D + A∙B∙C (deMorgan)

= (A + C + D) (A + B + C + D) + AB C (deMorgan)
= A + B C + D + A B C
= A + B C + D + B C = A + C + D
45. It is possible to have n‐input AND, or, NAND, and NOR gates, where n > 2. Can you have an n‐input XOR gate for
n > 2? Explain your answer with a truth table.
SOLUTION
You can have AND, OR, NAND, and NOR gates with any number of inputs. They obey the rules of the simple 2‐
input gates (e.g., the output of a NAND gate is true if and only if each of its n inputs are true simultaneously).
The exclusive or gate is rather more complex. If you define it as a gate with two inputs whose output is true if one
or both inputs are true, then you can have only a 2‐input EOR (XOR) gate. However, if you say that the output of
an XOR gate is y = ab, then you can also have y = abcd. In this case the output is true if the number of
inputs that are set to 1 is odd. This is a parity detector.
36
46. Draw the truth table of a full subtractor that directly subtracts bit A from B together with a borrow‐in, to
produce a difference D and a borrow‐out.
SOLUTION
The truth table is below:

Bin A B Bout D
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 1
0 1 0 0 1
0 1 1 0 0
1 0 0 1 1
1 0 1 1 0
1 1 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 1
47. Design a D flip‐flop using only an RS latch and simple gates. Include a circuit diagram, timing diagram, and truth
table in your answer.
SOLUTION
There are several ways of tackling this problem. Let’s start with an RS latch made from NOR gates. This has an R
input and an S input that can be used to set or reset the flip‐flop. If both inputs are 0, the outputs remain the
same. If R = 1, S = 0, Q is cleared and if S = 1, R = 0, Q is set. The state S = R = 1 should be avoided.
So, we use two AND gates to feed the R,S inputs. One input to of each of the two AND gates is the clock. When
the clock is 0, the AND gates both have 0 outputs and R = S = 0. Consequently Q remains what it was, unchanged.
When the clock is 1, the AND gates are enabled. One input is D and the other NOT D (via an inverter). This assumes
that R,S = 0,1 or 1,0. Consequently, the Q output is set if D is 1 and cleared if D is 0. This is a D flip‐ flop.
RS Flip-flop
D
Clock
48. Without the tristate gate, it would be almost impossible to design a modern computer. Why is this so?
SOLUTION
Tristate gates are used to allow one of several devices to put data onto a common bus. A tristate device has three
output states: high (driving the bus), low (driving the bus), and high‐impedance (disconnected from the bus). The
tristate gate makes it easy to design bused systems. The output of any tri‐state device connected to a bus has
tristate control logic. This allows one and only one device connected to a bus to drive the bus. All other devices
connected to the bus are disconnected electrically by assuming the third state.
37
Without tristate gates you would have to drive buses with an alternative technology (e.g., open‐collector or open‐
drain circuits). However, these are very similar to tristate logic in the sense that they allow one out of n devices
to drive the bus.
If there were no tristate drives (or open‐collector/open‐drain) the only other way that a buses system would be
possible would be to use multiplexers to control buses. This would be a rather cumbersome solution.
49. The circuit below consists of four JK flip‐flops. Inputs J and K are not shown because it is assumed that they are
both permanently connected to a logical 1. These JK flip‐flops are positive edge triggered (i.e., they change state
on the rising edge of the clock). Note that these flip‐flops have a CLR (clear) input that sets Q to 1 when CLR = 1.
What does this circuit do?
Qa Qb Qc Qd
Clock
CLR Q CLR Q CLR Q CLR
Reset
SOLUTION
The problem can be solved with a simple timing diagram. However, we can explain its action just by inspection.
The JK flip‐flops are configured as counters (J,K = 1,1 forces the output to toggle on each clock pulse). If JK flip‐
flops are positive‐edge triggered and their Q outputs are connected to the clock input of the next stage, they will
count down. If we connect the NOT Q outputs to the clocks they will count up. Consequently, we have a binary
up counter.
Note the AND gate. This detects Qd,Qc.Qb = 1,1,1. The state of Qa does not matter, so this value will be reached
when Qd,Qc.Qb,Qa = 1110 which is 13. When that happens, all flip‐flops will be set to zero. This is a modulo 13
counter that counts 0,1,2, …10,11,12, 0, 1, 2 , …
38
50. Consider the circuit below. Assume that all gates are implemented in silicon by NAND gates, NOR gates and
inverters. Each NAND gate, NOR gate, or inverter has an internal delay of 0.4 ns. A logic transition at an input may
cause a change at the output (depending on other inputs and the circuit). The time for a transition at the input to
appear as a corresponding transition at an output depends on the circuit path and the nature of the gates. What
is the longest circuit path through this circuit and what is the worst case delay that a signal experiences going
through the circuit?
A
G2
B G7
G9 P
G1
G5
C
G6
G8 Q
G3
D
E G4
SOLUTION
The following diagram demonstrates all the paths through this circuit and their delays. Remember an AND gate
is a NAND gate plus an inverter (and an OR gate is a NOR gate plus an inverter). Consequently, all AND and OR
gates suffer two delay units. The longest path is from B via G1, G3, G6, G8 and is 7 delays or 7 × 0.4 = 2.8 ns.
G2 6 delays
G7
G9 P
2 delays
2 delays 5 delays
G1 1 delay 2 delays
1 delay
G5
4 delays
5 delays
G6
G8 Q
2 delays 6 delays
2 delays 7 delays
2 delays 3 delays
G3
D
G4
1 delay
39
51. The following state diagram describes a system with states A, B, and C. The system is initialized in State A. The
state transition notation x/yz indicates that an input x causes a transition in the direction shown and the system
outputs the value yz; for example, an input 1 in State A causes a transition to State B and the system outputs 01.
0/01
Start
1/01 1/10 1/10
0/00 0/01
a. How many flip‐flops would be required to construct this system?

b. If the system receives the input 00010011001010111110010, what would the output be?
SOLUTION
a. This system has three states and requires two flip‐flops (which can store up to four states).
b. Consider the following table that gives the current state, input, next state, and output.
Current state Input Next state Output

A 0 A 00
A 0 A 00
A 0 A 00
A 1 B 01
B 0 A 01
A 0 A 00
A 1 B 01
B 1 C 10
C 0 A 01
A 0 A 00
A 1 B 01
B 0 A 01
A 1 B 01
B 0 A 01
A 1 B 01
B 1 C 10
C 1 C 10
C 1 C 10
C 1 C 10
C 0 A 01
A 0 A 00
A 1 B 01
B 0 A 01
40
52. The following structure contains registers, ALUs, multiplexers, tristate gates and buses, and is essentially a more
elaborate form of the register, ALU structure we introduced in this chapter. As a computing structure, what are
the advantages of this over the simpler system we described earlier?
SOLUTION
Q
MPLX Register UL0 Q MPLX Register UR0
MPLX Register UL1 MPLX Q

Register UR1 D
MPLX MPLX Q
Register UL2 Register UR2 D
Q
MPLX Register UL3 MPLX Register UR3 D
C_UL1 A_UL C_UR1 A_UR
C_UL2 B_UL C_UR2 B_UR
C_UL1 A_UL C_UL1 A_UR
C_UL2 B_UL C_UU2 B_UR
MPLX Register LL0 MPLX Register LR0
C_LL1 A_LL C_LR1 A_LR
C_LL2 B_LL C_LR2 B_LR
C_LL1 A_UL C_LR1 A_LR
C_LL2 B_UL C_LR2 B_LR
Essentially, this replicates a basic register and ALU circuit four times. In each quadrant data can be moved from
registers to the ALU and back to registers. Note that the four buses and two ALUs permit parallel operations (two
ALU operations at a time).
By repeating the system four times, up to eight operations can take place simultaneously. This system is intended
to demonstrate parallelism in digital systems.
41
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for having been employed by Mahomet as amanuensis to record his
early revelations, he had proved in some way unfaithful to the trust;
and on the capture of Mecca, was in consequence proscribed from
the amnesty, and only at the intercession of Othmân escaped being
put to death. Possessed of administrative
ability, he had been appointed by Omar to Abu Sarh supersedes Amru in
the government of Upper Egypt. But some Upper 647.
Egypt. a.h. XXVI. a.d.
years after, he fell out with Amru, in whom

was vested the supreme control of the province; and each appealed
to Othmân. Amru was declared to be in fault, and the Caliph
deposed him altogether from the civil charge of Egypt. Amru
objected. ‘To be over the army,’ he said, ‘and not over the revenue,
was but holding the cow’s horns, while another milked her.’ He
repaired angrily to Othmân, who, after some words of bitter
altercation, transferred the entire administration, civil and military,
into the hands of Abu Sarh. The act was unfortunate for the Caliph. It
threw Amru into the ranks of the disaffected party at Medîna; while
the bad repute of ‘the renegade’ Abu Sarh, though he was an able
warrior, gave point to the charges of partiality and nepotism now rife
against Othmân.[444]
Abu Sarh, left thus in sole command,
carried his arms vigorously along the coast Conquest in Northern Africa.
beyond Tripoli and Barca, and threatened a.h. XXVI. a.d. 647.
Carthage and the far west. The Byzantine Governor, Gregory,
reinforced by the Emperor, advanced against him with an army, we
are told, of one hundred and twenty thousand men. Othmân, warned
of the danger, strengthened Abu Sarh by a large contingent of Arab
troops; and with them marched a numerous company of veterans
and ‘Companions,’ including the sons of Abu Bekr, of Abbâs, and of
Zobeir. The field was long and hotly contested; and Abu Sarh, to
stimulate his men, promised the hand of Gregory’s daughter, with a
large dower, to the warrior who should slay her father. The enemy
was at last discomfited with great slaughter, and a citizen of Medîna
gained the lady for his prize. He carried her off on his camel to
Medîna; and the martial verses which he sang by the way are still
preserved.[445] In this campaign, Othmân incurred much odium by
granting Abu Sarh a fifth of the royal share of the booty as personal
prize. The rest was sent as usual to Medîna; and here again Othmân
is blamed for allowing Merwân his cousin to become the purchaser
of the same at an inadequate price.[446]
But it is as the first commander of a
Moslem fleet that Abu Sarh is chiefly Naval operations, forbidden
famous, in which capacity he both added by Omar.
largely to the conquests of Islam, and also by his pre-eminence
contributed anew to the obloquy Cast on his master’s name. Muâvia
had for a long time keenly missed the support of a fleet, and had
sought permission of Omar to embark his soldiery in ships. ‘The isles
of the Levant,’ he wrote, ‘are so close to the Syrian shore, that you
might almost hear the barking of the dogs and the cackling of the
hens: give me leave to attack them.’ But Omar dreaded the sea, and
wrote to consult Amru, who answered thus:—‘The sea is a
boundless expanse, whereon great ships look but tiny specks; there
is nought saving the heavens above and the waters beneath; when
the wind lulls, the sailor’s heart is broken; when tempestuous, his
senses reel. Trust it little, fear it much. Man at sea is an insect
floating on a splinter, now engulfed, now scared to death.’ On receipt
of this alarming account, Omar forbade Muâvia to have anything to
do with ships. ‘The Syrian sea, they tell me, is longer and broader
than the dry land, and is instant with the Lord, night and day, seeking
to swallow it up. How should I trust my people on the bosom of the
cursed infidel? Remember Alâ. Nay, my friend, the safety of my
people is dearer to me than all the treasures of Greece.’
Nothing, therefore, was attempted by
sea in the reign of Omar. But on his death, But undertaken by Othmân.
Muâvia renewed the petition, and, at his
reiterated request, Othmân at last relaxed the ban, on condition that
the service should be voluntary. The first
fleet equipped against Cyprus, in the Cyprus occupied. a.h. XXVIII.
twenty-eighth year of the Hegira, was a.d. 649.
commanded by Abu Cays as admiral; it was joined by Abu Sarh with
a complement of ships manned by Egyptians, and carried a body of
Arab warriors from Alexandria. Cyprus was taken easily, and a great
multitude of captives carried off. The Cypriots agreed to pay the
same revenue as they had done to the Emperor; but, unable as yet
to guarantee their protection, the Caliph remitted the ordinary poll-
tax. Of Abu Cays we are told that he headed fifty expeditions by land
and by sea, but was killed at the last, while engaged in exploring a
Grecian sea-port.[447]
Three years after the fall of Cyprus,
driven now from the harbours of Africa, and Naval victory off Alexandria.
seriously threatened in the Levant, the a.h. XXXI. a.d. 652.
Byzantines gathered a fleet of five or six hundred vessels of war, and
defied the Arabs at sea. Abu Sarh was appointed to take up the
challenge. He manned every available ship in the ports of Egypt and
Africa; and his squadron, though much inferior in weight and
equipment to the enemy’s, was crowded with valiant warriors from
the army. The Byzantine fleet came in sight near Alexandria. The
wind lulled, and both sides lay for a while at anchor. The night was
passed by the Moslems in recitation of the Corân and prayer, while
the Greeks kept up the clangour of their bells. In the morning, a
fierce engagement took place. The Arab ships grappled with their
adversaries, and a hand-to-hand encounter with sword and dagger
ensued. The slaughter was great on both sides; but the Greeks,
unable to withstand the wild onset of the Saracens, broke and
dispersed. Constantine, who had been in command, sailed away to
Syracuse, where the people, infuriated at the defeat, despatched him
in his bath.[448]
In this expedition, the discontent
against Othmân, notwithstanding the Obloquy cast on Othmân in
splendid victory, for the first time found this affair.
open and dangerous expression among some of the leading
Companions. Mohammed son of Abu Bekr, and Mohammed son of
Abu Hodzeifa (afterwards leaders in rebellion), murmured against
the Caliph for appointing Abu Sarh admiral. ‘Othmân hath changed
the ordinances of his predecessors,’ they said, ‘and made captain of
the fleet a man whom the Prophet proscribed, and desired to have
put to death; and such like men also hath he put in chief command at
Kûfa and Bussorah, and elsewhere.’ The clamour reaching the ears
of Abu Sarh, he declared that none of these men should fight in his
line of battle. Excluded thus from the victory, they were the more
incensed. Spite of the threats of Abu Sarh, the inflammatory
language spread, and men began to speak openly and unadvisedly
against Othmân.[449]
The clouds were louring, and the
horizon of the unfortunate Caliph Caliph’s outlook darkens.
darkening all around.
CHAPTER XXXI.
DOMESTIC EVENTS DURING THE CALIPHATE OF OTHMAN. HIS
GROWING UNPOPULARITY.
Kûfa and Bussorah at this period

exercised an influence on the destinies of Discontent at Kûfa and
Islam hardly less potent than that of the Bussorah.
Court of Medîna itself. The turbulent and factious atmosphere of
these cities became rapidly and dangerously charged with
sentiments of disloyalty and rebellion, and an unwise change of
governors aggravated the evil.
Moghîra did not long enjoy the power to
which the weakness of Omar had raised Sád reinstated in the
government of Kûfa; a.h.
him. He was removed by Othmân shortly XXXIV. a.d. 645,
after his accession; and, to fill the vacancy,
in obedience (as some say) to the dying wish of Omar, Sád, the
conqueror of Medâin, was reinstated in his former office. The issue
was again unfortunate. To provide for his luxurious living, Sád,
shortly after his appointment, took an advance of money from the
chancellor of his treasury, Ibn Masûd; who, by and by, became
importunate for its repayment. A heated altercation ensued, and Sád
swore angrily at Ibn Masûd. The factious city ranged itself, part with
the great warrior, and part with the quondam slave. The quarrel
reached the ears of Othmân, who was much displeased, and
recalled Sád before he had been a year at Kûfa. As successor, the
Caliph appointed Welîd ibn Ocba, a brave
warrior, but suspected of intemperance, but shortly superseded by
and withal a uterine brother of his own. To Welîd ibn Ocba,
make the choice the more unfortunate, Welîd was son of that Ocba
who, when taken prisoner in the battle of Bedr and about to be put to
death, exclaimed in the bitterness of his soul, ‘Who will care for my
little children?’ and was answered by the Prophet, ‘Hell-fire!’ The
words were not forgotten, and faction was careful now to turn them
to the worst account. Nevertheless, Welîd was popular; and as, for
several years, he directed successive campaigns in the east with
gallantry and vigour, he managed thus to divert the restless spirits of
his people from discontent at home. But in the end, the unruly
populace was too strong for him. A murder took place, and sentence
of death was executed at the city gate against three of the culprits.
[450] Their relatives resented the act of
justice, and lay in wait to find ground of who was deposed for
inebriety. a.h. XXX. a.d. 651.
accusation against the governor, whose
habits gave them ready opportunity to attain their object. Charges of
intemperance were repeatedly laid against him, and as often
dismissed by Othmân, because wanting in legal proof. At last his
enemies succeeded in detaching from his hand the signet-ring of
office while he slept (as they said) from the effects of a debauch, and
carried it off in triumph to Medîna. But still worse, it was established
that Welîd had on one occasion conducted the morning prayers in
such a state of inebriation that, having come to the end of the proper
service, he went on, without stopping, to commence another. The
scandal was great; and the majesty of Islam must be vindicated.
Welîd was recalled to Medîna, scourged according to law, and
deposed.[451]
At Bussorah, too, things were going
from bad to worse. Abu Mûsa had now Abu Mûsa deposed at
been many years governor, when the Bussorah. 650.
a.h. XXIX. a.d.
restless citizens became impatient of his

rule. He had been preaching to the pampered soldiery the virtue of
enduring hardness as good soldiers of the faith, and therefore of
going forth on foot to war. When the next expedition was ready to
start, they watched to see whether he would himself set the
example. And as his ample baggage issued forth, winding in a long
string of mules from the approaches to the castle, they set upon him,
crying out, ‘Give us of these beasts to ride upon, and walk thou on
foot, a pattern of the hardness thou preachest unto us.’ Then they
repaired to Medîna, and complained that their governor had drained
the land of its wealth, pampered the Coreish, and tyrannised over
the Arab tribes. Instead of checking with promptitude their petulance
and insubordination, Othmân gave it new life by deposing Abu Mûsa
on these vague complaints, and appointing an obscure citizen whom
they desired, to be their governor. Found unequal to the post, this
man was deposed, and a youthful cousin of the Caliph, Ibn Aámir,
[452] promoted in his room. When tidings of
his nomination reached Bussorah, Abu Ibn Aámir appointed governor.
Mûsa told the people: ‘Now ye shall have a taxgatherer to your
hearts’ content, rich in cousins, aunts, and uncles; he will flood you
with his harpies!’ And so, in truth, it turned out; for he soon filled all
the local offices and the commands in Persia with creatures of his
own. But in other respects he proved an able ruler, and took a
leading part in the struggle now close at hand.
The government of Kûfa, vacated by
the deposition of Welîd, together with the Saîd governor of Kûfa. a.h.
XXX. a.d. 651.
whole province of Mesopotamia, was
conferred by Othmân upon another young and untried kinsman, Saîd
ibn al Aás. His father was killed fighting against the Prophet at Bedr;
and the boy, thus left an orphan, had been brought up by Omar, and
was eventually sent by him to the wars in Syria. Receiving a good
account of his breeding and prowess, Omar summoned him to his
court, and gave him two Arab maidens to wife.[453] This youth, now
promoted to the most critical post in the empire, was not only without
experience in the art of governing, but was vainly inflated with the
pretensions of the Coreish. Accustomed in Syria to the discipline of
Muâvia’s rule, he wrote to Othmân, on reaching Kûfa, that license
reigned there; that noble birth passed for nothing; and that the
Bedouins were away, beyond control, with the bit between their
teeth. His final address as governor was a blustering harangue, in
which he glibly talked of crushing the sedition and arrogance of the
men of Kûfa with a rod of iron.
Countenanced by the Caliph in his vain Discontent gains ground at
career, he fomented discontent by Kûfa.
advancing to invidious distinction the Coreishite nobility, and treating
with contumely the great body of the citizens. ‘One Coreishite
succeedeth another in this government,’ they said;—‘the last no
better than the first. It is but “out of the frying-pan into the fire.”’ The
under-current of faction gained daily in strength and volume. But the
vigorous campaigns of Saîd in northern Persia, for he was an active
soldier, served for a time to occupy men’s minds, and to stay the
open exhibition of the rebellious spirit.
Meanwhile other causes were at work
throughout the empire calculated to Other causes of disaffection.
increase the disaffection; or which, if
unimportant in themselves, were adroitly seized by the Caliph’s
enemies and turned to that purpose.
First may be mentioned the recension
of the Corân. The Moslem warriors had Othmân’s recension of the
Corân. a.h. XXX. a.d. 651.
spread themselves over such vast areas,
and the various columns, as well as converted peoples, were so
widely separated one from the other, that differences arose in the
recitation of the sacred text, as it had been settled in the previous
reign. Bussorah followed the reading of Abu Mûsa; Kûfa was guided
by the authority of Ibn Masûd, their chancellor; and the text of Hims
differed from that in use even at Damascus. Hodzeifa, during his
campaign in Persia, having witnessed the variations in the different
provinces, returned to Kûfa strongly impressed with the gravity of the
evil and the need of a revision. Ibn Masûd was highly incensed with
the slight thus put upon the authority of his text. But Hodzeifa
persisted in his views, and, supported by Saîd, the governor, urged
Othmân to restore the unity of the divine word, ‘before that believers
began to differ in their scripture, even as do the Jews and
Christians.’ The Caliph took the advice of the leading Companions at
Medîna, and, in accordance therewith, called for samples of the
manuscripts in use throughout the empire. He then appointed a
syndicate, from amongst the Coreish, of men whose authority could
be relied upon, to collate these copies with the sacred originals still
in the keeping of Haphsa, the widow of Mahomet. Under their
supervision the variations were reconciled, and an authoritative
exemplar written out, of which duplicates were deposited at Mecca
and Medîna, Kûfa and Damascus. From these exemplars, copies
were multiplied over the empire; all former manuscripts were called
in and committed to the flames; and the standard text was brought
into exclusive use. The uniformity thus secured by the secular arm,
and maintained by the same in every land and every age, is taken by
the simple believer as a proof of divine custodianship. The action of
Othmân was received at the moment, as it deserved, with a very
general consent, excepting at Kûfa. There Ibn Masûd, who prided
himself on his faultless recitation of the oracle, pure as it fell from the
Prophet’s lips, was much displeased; and the charge of sacrilege in
having burned the former copies of the sacred text, was readily
circulated amongst the factious citizens. By and by the charge was
spread abroad, and was taken up with avidity by the enemies of
Othmân; and, ages afterwards, we find it still eagerly urged by the
partisans of the Abbasside dynasty as an unpardonable offence on
the part of the ungodly Caliph. The accusation, thus trumped up for
party purposes, was really without foundation. Indeed, it was scouted
by Aly himself. When, several years after, he proceeded as Caliph to
Kûfa, he found the citizens still blaming his ill-starred predecessor for
the act. ‘Silence!’ he said; ‘Othmân acted as he did with the advice of
the leading men amongst us; and if I had been ruler at the time,
instead of him, I should myself have exactly done the same.’[454]
A great body of the nobility from Mecca
and Medîna about this time transferred Many of the Coreish migrate
their residence to Irâc. These had no right to Irâc.
to share in the endowments of that province, the special privileges of
which, in virtue of their conquest, were reserved for the present
citizens of Kûfa and Bussorah. They were allowed, however, to do so
on selling to Othmân, on behalf of the State, the properties which
they owned in the Hejâz; and the concession appears to have added
a fresh grievance to foment the rising discontent at the extravagant
pretensions of the Coreish.[455]
The story of Abu Dzarr Ghifâry is
singularly illustrative of the times, and his Story of Abu Dzarr Ghifâry,
harsh treatment is ordinarily mentioned as
a serious ground of complaint against the Caliph. He was one of the
earliest converts to the faith; and tradition asserts that he even
anticipated Mahomet himself in some of the observances of Islam.
An ascetic in his habits, he inveighed against the riches and
extravagance of the day—evils which were altogether alien from the
simplicity of Mahomet, and which, rushing in like a flood, were now
demoralising the people. Gorgeous palaces, crowds of slaves,
multitudes of horses, camels, flocks and herds, profusion of costly
garments, sumptuous fare, and splendid equipage, were the fashion,
not only in Syria and Irâc, but had begun to find their way even into
the Hejâz.[456] The protest of Abu Dzarr points to the recoil of the
stricter class of believers against all this luxury and indulgence; and
the manner in which the discontented classes, and the advocates of
communism, were beginning to turn that recoil to their own account,
and to the discredit of the government. Visiting Syria, the spirit of the
ascetic was stirred at the pomps and vanities so rife around him, and
he preached repentance to the inhabitants of Damascus. ‘This gold
and silver of yours,’ he cried, ‘shall one day be heated red-hot in the
fire of hell; and therewith shall ye be seared in your foreheads, sides,
and backs, ye ungodly spendthrifts![457] Wherefore, spend now the
same in alms, leaving yourselves enough but for your daily bread; or
else woe be to you in that day!’ Crowds flocked to hear him, some
trembling under the rebuke; the envious rejoicing at the contempt
poured on the rich and noble; and the people dazzled by the vision
of themselves sharing in the treasures thus denounced. Uneasy at
the disturbance caused by these diatribes in the public mind, Muâvia
resolved to test the spirit of the preacher. He sent him a purse of a
thousand pieces; in the morning, affecting to have made a mistake,
he demanded the return of the gift; but during the night Abu Dzarr
had distributed the whole in charity. Upon this, Muâvia, apprehensive
of the spread of communistic doctrines, despatched the preacher to
Medîna, telling Othmân that he was a sincere but misguided
enthusiast. Before the Caliph, Abu Dzarr persisted in fearlessly
denouncing the great and wealthy, and urged that they should be
forced to disgorge their riches. Othmân condescended to reason
with him. ‘After men have completely fulfilled their legal obligations,’
he asked, ‘what power remaineth with me to compel them to any
further sacrifice?’ and he turned to Káb, the learned Jewish convert,
in corroboration of what he had said. ‘Out
upon thee, thou son of a Jew! What have I banished by Othman to
to do with thee?’ cried Abu Dzarr, and with Rabadza.
651.
a.h. XXX. a.d.
these words smote Káb violently upon the

stomach. Argument being thus of no further use, Othmân banished
the preacher to Rabadza in the desert of Nejd, where two years after
he died in penury. As he felt his end approach, the hermit desired his
daughter to slay a kid, and have it ready for a party of travellers who,
he said, would shortly pass that way to Mecca, and bury him; then,
making her turn his face toward the Kâaba, he quietly breathed his
last. Soon after, the expected party came up, and amongst them Ibn
Masûd from Kûfa, who, weeping over him, bewailed his fate, and
buried him on the spot on which he died. The death of Ibn Masûd
himself, a few days after, added to the pathos of the incident. The
plaintive tale was soon in everyone’s mouth; and the banishment of
the pious ascetic and preacher of righteousness was made much of
by the enemies of the Caliph. The necessity was forgotten; the
obloquy remained.[458]
When he was himself minded to
assume the office of censor and rebuke the Othmân incurs odium by
ungodliness of the day, the unfortunate putting down unlawful
amusements, and by
Caliph fared no better. The laxity of Syria extending the square of the
had reached even to the sacred precincts Kâaba. a.h. XXVI. a.d. 647.
of the Hejâz; and Othmân, on attempting to
check the games and other practices held to be inconsistent with the
profession of Islam, incurred resentment, especially from the gay
youth whose amusements he had thwarted. Gambling and wagering,
indeed, were put down with the approval of all the stricter classes of
society; but there were not wanting many who, displeased with the
Caliph’s interference, joined in the cry of his detractors.[459]
The enlargement of the grand square of
the Kâaba, commenced by Omar, was The Mosque at Medîna
carried on by Othmân during his visits to enlarged and beautified. a.h.
XXXII. a.d. 653.
Mecca at the time of pilgrimage. And here,
too, the ill-fated Caliph met with opposition. The owners of the
houses demolished in the course of the work refused to accept the
compensation offered, and raised a great outcry against it. The
Caliph put them into prison, for, said he, ‘My predecessor did the
same, and ye made no outcry against him.’ But what the firm arm of
Omar could do, and none stir hand or foot against him, it was a very
different thing for the weak and unpopular Othmân to attempt. He
was more successful with the Great Mosque at Medîna, originally
built by Mahomet, and hallowed by the mortal remains of the Prophet
himself and his two Successors. This was now greatly enlarged and
beautified. The supports, made at the first of the trunks of date-trees,
were removed, and the roof made to rest on pillars of hewn stone.
The walls, too, were built up with masonry, richly carved and inlaid
with rare and precious stones. It was a pious work, and none
objected.[460]
Yet another, and a very gratuitous, cause of murmuring arose
from certain changes made by Othmân in the ceremonial of the
annual pilgrimage, which, though in themselves trivial and
unmeaning, excited strong disapprobation at the Caliph’s court. He
pitched tents for shelter during the few
days spent for sacrifice at Minâ, a thing Unwise changes in the pilgrim
which had never been done before; and, to ceremonial.
653.
a.h. XXXII. a.d.
the prayers heretofore recited there and on

Mount Arafat, he added new ones with two more series of
prostrations. The ritual, as established by the Prophet himself, had
been scrupulously followed by his two successors, and a
superstitious reverence attached thereto even in the minutest detail.
When expostulated with on the rash and unhallowed innovation,
Othmân gave no reasonable answer, but simply said it was his will
that it should be so.[461] Aly, Abd al Rahmân, and others were much
offended at these alterations; and the disregard of the sacred
example of the Founder of the faith raised a scandal among the
Companions unfavourable to Othmân.
On the other hand, beyond the
immediate circle of his kinsfolk, Othmân Othmân makes many
made no personal friends. Narrow, selfish, enemies.
indiscreet, and obstinate—more and more so, indeed, with
advancing years—he alienated those who would otherwise have
stood loyally by him; and he made many enemies, who pursued him
with relentless hatred. We have already seen how Mohammed son
of Abu Bekr, and Mohammed son of Abu Hodzeifa, were embittered
against him at the naval victory of Alexandria. And yet no very
special cause can be assigned for their enmity. The first is said to
have been actuated by ‘passion and ambition.’ The other was nearly
related to Othmân, and as an orphan had been kindly brought up by
him; he was now offended at having been passed over for office and
command. Both joined the rebellion which shortly broke out in Egypt,
and were amongst the most dangerous of the Caliph’s enemies. Nor
was it otherwise with the people at large. A factious spirit set in
against the unfortunate prince. The leaven fermented all around; and
every man who had a grievance, real or supposed, hastened to swell
the hostile cry.[462]
To crown the Caliph’s ill-fortune, in the
seventh year of his reign, he lost the He loses the Prophet’s ring.
signet-ring of silver which had been a.h. XXIX. a.d. 650.
engraven for the Prophet, and which had been worn and used
officially both by him and his successors. It was a favourite and
meritorious occupation of Othmân to deepen the old wells, and to
sink new ones, in the neighbourhood of Medîna. He was thus
engaged when, sitting by the well Arîs,[463] and pointing with his
finger in direction to the labourers, the ring dropped and
disappeared. Every effort was made, but in vain, to recover the
priceless relic. The well was emptied of the water and the mud
cleared out, and a great sum was offered; but no trace of the ring
ever appeared. Othmân grieved over the loss. The omen weighed
heavily on his mind; and it was some time before he was prevailed
upon to supply the place of the lost signet by another of like fashion.
[464]
Othmân had married successively two

of the Prophet’s daughters, both of whom Othmân marries Nâila. a.h.
died before their father. Three of his wives XXVIII.
still survived when, in the fifth year of his Caliphate, being then
between seventy and eighty years of age, he took Nâila to wife. Of
her previous history we know little more than that she had once been
a Christian, but, before her marriage with the Caliph, had embraced
Islam. She bore him a daughter; and through all his trials clung
faithfully by her aged lord, to the bitter end. The days were coming
when he needed such a helper by his side.[465]
CHAPTER XXXII.
DANGEROUS FACTION AT KUFA. GROWING DISAFFECTION.
A.H. XXXII.—XXXIV. A.D. 653–655
Towards the close of Othmân’s reign,

the ferment, which (excepting Syria Seditious elements at work.
perhaps) had long been secretly at work
throughout the empire, began to make its appearance on the
surface. The Arab people at large were everywhere displeased at
the pretensions of the Coreish. The Coreish themselves were ill at
ease, the greater part being jealous of the Omeyyad branch and of
the favourites of the Caliph. And the temptation to revolt was
fostered by the weakness and vacillation of Othmân himself.
Ibn Aámir had been now three years
governor of Bussorah, when Ibn Saba (or, Ibn Sauda preaches sedition
as he is commonly called, Ibn Sauda), a in Egypt. a.h. XXXII. a.d.
653.
Jew from the south of Arabia, appeared on
the scene, and professed the desire to embrace Islam. It soon
appeared that he was steeped in disaffection to the existing
government—a firebrand of sedition; and as such he was expelled
successively from Bussorah, Kûfa, and Syria, but not before he had
given a dangerous impulse to the already discontented classes. At
last, he found a safe retreat in Egypt, and there became the setter
forth of strange and startling doctrines. Mahomet was to come again,
even as the Messiah was expected to come again. Meanwhile, Aly
was his legate. Othmân was a usurper, and his governors a set of
godless tyrants. The people were stirred. Impiety and wrong, they
heard, were rampant everywhere; truth and justice could be restored
no otherwise than by the overthrow of this wicked dynasty. Such was
the preaching which gained daily ground in Egypt; by busy
correspondence it was spread all over the empire, and startled the
minds of men already foreboding evil from the sensible heavings of a
slumbering volcano.[466]
The breaking out of turbulence was for
the moment repressed at Bussorah by Ibn Émeute at Kûfa. a.h. XXXIII.
Aámir; but at Kûfa, Saîd had neither power a.d. 654.
nor tact to quell the factious elements around him. He offended even
his own party by ostentatiously washing the steps of the pulpit before
he would ascend a spot pretended to have been made unclean by
his drunken predecessor. He was not only unwise enough openly to
foster the arrogant assumptions of the Coreish,but he had the folly to
contemn the claims of the Arab soldiery, to whose swords they owed
the conquest of the lands around them. He was so indiscreet as to
call the beautiful vale of Chaldæa (the Sawâd) ‘the Garden of the
Coreish’—‘as if,’ cried the offended Arabs, ‘without us—our strong
arm and our good lances—they could have ever won this Garden.’
The disaffection, stimulated by a popular leader named Ashtar, and a
knot of factious citizens, found vent at last in an émeute. As the
governor and a company of the people, according to the custom of
the time, sat one day together in free and equal converse, the topic
turned on the bravery of Talha, who had shielded the Prophet in the
day of battle. ‘Ah!’ exclaimed Saîd, with an invidious contrast, ‘he is a
warrior, if ye choose, a real gem amongst your Bedouin counterfeits.
A few more like him, and we should dwell at ease.’ The assembly
was still nettled at this speech, when a youth incautiously gave
expression to the wish, how pleasant it would be if the governor
possessed a certain property which lay invitingly by the river bank
near Kûfa. ‘What!’ shouted the company with one voice, ‘and out of
our Sawâd!’ So saying, and with a torrent of abuse, they leaped
upon the lad and upon his father, who vainly endeavoured to urge
his youth in excuse of his indiscretion, and went near to killing both.
[467]
The factious spirits were emboldened

by the outbreak; and discontent now found The ringleaders are exiled to
Syria.
open and disloyal expression throughout
the kingdom. Saîd, supported by the Coreishite nobility, appealed
against their machinations to Othmân, who ordered that ten of the
ringleaders should be expelled to Syria.[468] There the Caliph hoped
that the powerful rule of his lieutenant and the loyal example of the
Syrians would inspire the malcontents with better feelings. Muâvia
quartered them in the church of St. Mary; and morning and evening,
as he passed by, abused them roundly on their folly in setting up
their crude claims against the indefeasible rights of the Coreish.
Crest-fallen under several weeks of such treatment, they were sent
on to Hims, where the governor, son of the great Khâlid, subjected
them for a month to like indignities. Whenever he rode forth, he
showered invectives on them as barbarous and factious creatures,
who were doing all in their power to undermine the empire. Their
spirit at last was thoroughly broken, and they professed to be
repentant. They were then released; but, ashamed to return to Kûfa,
they remained for the time in Syria, excepting the dangerous
demagogue Ashtar, who made his way secretly to Medîna.
Months passed, and things did not
mend at Kûfa. Most of the leading men, Saîd expelled from Kûfa. a.h.
whose influence could have kept the XXXIV. a.d. 655.
populace in check, were away on military command in Persia; and
the malcontents, in treasonable correspondence with the Egyptian
faction, gained head daily. Disheartened at this, Saîd, in an unlucky
moment, planned a visit to Medîna, there to lay his troubles before
the Caliph. No sooner had he gone than the conspirators came to
the front, and recalled the exiles from Syria. Ashtar, too, was soon
upon the scene. Taking his stand at the door of the Great Mosque of
Kûfa, he stirred up the people, as they assembled for worship,
against Saîd: ‘He had just left that despot,’ he said, ‘at Medîna,
plotting their ruin, counselling the Caliph to cut down their stipends,
even the women’s; and calling the broad fields which they had
conquered The Garden of the Coreish.’ The acting governor, helped
by the better class of citizens, sought in vain to still the rising storm.
He inculcated patience upon them. ‘Patience!’ cried Cacâa, the great
warrior, in scorn; ‘ye might as well roll back the Great River when in
flood as attempt to quell the people’s uproar till they have the thing
they want.’ Yezîd, brother of one of the exiles, then raised a
standard, and called upon all the enemies of the tyrannical governor
to join and bar his return to Kûfa. When Saîd drew near, they
marched out as far as Câdesîya, and sent forward to say that ‘they
did not need him any more.’ Saîd, little expecting such a reception,
said to them, ‘It had sufficed if ye had sent a delegate with your
complaint to the Caliph; but now ye come forth a thousand strong
against a single man!’ They were deaf to his expostulations. The
servant of Saîd, endeavouring to push on, was slain by Ashtar; and
Saîd himself fled back to Medîna, where he found Othmân already
terrified by tidings of the outbreak, and prepared to yield whatever
the insurgents might demand. At their
desire he appointed Abu Mûsa governor in Abu Mûsa appointed in his
place of Saîd. To welcome him the room.
captains in command of the reserves and outlying garrisons came in
from all quarters; and Abu Mûsa received them in the crowded
Mosque of Kûfa. He first exacted from all present the pledge of
loyalty to the Caliph, and then installed himself in office by leading
the prayers of the great assembly.
If, instead of giving way, Othmân had
inflicted on the ringleaders condign Othmân’s fatal mistake.
punishment, he might haply have
succeeded in weathering the storm. It is true that thus he would, in
all likelihood have precipitated rebellion, not only in Kûfa, but also in
Bussorah and Egypt. But, sooner or later, that was inevitable; and in
the struggle, he would now have had a strong support. For here the
contention was between the Coreish and the nobility of Islam on the
one hand, and the Arab tribes and city rabble on the other; and in
this question the leaders of martial renown would all have rallied
round the throne. By his pitiable weakness in yielding to the
insurgents, Othmân not only courted the contempt of all around him,
but lost the opportunity of placing the great controversy about to
convulse the Moslem world, upon its proper issue. It fell, instead, to
the level of a quarrel obscured by personal interests, and embittered
by charges of tyranny and nepotism against himself. The crisis was
now inevitable. Men saw that Othmân lacked the wisdom and the
strength to meet it, and each looked to his own concern. Seditious
letters circulated freely everywhere; and the claims began to be
canvassed of successors to the irresolute and narrow-minded
Caliph, who, it was foreseen, could not long retain the reins of
empire in his grasp.

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Solution Manual for Cases and Exercises in Organization

Chapter 2: Computer Arithmetic and Digital Logic

4. Why are computers byte‐oriented?

a. 110011002 1 × 22 + 1 × 23 +1 × 26 + 1 × 27 = 4 + 8 + 64 + 128 = 204

7. Why do we have octal and hexadecimal arithmetic?

9. Convert the following unsigned binary numbers into decimal form

10. Convert the following hexadecimal numbers into decimal form

11. Convert the following hexadecimal numbers into binary format

a. 0.2 0.0011001100110011 0.00110011

13. Perform the following calculations in the stated bases

16. Convert 1234.125 into 32‐bit IEEE floating‐point format.

1234 = 100110100102 0.125 = 0.0012 Therefore, 1234.125 = 10011010010.0012

This is 1.0011010010001 × 210 (normalized binary)

The IEEE floating point sign is 0 (positive)

The fractional mantissa in 23 bits (with suppressed leading 1) is 00110100100010000000000

The biased exponent is 10 + 127 = 137 or 100010012

The floating point number is 0 10001001 00110100100010000000000 or 449A420016

The binary equivalent of CC4C0000 is 11001100010011000000000000000000

The mantissa, after the insertion of the leading 1, is 1.10011000000000000000000

Combining mantissa and exponent we get

N = a0 × (‐1)0 × 20 + a1 × (‐1)1 × 21 + … + ai‐1 × (‐1)i‐1 × 2i‐1

a. 0000 b. 1010 c. 1101 d. 1111

a. 0000 b. 1010 c. 1101 d. 1111

V = an‐1 bn‐1 s n‐1 + an‐1bn‐1 sn‐1

V = c nc n‐1 + c nc n‐1.

Demonstrate that this expression is correct.

Case 1: A and B are positive; that is, an‐1 = 0, bn‐1 = 0

Case 2: A and B are negative; that is, an‐1 = 1, bn‐1 = 1.

Considering both cases, overflow occurs if cncn‐1 + cncn‐1 = 1.

There are four common ways of representing signed numbers in computing:

7m ‐ 1 ≥ 4n ‐ 1 or 7m ≥ 4n or m.log107 ≥ n.log104 or m ≥ n.log104 /log107

26. What is the largest three‐digit number in base 13?

133 ‐ 1 = 2197 ‐ 1 = 2196 or CCC13 = 12 × 13 × 13 + 12 × 13 + 12 = 2028 + 156 + 12 = 2196

x = 12.1234 x2 = 146.97682756 = 146.977 (six figures rounded up)

x + y = 12.1234 + 12.1111 = 24.2345 (six figures)

43, 6F, 6D, 70, 75, 74, 65, 72, 2E

30. Floating‐point arithmetic is seldom used to perform financial calculations. Why?

a. 100001p = 3310 p=2

A B C D C* D* B+C* C+D* A(B+C*) B(C+D*) B.D A(B+C*) +B(C+D*)+B.D

35. In a digital system, what is the meaning of negative logic?

DCBA Number ÷3 ÷4 ÷7 Divisible by 3, 4, or 7

DCBA + DCBA + DCBA + DCBA + DCBA + DCBA + DCBA + DCBA + DCBA

F = CB + CA + DBA + DCB

The truth table for this circuit is:

Design a circuit to implement this function.

Inputs A>B A<B A=B

X = A1B1 +A1A0B0 + A0B1B0

Y = A1B1 + A1A0B0 + A0B1B1

Z = A1A0B1B0 + A1A0B1B0 + A1A0B1B0 + A1A0B1B0

The logic function for a NOR gate is C = A + B.

C = A + B = A  B = A  B; that is, the circuit functions as an AND gate.

If we put an inverter on the output of a NOR gate we get

a. F = A∙B∙C∙D + A∙B∙C∙D + A∙B∙C∙D + A∙B∙C∙D

b. F = A∙B∙C + A∙B∙C + A∙C∙D + A∙B∙C∙D

c. F = A∙C∙D + A∙B∙C∙D + A∙B∙C

A B C D C* D* B+C* C+D* A(B+C) B(C+D) B.D A(B+C) +B(C+D)+B.D