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Chapter 10: Understanding Quantitative Research Design
Test Bank
MULTIPLE CHOICE
1. What is the best research approach for investigating the actual representation of Hispanic
managers within health care institutions, and the workplace beliefs and prejudices that
perpetuate their disproportionate representation?
a. Triangulated approach
b. Quantitative approach
c. Qualitative approach
d. Outcomes approach
ANS: A
Triangulation is the combined use of two or more theories, methods, data sources,
investigators, or analysis methods in the study of the same phenomenon. Five types of
triangulation are proposed: (1) data triangulation, (2) investigator triangulation, (3) theoretical
triangulation, (4) methodological triangulation, and (5) analysis triangulation. Multiple
triangulation is the combination of more than one of these types. In the example,
methodological triangulation should be used in the study of the research problem.
Triangulation is used to ensure that the most comprehensive approach is taken to solve a
research problem.
DIF: Cognitive Level: Application REF: Page 208
2. What is the principal disadvantage of triangulated research?

a. Its results are difficult to understand.
b. Because of its complexity, researchers from different research traditions may
collaborate to produce a triangulated study.
c. The time required to complete a triangulated project is approximately double that
of completing one that utilizes only one method.
d. Publication opportunities are limited.
ANS: C
Triangulation is the combined use of two or more theories, methods, data sources,
investigators, or analysis methods in the study of the same phenomenon. There is concern that
triangulation will be used in studies for which it is not appropriate. An additional concern is
that the popularization of the method will generate a number of triangulated studies that have
been poorly conducted. With methodological triangulation, both data collection and data
analysis are more time-consuming, because essentially two closely related studies are
conducted simultaneously or in close succession. These strategies require many observations
and result in large volumes of data for analysis. The results are no more difficult to understand
than are the results of any study. Most doctorally prepared researchers have both quantitative
and qualitative preparation; however, because researchers tend to acquire their research
training within a particular research tradition, attempts to incorporate another research
tradition may be poorly achieved. Publication opportunities are increased with triangulated
research, since quantitative and qualitative portions of the study are often published
separately.
DIF: Cognitive Level: Synthesis REF: Page 208

3. Causality is tested through which of the following?
a. Grounded theory
b. Experimentation
c. All quantitative research
d. Triangulated studies
ANS: B
The first assumptions one must make in examining causality are that things have causes and
that causes lead to effects. The original criteria for causation required that a variable should
cause an identified effect each time the cause occurred. Probability addresses relative, rather
than absolute, causality. From a perspective of probability, a cause will not produce a specific
effect each time that particular cause occurs. The reasoning behind probability is more in
keeping with the complexity of multicausality. The purpose of an experimental design is to
examine cause and effect. The independent variable in a study is expected to be the cause, and
the dependent variable is expected to reflect the effect of the independent variable.
DIF: Cognitive Level: Comprehension REF: Page 195
4. Why is selection of an appropriate design for a research study important?

a. If the design is an incorrect one, the researcher will examine variables and their
interactions in a way that does not answer the research question.
b. The design provides a blueprint or diagram that appears in the concept map.
c. If there is no design, critique is impossible.
d. If the design is appropriate, the researcher can eliminate error.
ANS: A
A research design is the blueprint for conducting a study. It maximizes control over factors
that could interfere with the validity of the study findings. Being able to identify the study
design and to evaluate design flaws that might threaten the validity of findings is an important
part of critically appraising studies. When conducting a study, the research design guides the
researcher in planning and implementing a study in a way to achieve accurate results. The
control achieved through the quantitative study design increases the probability that the study
findings are an accurate reflection of reality.
DIF: Cognitive Level: Analysis REF: Page 195
5. Thirty patients with psoriasis are treated with ultraviolet light B phototherapy, delivered by a
therapist. Their symptoms become worse at first, and then improve. During the summer their
symptoms become better without treatment. Then fall arrives, and symptoms worsen. Patients
go back to UVL B, and they improve. Why, according to Hume, can the relationship between
UVL B phototherapy and symptom severity not be considered a classically causal one?
a. Ultraviolet light B phototherapy wasn’t invented during Hume’s lifetime.
b. There must be a strong relationship between the proposed cause and the effect.
c. The cause (phototherapy) has to be present whenever the effect occurs.
d. The cause must precede the effect in time.
ANS: C
Some of the ideas related to causation emerged from the logical positivist philosophical
tradition. Hume, a positivist, proposed that the following three conditions must be met to
establish causality: (1) there must be a strong relationship between the proposed cause and the
effect, (2) the proposed cause must precede the effect in time, and (3) the cause has to be
present whenever the effect occurs. Cause, according to Hume, is not directly observable but
must be inferred.
6. John Stuart Mill’s insistence that in order for causation to be demonstrated, there must be no
alternative explanation for why a change in one variable leads to a change in the other
variable. This concept of alternative explanations is the idea that underlies which type of
validity?
a. Statistical conclusion validity
b. Internal validity
c. Construct validity
d. External validity
ANS: D
External validity is concerned with the extent to which study findings can be generalized
beyond the sample used in the study. Statistical conclusion validity is concerned with whether
the conclusions about relationships or differences drawn from statistical analysis are an
accurate reflection of the real world: did the researcher use the right statistical tests in the
proper way? Internal validity is the extent to which the effects detected in the study are a true
reflection of reality rather than the result of extraneous variables: did the change in one
variable really account for the change in the other variable? Construct validity examines the fit
between the conceptual definitions and operational definitions of variables: are the study ideas
measured in a way that makes sense?
7. John Stuart Mill and the essentialists insisted that a cause be necessary and sufficient for an
effect to occur. In a modern study alcohol dependency is found to lead eventually to
permanent liver damage, except when the alcoholic consumes a diet plentiful in the
B-vitamins. In addition, liver damage can emerge in the absence of alcohol dependency. What
would John Stuart Mill and essentialists say about the causative relationship between alcohol
dependency and liver damage?
a. The proposed cause is necessary, but not sufficient.
b. The proposed cause is neither necessary nor sufficient.
c. The proposed cause is sufficient, but not necessary.
d. The proposed cause is both necessary and sufficient.
ANS: B
A philosophical group known as essentialists proposed that two concepts must be considered
in determining causality: necessary and sufficient. The proposed cause must be necessary for
the effect to occur. (The effect cannot occur unless the cause first occurs.) The proposed cause
must also be sufficient (requiring no other factors) for the effect to occur. This leaves no room
for a variable that may sometimes, but not always, serves as the cause of an effect.

8. Random selection of 300 subjects yields a sample, but demographic analysis of that sample
reveals that there are 99 teachers in the sample, despite the fact that there are far fewer than
33% teachers in the total sample. The sample can be said to be
a. Biased
b. Controlled
c. Multicausal
d. Based on probability
ANS: A
The term bias means to slant away from the true or expected. A biased sample’s composition
differs from that of the population from which the sample was drawn. Bias is of great concern
in research because of the potential effect on the meaning of the study findings. Multicausality
refers to a scenario in which interrelating variables cause a particular effect Control means
having the power to direct or manipulate factors to achieve a desired outcome. Error is often
discussed in relation to the researchers ability to make accurate conclusions. Probability
addresses relative, rather than absolute, causality. From the perspective of probability, a cause
will not produce a specific effect each time that particular cause occurs.
9. The researcher divides his lab rats into two groups and administers IV methamphetamine to
one of the groups, in order to determine its effect on the fear-flight response. This is an
example of which of the following?
a. Bias
b. Control
c. Correlation
d. Multicausality
ANS: B
Control means having the power to direct or manipulate factors to achieve a desired outcome.
The idea of control is very important to research, particularly to experimental and
quasi-experimental studies. The greater the amount of control the researcher has of the study
situation, the more credible the study findings. The purpose of the research design is to
maximize control factors in the study situation. The term bias means to slant away from the
true or expected. A biased opinion has failed to include both sides of the question.
Correlational research examines linear relationships between two or more variables and
determines the type (positive or negative) and degree (strength) of the relationship, not cause.
10. A researcher is comparing a new and less expensive treatment with an established treatment,
in hopes of showing that there is no difference in outcome. The researcher does not perform a
power analysis and, consequently, selects a sample size that is smaller than what would be
recommended for an analysis of variance. The results show that there is no significant
difference in outcome between the two treatments. Which type of validity is affected by this?
ANS: A
Statistical conclusion validity is concerned with whether the conclusions about relationships
or differences drawn from statistical analysis are an accurate reflection of the real world: did
the researcher use the right statistical tests in the proper way? Internal validity is the extent to
which the effects detected in the study are a true reflection of reality rather than the result of
extraneous variables: did the change in one variable really account for the change in the other
variable? Construct validity examines the fit between the conceptual definitions and
operational definitions of variables: are the study ideas measured in a way that makes sense?
beyond the sample used in the study.
11. A researcher is comparing a new and less expensive treatment with an established treatment,
in hopes of showing that there is no difference in outcome. The researcher does not perform a
power analysis and, consequently, selects a sample size that is smaller than what would be
recommended for an analysis of variance. The results show that there is a significant
difference in outcome between the two treatments, and that the new treatment has poorer
outcomes. What is the negative result of the researcher’s decision to use a smaller sample?
a. The statistical conclusions reached are incorrect.
b. There is no negative result.
c. The study will have to be replicated, because its sample was small.
d. The researcher is guilty of misconduct.
ANS: B
or differences drawn from statistical analysis are an accurate reflection of the real world: did
the researcher use the right statistical tests in the proper way? The test was used in the proper
way, and the results established a difference in outcomes between the established treatment
and the new one, meaning that the difference in outcomes must have been quite pronounced
for this to be evident with a small sample. The results dramatically underscore this.
12. A researcher tests a new intervention for nausea associated with chemotherapy, in hospitalized
patients. At the same time a new over-the-counter medication containing natural herbs is
marketed aggressively, and some of the hospital patients are given this herbal remedy by their
families. This is a threat to which type of validity?
ANS: B
Construct validity examines the fit between the conceptual definitions and operational
definitions of variables: are the study ideas measured in a way that makes sense? Statistical
conclusion validity is concerned with whether the conclusions about relationships or
differences drawn from statistical analysis are an accurate reflection of the real world: did the
researcher use the right statistical tests in the proper way? Internal validity is the extent to
variable? External validity is concerned with the extent to which study findings can be
generalized beyond the sample used in the study.
13. A researcher tests a new intervention for nausea associated with chemotherapy, in hospitalized
patients. He does not want to suggest nausea to the patients, so as his dependent variable, he
uses the answer the patients give to the question, “How are you feeling this morning?” This is
a threat to which type of validity?
ANS: C
definitions of variables: are the study ideas measured in a way that makes sense? It makes
little sense to measure nausea by asking a social question. Statistical conclusion validity is
concerned with whether the conclusions about relationships or differences drawn from
statistical analysis are an accurate reflection of the real world: did the researcher use the right
statistical tests in the proper way? Internal validity is the extent to which the effects detected
in the study are a true reflection of reality rather than the result of extraneous variables: did
the change in one variable really account for the change in the other variable? External
validity is concerned with the extent to which study findings can be generalized beyond the
sample used in the study.
14. A researcher conducts research and uses a small sample that is not randomly selected. When
he replicates the study, twice, he again uses the same site and another small sample that is not
randomly selected. This is a threat to which type of validity?
ANS: D
definitions of variables: are the study ideas measured in a way that makes sense? Statistical
variable? External validity is concerned with the extent to which study findings can be
generalized beyond the sample used in the study.
15. If a researcher plans to study graduate-level achievement in all students who were educated
under the Vermont public school system, in a small town that used both state-mandated texts
and enrichment texts of the school board’s choosing, the researcher would be using a fairly
small sample, bound by geography and time. Which type of validity is decreased by a study
like this one?
a. Construct validity
b. Statistical conclusion validity
c. External validity
d. Internal validity
ANS: C
beyond the sample used in the study. If the sample IS the historical population, the findings
can be generalized only to predict accomplishment in subsequent cohorts. Statistical
variable? Construct validity examines the fit between the conceptual definitions and
operational definitions of variables: are the study ideas measured in a way that makes sense?
16. What is the essential difference between a control group and a comparison group?
a. A control group’s data is collected at the same time as the experimental group’s
data. A comparison group’s data is collected before that of the experimental group.
b. A control group is larger in size than a comparison group.
c. A control group exists only is a basic lab situation. All nursing studies use
comparison groups.
d. A control group is randomly assigned. A comparison group is not.
ANS: D
If the study involves an experimental treatment, the design usually calls for a comparison.
Outcome measures for individuals who receive the experimental treatment are compared with
outcome measures for those who do not receive the experimental treatment. This comparison
requires a control group—subjects who do not receive the experimental treatment. However,
in nursing studies, all patients require care, and those who do not receive the study
intervention receive standard care. Nurse researchers often refer to the group receiving
standard care, but no treatment, as the comparison group rather than the control group.
Essentially, the main difference between these terms is that control groups are nearly identical
to their experimental groups, except for assignment. Comparison groups differ, because of the
time at which data are collected, the way they are constituted, or other circumstances that
make them less likely to be nearly identical, leading to a higher occurrence of threats to
internal validity.
17. A school nurse researcher studying bullying discovers that the type of victimization she is
observing is different for different racial groups and genders within her school district. She
wants to study the effect of peer support on bullying and chooses to make sure that the
experimental and control groups, although randomly assigned, contain equal percentages of
children of all races. What does this strategy exemplify?
a. Carryover
b. Blocking
c. Counterbalancing
d. Sequencing
ANS: B
In blocking, the researcher includes subjects with various levels of an extraneous variable in
the sample but controls the numbers of subjects at each level of the variable and their random
assignment to groups within the study. Designs using blocking are referred to as randomized
block designs. The extraneous variable is then used as an independent variable in the data
analysis. Therefore, the extraneous variable must be included in the framework and the study
hypotheses.
18. A researcher uses matching to constitute his control group, while performing a study on
psychotherapy as an adjunct treatment for substance addiction. What type of validity might be
enhanced by matching, in this instance?
a. Construct validity
b. Statistical conclusion validity
c. External validity
d. Internal validity
ANS: D
Matching is used when a subject in the experimental group is randomly selected and then a
subject similar in relation to important extraneous variables is randomly selected for the
control group. For example, subjects in the experimental and control groups might be matched
for age, gender, severity of illness, or number of chronic illnesses. Statistical conclusion
validity is concerned with whether the conclusions about relationships or differences drawn
from statistical analysis are an accurate reflection of the real world: it is not affected by use of
matching. Internal validity is the extent to which the effects detected in the study are a true
reflection of reality rather than the result of extraneous variables: matching can increase
internal validity if the researcher can correctly identify the principal extraneous variables.
definitions of variables: matching has no effect on this. External validity is concerned with the
extent to which study findings can be generalized beyond the sample used in the study;
matching does not affect external validity, to any extent.
19. Immediately after the intervention in an experimental study of the negative effects of smoking
tobacco, the state tax on cigarettes increases the cost from $4 to $8 per pack. Which threat to
internal validity does this pose?
a. Mortality
b. History
c. Testing
d. Selection
ANS: B
History is an event that is not related to the planned study but that occurs during the time of
the study. History could influence a subject's response to the treatment and alter the outcome
of the study. The attrition threat is due to subjects who drop out of a study before completion.
The circumstances in which a study is conducted (history) influence the treatment and thus the
generalizability of the findings. Sometimes, the effect being measured (testing) can be due to
the number of times the subject’s responses have been tested. The subject may remember
earlier, inaccurate responses and modify them, thus altering the outcome of teh study.
20. Subjects in a multiple group experimental study are tested for how much time it takes them to
navigate a maze and find the chocolate. The maze is reconstructed after each run, and three
different floor plans are used. Each group is tested eight times in eight hours. at a different
time of day. The runs later in the day have faster times than the earlier ones. Which threat to
internal validity might account for this difference?
a. Instrumentation
b. Selection
c. Maturation
d. Statistical regression toward the mean
ANS: C
Effects can be due to changes in measurement instruments (instrumentation) between the
pretest and the posttest rather than a result of the treatment. Selection addresses the process by
which subjects are chosen to take part in a study and how subjects are grouped within a study.
Maturation is defined as growing older, wiser, stronger, hungrier, more tired, or more
experienced during the study. The subkects in this study may have been through the three
different floor plans enough times to learn them. Such unplanned changes can influence the
findings of the study. Experimenter expectancy occurs when a researcher expects a particular
intervention to relieve pain.
21. A researcher believes that therapy is more effective if patients exercise. He tells his patients
that he has arranged for them to use the hospital gym, if they so desire—and that if they are
interested, they will then be in the experimental group. This represents which threat to internal
validity?
a. Maturation
b. Reliability of the implementation
c. History
d. Selection
ANS: D
Selection addresses the process by which subjects are chosen to take part in a study and how
subjects are grouped within a study. A selection threat is more likely to occur in studies in
which random assignment is not possible. In some studies, people selected for the study may
differ in some important way from people not selected for the study. In other studies, the
threat is due to differences in subjects selected for study groups. In this study, subjects choose
to be in the experimental group because they were willing to exercise; in this way, they differ
from the rest of the group—possibly they are less depressed—and this could introduce bias
into the study.
22. What is the antidote to the carryover effect?

a. Random assignment
b. Counterbalancing
c. Sequencing
d. Bias control
ANS: B
Sometimes the application of one treatment can influence the response to later treatments, a
phenomenon referred to as a carryover effect. If a carryover effect is known to occur, it is not
advisable for a researcher to use this design strategy for the study. However, even when no
carryover effect is known, the researcher may take precautions against the possibility that this
effect will influence outcomes. In one such precaution, known as counterbalancing, the
various treatments are administered in random order rather than being provided consistently in
the same sequence.

23. What is the best research approach for investigating the actual representation of male
labor-delivery nurses within healthcare institutions and the workplace beliefs and prejudices
that perpetuate their disproportionate representation?
a. Mixed methods approach
b. Quantitative approach
c. Qualitative approach
d. Outcomes approach
ANS: A
Mixed methods research is characterized as research that contains elements of both qualitative
and quantitative approaches. The philosophical underpinnings of mixed methods research and
what paradigms best fit these research methods are still evolving. Over the last few years,
many researchers have departed from the idea that one paradigm or one research strategy is
right and have taken the perspective that the search for the truth requires the use of all
available strategies. A single approach to measuring a concept may be inadequate to justify a
claim that it is a valid measure of a theoretical concept. Testing a single theory may leave the
results open to the challenge of rival hypotheses from other theories. To capitalize on the
representativeness and generalizability of quantitative research and the in-depth, contextual
nature of qualitative research, mixed methods are combined in a single research study.
24. As Denzin claimed, there is an advantage to performing mixed methods or triangulated

research. In a study of pain and fatigue control after hip replacement, what would the primary
advantage be of conducting both a quantitative descriptive portion and a grounded theory
portion?
a. The results would be more difficult to understand, but more scholarly.
b. It would force a multiple-authorship arrangement, assisting each scholar.
c. Bias would decrease.
d. The time required to complete the study would be approximately double that of
completing one that utilized only one method.
ANS: C
Denzin (1989) believed that combining multiple theories, methods, observers, and data
sources can assist researchers in overcoming the intrinsic bias that comes from single-theory,
single-methods, and single-observer studies. Triangulation evolved to include using multiple
data collection and analysis methods, multiple data sources, multiple analysts, and multiple
theories or perspectives. The concept of triangulation is now commonly replaced with the idea
of mixed methods approaches
25. A researcher tests the effect of a new laparoscopic treatment for chronic shoulder dislocation.
The results are statistically significant, and the researcher states in his findings that there is
evidence that the treatment has promise for widespread application. A subsequent replication
study fails to show statistical significance. A third study produces the same effects as the
second. What is the most likely explanation here?
a. Type I error occurred in the first study.
b. Type II error occurred in the second and third studies.
c. Random error produced insufficient power.
d. Bias was introduced by replicating the study.
ANS: A
A serious concern in research is incorrectly concluding that a relationship or difference exists
when it does not (type I error, rejecting a true null). If only one of three studies supported the
new treatment, it is most likely that a type I error occurred in the first study. Low statistical
power increases the probability of concluding that there is no significant difference between
samples when actually there is a difference (Type II error, failing to reject a false null). A type
II error is most likely to occur when the sample size is small ro when the power of the
statistical test to determine differences is low. Random error has no effect on power.
Replication of research identifies areas of bias; it does not introduce bias.
MULTIPLE RESPONSE
1. Threats to statistical conclusion validity include which of the following? (Select all that
apply.)
a. Fishing
b. Low statistical power
c. Maturation
d. Violated assumptions of statistical tests
e. History threat
ANS: A, B, D
or differences drawn from statistical analysis are an accurate reflection of the real world. Low
statistical power increases the probability of concluding that there is no significant difference
between samples when actually there is a difference (type II error, failing to reject a false null)
(see Chapter 8 for discussion of the null hypothesis). Most statistical tests have assumptions
about the data collected, which include the following: (1) the data are at least at the interval
level, (2) the sample was randomly obtained, and (3) the distribution of scores was normal. If
these assumptions are violated, the statistical analysis may provide inaccurate results. The risk
of type I error increases when the researcher conducts multiple statistical analyses of
relationships or differences; this procedure is referred to as fishing.
2. Causality is tested through which of the following? (Select all that apply.)
a. Grounded theory research
b. Experimental research
c. All quantitative research
d. Mixed methods research
e. Quasi-experimental research
ANS: B, E
The first assumption you must make in examining causality is that causes lead to effects. The
only two of the primary quantitative methods that routinely examine classic causality are
experimental and quasi-experimental research.
DIF: Cognitive Level: Comprehension|Cognitive Level: Application

REF: Page 195
3. Quantitative experimental researchers often “brainstorm” after each study, discussing the
findings with colleagues, in order to interpret them and create new theories and strategies for
testing them. Then they proceed to the next study. This is similar to a sine wave—first
quantitative, then qualitative, and then quantitative, and so on. This represents an informal and
ongoing combination of what research strategies? (Select all that apply.)
a. Mixed methods
b. Sequential explanatory
c. Blocking
d. Multicausality
e. Content analysis
f. Sequential exploratory
g. Sequential transformative
ANS: B, F, G
With the sequential explanatory strategy the researcher collects and analyzes quantitative data
followed by the collection and analysis of qualitative data. Integration of the data occurs
during the interpretation phase. The purpose of this approach is to assist in explaining and
interpreting quantitative data. It is useful when unexpected quantitative results are revealed.
Qualitative examination of the phenomenon facilitates a fuller understanding and is well
suited to explaining and interpreting relationships. There may or may not be a theoretical
perspective to the study. This approach is easy to implement, because the steps fall in
sequential stages, but the two-stage approach extends the length of time involved in data
collection and is seen as a weakness of the design.
DIF: Cognitive Level: Comprehension|Cognitive Level: Application

REF: Page 209
4. Which of the following statements would lend support to the hypothesis that increasing
scientific knowledge allows humans to grasp multicausality, when single causation was
previously assumed to be the case in the time of the essentialists? (Select all that apply.)
a. Adolescents and young adults with entitlement issues may have been raised with
deprivation, not indulgence.
b. Scientific knowledge is increasing, as the gene is mapped.
c. The weather cannot be controlled, but it can be affected by geologic events such as
volcanic eruption.
d. Gender of the fetus, although determined by the father, may be more likely to be
either male or female, depending on the timing of sexual relations.
e. Genetic migrations can be tracked fairly effectively, by calculating the relative
frequency of various Landsteiner blood types in different countries.
ANS: A, C, E
A philosophical group known as essentialists proposed that two concepts must be considered
in determining causality: necessary and sufficient. The proposed cause must be necessary for
the effect to occur. (The effect cannot occur unless the cause first occurs.) The proposed cause
must also be sufficient (requiring no other factors) for the effect to occur. This leaves no room
for a variable that may sometimes, but not always, serves as the cause of an effect. “Spare the
rod and spoil the child.” “Everybody talks about the weather, but nobody does anything about
it.” “The father effectively “decides” the gender of the child by passing on either an X or a Y
to the offspring.”
5. In which instances could bias in measuring embarrassment be decreased? (Select all that
apply.)
a. Use more than only one way of collecting the data (such as a verbal response + an
external rater).
b. Use more than only one question to elicit the response (such as Yes–No + how
much).
c. Use more than only one modality of measurement (such as Yes–No + a
physiologic instrument).
d. Hypnotize subjects, so that they give absolutely honest answers.
e. Replicate the study.
ANS: A, B, C
Mono-operation bias occurs when only one method of measurement is used to assess a
construct. When only one method of measurement is used, fewer dimensions of the construct
are measured. Construct validity greatly improves if the researcher uses more than one
instrument. It is often possible to apply more than one measurement of the dependent variable
with little increase in time, effort, or cost. In monomethod bias, the researcher uses more than
one measure of a variable, but all the measures use the same method of recording.
6. A researcher wants to make sure that his experimental group and his control group are
equivalent, so he uses random sampling followed by random assignment to group. What else
must the researcher do to assure the consumers of his research that the groups were
equivalent? (Select all that apply.)
a. Report the sameness or difference of potentially extraneous variables, using post
hoc statistical testing.
b. Eliminate all other extraneous variables from the analysis.
c. Rebalance the samples, controlling for all potentially extraneous variables, by
moving subjects back and forth until both groups have the same distribution of all
variables.
d. Randomly assign the sample again, hoping for a better outcome the second time.
e. Report the sameness or difference of subgroups possessing unequal proportions of
any potentially extraneous variable, with respect to the dependent variable.
ANS: A, E
The most effective strategy for achieving equivalence is random sampling followed by
random assignment to groups. However, this strategy does not guarantee equivalence. Even
when randomization has been used, the researcher must examine the extent of equivalence by
measuring and comparing characteristics for which the groups must be equivalent. This
comparison is usually reported in the description of the sample.
7. A researcher plans to study graduate-level achievement in all students who were educated
under the Vermont public school system, in a small town that used both state-mandated texts
and enrichment texts of the school board’s choosing. Considering the limitations to
generalizability, how can the researcher justify conducting the study to the institutional review
board? (Select all that apply.)
a. The researcher does not have to justify conducting the study. It has not been
performed before, and so there is a gap in the literature.
b. The researcher could argue that if graduate-level achievement is markedly lower in
this group, the results could cautiously suggest revision of the town’s educational
practices.
c. The researcher could write a proposal to study all towns in Vermont, so as to have
been generalizability, and then study only this one.
d. The researcher could justify conducting the study on the basis that it might
enlighten the public school system in its decisions to mandate chosen texts.
e. The researcher could reason that if graduate-level achievement is markedly higher
in this group, the results could cautiously suggest a similar educational approach
for other similar communities.
ANS: B, D, E
beyond the sample used in the study. With the most serious threat, the findings would be
meaningful only for the group being studied. To some extent, the significance of the study
depends on the number of types of people and situations to which the findings can be applied.
Sometimes, the factors influencing external validity are subtle and may not be reported in
research reports; however, the researcher must be responsible for these factors. Generalization
is usually narrower for a single study than for multiple replications of a study using different
samples, perhaps from different populations in different settings.
8. Why does subject attrition affect internal validity?

a. A study in which the majority of the subjects die calls into question whether the
treatment itself is safe.
b. Subjects who drop out may differ from those who stay in the study, in terms of an
important extraneous variable.
c. If subjects drop out of the control group, and not the experimental group, it
strongly implies that there is some benefit to participation of which the researchers
may not be aware.
d. Subject mortality may result in a sample that is so much smaller than anticipated
that type II error may result.
e. Type I error is almost guaranteed with very unequal sample sizes.
ANS: B, C
The subject attrition threat is due to subjects who drop out of a study before completion.
Participants’ attrition becomes a threat when (1) those who drop out of a study are a different
type of person from those who remain in the study or (2) there is a difference between the
kinds of people who drop out of the experimental group and the people who drop out of the
control or comparison group
9. Aside from random assignment using a large sample, what are ways to structure a design that
control for known extraneous variables? (Select all that apply.)
a. Matching
b. Selection of a heterogeneous sample
c. Selecting a homogeneous sample
d. Blocking
e. Stratification
ANS: A, C, D, E
Homogeneity is a more extreme form of equivalence in which the researcher limits the
subjects to only one level of an extraneous variable to reduce its impact on the study findings.
To use this strategy, you must have previously identified the extraneous variables. Matching is
used when a subject in the experimental group is randomly selected and then a subject similar
in relation to important extraneous variables is randomly selected for the control group.
Heterogeneity is designed to increase generalizability of the study findings, not to control for
extraneous variables. In blocking, the researcher includes subjects with various levels of an
extraneous variable in the sample but controls the numbers of subjects at each level of the
variable and their random assignment to groups within the study. Stratification involves the
distribution of subjects throughout the sample, using sampling techniques similar to those
used in blocking, but the purpose of the procedure is even distribution throughout the sample.
The extraneous variable is not included in the data analysis. Distribution of the extraneous
variable is included in the description of the sample.
10. What is the most effective way to minimize the effect of all extraneous variables between the
experimental group and the control group? (Select all that apply.)
a. Match the groups by hand.
b. Randomly assign subjects to group.
c. Use a large sample.
d. Place subjects into groups according to the extraneous variables they possess.
e. Allow subjects to choose the groups to which they want to belong.
ANS: B, C
Design strategies used to control extraneous variables include random sampling, random
assignment to groups, selecting subjects that are homogeneous in terms of a particular
extraneous variable, selecting a heterogeneous sample, blocking, stratification, matching
subjects between groups in relation to a particular variable, and statistical control. Random
sampling increases the probability that subjects with various levels of an extraneous variable
are included and are randomly dispersed throughout the groups within the study (Thompson,
2002). This strategy is particularly important for controlling unidentified extraneous variables.

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CHAPTER III.
VARIOUS MATERIALS USED IN COACH-

BUILDING.
The materials employed in coach-building number a great many:
various kinds of wood—ash, beech, elm, oak, mahogany, cedar,
deal, pine, &c.; hides, skins, hair, wool, silk, glue, whalebone, ivory,
&c.; iron, steel, copper, brass, lead, tin, glass, &c.
The timber principally used in the construction of carriages is the
ash. This is not an elastic, but rather a tough and fibrous wood,
capable of altering its form by the application of pressure, and
therefore when not in large masses requires iron plates to secure it.
By boiling it becomes very pliable, and may be formed into almost
any shape, provided that it is not too thick. For this purpose it is
better to use steam than boiling water, as the latter is likely to
dissolve and carry off the gluten which unites the fibres, thus
rendering the timber useless. Some ash timber is white at heart, and
some red; the white is usually the strongest and best. Some trees
which have been grown on hillsides much exposed to constant winds
present a remarkably wrinkled appearance through their whole
length, and it is scarcely possible to plane their timber smooth; this is
the toughest of all ash timber. Parts of ash-trees are sometimes
found of a yellowish-brown colour, accompanied by a fetid acid
smell. This is sometimes attributed to the effect of lightning, but more
probably it is a putrid fermentation of the sap, owing to imperfect
drying. All other circumstances being equal, the timber is best which
is cut down when the circulation of the sap is slowest, as the pores
are then open. In the process of drying or seasoning the bulk
diminishes considerably. One of the qualities which render ash
peculiarly fit for carriage construction is the absence of elasticity, and
consequent indisposition to alter its form by warping or twisting. It is
not well adapted for boards or planks in which much width is
required, as in drying it cracks a great deal. The diameter of ash-
trees used by carriage-builders varies from 1 foot to 3 feet 6 inches.
It should be borne in mind in cutting ash, that the interior and the
outer casing under the bark are rather softer and less durable than
the parts between them.
Beech is sometimes used by carriage-builders and by
wheelwrights, on account of its cheapness; but it is very liable to
warp and rot, and consequently unworthy of the attention of the
conscientious manufacturer.
Elm is largely used for planking where strength is required. The
grain is wavy, hard to work, brittle, and apt to split without care. It is
not a good surface to paint on, as the grain shows through several
coats of colour. It is also used for the naves or stocks of wheels.
Oak is used for the spokes of wheels. The best kinds are made
from the timbers of saplings, which are not sawn but cleft, in order
that the grain may be not cut across and render the spoke unfit to
resist the strains it will be subject to. Spokes are also made from the
limbs of large trees.
Mahogany is largely used for panels, as when painted it shows a
very even surface. There are two kinds, the “Spanish” and the
“Honduras.” The former is unfit for the purposes of the carriage-
builder. It is heavy and very difficult to work, requiring special tools
for this purpose, as the edges of ordinary tools are rapidly destroyed
by it. The Honduras is very much lighter and cheaper than Spanish,
and the grain and colour more even. It takes the sweeps and curves
required for body-work very easily. It can be procured up to 4 feet in
width, straight-grained, and free from knots and blemishes.
A coarse-grained species of cedar is brought from the same
district as Honduras mahogany, and is sometimes used for panels
which have to be covered with leather, &c. Its extreme porosity
renders it unfit for the application of paint.
Deal is largely used for the flooring of carriages, and for covered
panels, and for any rough work that is not exposed to great wear and
tear.
The wide American pine is chiefly used in very thin boards to form
the covered panels and roofing of carriages.
Lancewood is a straight-grained, elastic wood, but very brittle
when its limit of elasticity is reached. It comes from the West Indies
in taper poles about 20 feet long and 6 or 8 inches diameter at the
largest end. It was formerly much used for shafts, but since curved
forms have been fashionable it has fallen into disuse. It can be bent
by boiling, but is a very unsafe material to trust to such an important
office as the shafts.
American birch is a very valuable wood for flat boarding, as it can
be procured up to 3 feet in width. It is of a perfectly homogeneous
substance, free from rents, and with scarcely a perceptible pore. It
works easily with the plane and yields a very smooth surface, and
the grain does not show through the most delicate coat of paint. Its
chief disadvantage is its brittleness, which will not permit of its being
used for any but plane surfaces, and some care is required in nailing
and screwing it.
Hides are used chiefly for coverings, but also in some parts strips
are used for the purposes of suspension. The hides are those of
horses and neat cattle. For covering they are converted into leather
by the action of oak and other bark. They are afterwards smoothed
and levelled by the currier, and sometimes split into two equal
thicknesses by machinery. They are then rendered pliable by the
action of oil and tallow, and finished to a clear black or brown colour
as may be required. This is called dressed leather. For some
purposes the hides are merely levelled, put on wet to the object they
are intended to cover, and left to shrink and dry. Others are covered
with a coat of elastic japan, which gives them a highly glazed
surface, impermeable to water; in this state they are called patent
leather. In a more perfectly elastic mode of japanning, which will
permit folding without cracking the surface, they are called
enamelled leather. They are generally black, but any colour desired
may be given to them. All this japanned leather has the japan
annealed, somewhat in the same mode as glass. The hides are laid
between blankets, and are subjected to the heat of an oven raised to
the proper temperature during several hours.
The skins used are those of the sheep and goat. The former are
converted into leather by the action of oak bark. In one form of
dressing them they are known as basil leather, which is of a light
brown colour and very soft. Sometimes they are blacked, and
occasionally japanned like the hides. In all these forms sheep skins
are only used for inferior purposes, as mere coverings, where no
strength is required.
Goat skins are used in the preparation of the leather known as
“Spanish” and “Morocco.” They are not tanned in oak bark like other
leather, but very slightly in the bark of the sumach-tree. They pass
through many processes previous to that of dyeing, for which
purpose they are sewn up with the grain outwards and blown out like
a bladder. This is to prevent the dye from getting access to the flesh
side. This beautiful leather was originally manufactured by the
Moors, who afterwards introduced the process into Spain, by which
means it came to be known under two names. The English have
greatly improved on the manufacture, so much so that few others
can vie with it. These skins are used for the inside linings of
carriages.
Hair is used as an article of stuffing. To give it the peculiar curl
which renders it elastic, it is forcibly twisted up in small locks, and in
that state baked in an oven to fix it. Horse-hair is the best, being the
strongest and longest; but various other kinds are used. Sometimes
it is adulterated with fibres of whalebone. Doe-hair is also much used
as an article for stuffing, but as it is very short it cannot be curled,
and there is not much elasticity in it.
Wool in its natural state is not used for carriage purposes. In the
form of “flocks,” which are the short combings and fibres produced in
the process of manufacturing it, it is very largely used for stuffing. In
its manufactured state wool is used in great quantities, as cloth, lace,
fringe, carpeting, &c.
The iron used is that known as wrought iron. To judge of its quality
break a piece over the anvil; if it breaks off brittle it is of no use for
the purposes it is required for. If it is good wrought iron the fracture
will present a bluish, fibrous, silky texture, without any crystalline
portions. Inferior iron will either appear bright and glistening (when it
partakes of the properties of cast iron) or dull and greyish in tone at
the fracture.
It may also be tested by bringing it to a red heat and bending it,
when any flaws, &c., will at once become apparent.
Cast iron is also used in the shape of axle-boxes.
Great quantities of wrought iron are used in the construction of
modern carriages. One of the best qualities is that known as the
“King and Queen,” so called from its brand. This iron is
manufactured from pieces of old iron, called scrap iron, which are
placed in furnaces and welded under a heavy tilt-hammer, after
which it is passed between rollers and converted into bars.
Steel also enters largely into carriage construction in the shape of
springs, &c. Axles are made of Bessemer steel, and are found to
wear very well. Steel consists of iron in which is combined a large
proportion of carbon; the more carbon the higher the elasticity of the
steel. If steel is over-heated, it gives up a portion of its carbon and
approaches once again its original form of iron.
CHAPTER IV.
POINTS TO BE CONSIDERED BEFORE

COMMENCING THE CONSTRUCTION OF A
CARRIAGE.—COMPONENT PARTS OF THE
BODY.—SMITH’S WORK.—GLUE.
As previously remarked the vehicle is divided into two parts—the
carriage and the body. After the drawing or draught is carefully
worked out to full-size on the black-board in the shop, with all the
curves and sweeps developed, and shown in elevation and plan,
patterns or templates are made from the draught, and from these the
construction of the body proceeds.
In commencing the construction of a vehicle there are several
things to be borne in mind; such as the purpose to which the vehicle
is to be applied, the size of horses to draw it, and other
considerations arising from these two. It is popularly believed that
the shorter the carriage the lighter it will run; in ascending an incline
this may be true, but on ordinary level ground a long carriage and
short one must be alike in friction, provided the total amount of
weight and other circumstances be equally balanced.
Another consideration is the height of the wheels. On level ground,
draught is easiest when the centre of the wheel is a little lower than
the point of draught, viz. the point where the traces are affixed to the
collar; but this in practice would be found rather inconvenient, as
very high wheels would be required, and consequently the height of
the whole vehicle would have to be increased, causing great trouble
and annoyance in getting in and out of the vehicle, and the driver’s
seat would have to be raised to a corresponding height. Under equal
circumstances a high wheel is more efficient than a low one, and
requires less power to draw it; though it may be mentioned that a low
wheel on a good and level road will do its work far better than a very
much higher wheel on a rougher road. The sizes of the wheels of
two-wheeled vehicles vary from 3 feet to 4 feet 6 inches.
It would be a very good thing if four-wheeled vehicles were to have
the wheels of equal size, in order that the friction and power might be
equal. But with the present mode of construction this is an
impossibility, as we have only one mode of making the lock or turn.
Therefore the height of the fore wheels must be regulated by the
height at which the body hangs, so that the wheels may pass
beneath it without striking, when the springs play. In practice this
height varies from 2 feet to 3 feet 8 inches, according to the kind of
carriage the wheels are intended for. The hind wheels vary from 3
feet to 4 feet 8 inches.
The next point is the dishing of the wheel, which is necessary for
strength to take the strain off the nuts, to throw off the mud and
prevent it clogging either the wheel or the body, and to give greater
room for the body between the wheels without increasing the track
on the ground. Whatever be the amount of dishing or coning, which
varies from 1½ to 2½ inches, one rule should always be observed,
viz. so to form the wheel that when running the lower spokes should
maintain a true vertical position both in the fore and hind wheels.
This is mainly accomplished by the dip of the axle, but if the fore and
hind wheels have the same dish, they will take the same track along
the ground. The dish of a wheel will be understood by referring to
Fig. 10, in which it will be seen that the extremities of the spokes are
not in the same plane, thus forming a dish or hollow in the surface of
the wheel.
Some ingenious persons have deduced from the foregoing that a
wheel runs best on an axle having a conical arm (the arm is the
extremity of the axle which fits into an axle-box in the nave or stock
of the wheel), in which case the axle would not dip, but the wheel
would be put on to a perfectly horizontal axle. The motion of a wheel
thus placed would be anything but artistic, though there would not be
so much friction on an arm of this sort as on an arm of the dipped
axle. Dipping the axle is shown at Fig. 10. It merely consists in
bending it so far out of the horizontal as to give the lower spokes a
vertical position. But in practice this theory of the conical arm will not
answer, inasmuch as curving the arm will reduce the front bearing
surface so much that the oil would be squeezed out, and it would run
dry, and the total amount of friction would be greatly increased. Long
practice has shown that a cylindrical or slightly conical arm is the
best that can be used.
Fig. 10.
We have now to settle the form, combination, and proportion of the
springs. Springs which are laid on the axle at right angles have to
carry the whole of the weight of the carriage, save only the wheels
and axles. Where other springs are used in addition it is not
necessary that the axle-springs should have much play. It will be
sufficient to give them just so much play as will intercept the
concussion caused by moving over a road. The strength of the
springs must of course be adjusted to the weight they have to carry,
for it is evident that if they be made sufficiently elastic to carry the
weight of six persons, they will be found hard if only three enter the
carriage. This is a disadvantage all carriages must labour under, for
it is ridiculous to suppose that if a carriage is constructed to hold six
that number will always want to use it at the same time. There would
seem to be room for some improvement in the way of introducing
springs adjustable to any weight, though, to give spring-makers their
due, they do turn out really a first-class article in this respect; this is
more noticeable because it is so recent. Light carriages are never so
easy to ride as heavy ones, even when the springs are well adjusted,
because on meeting with an obstacle there is not a sufficient
resistance to the bound or jerk upwards of the spring, which makes
riding in a light carriage over a rough road rather unpleasant.
The position of the front wheels next demands attention. As these
have to turn under the body it requires some skill to fix them, and the
play of the springs, the height of the axletree, and the height of the
arch (the portion of the body under which they turn) have all to be
considered. This will be more particularly described when dealing
with wheel-plates.
The rule for the height of the splinter-bar, to which the traces or
shafts are fixed, is that it should fall on a line drawn from the horse’s
shoulder to the centre of the hind wheel. This, however, is not always
convenient in practice, as the fore wheels regulate the height of the
framing of the under carriage, to which the splinter-bar is fixed. The
distance of the splinter-bar from the central pin, on which the wheel-
plate and fore carriage turn, is regulated by the size of the wheels
and the projection of the driving seat footboard.
All the above particulars are considered when setting out the full-
sized draught, and all points capable of delineation are put on the
board in some convenient part. In Fig. 9 the outline is simply given,
as to show everything would only confuse the reader. Such other
details as are required are filled in after the draught has reached the
stage shown in the figure.
It is most necessary for the safe conduct of a coach and carriage
builder’s business that there should be a goodly stack of well-
seasoned timber of the various kinds required, otherwise great
trouble and vexation will arise in the course of business from a good
piece of timber being perhaps spoilt in working, and there not being
another piece in the factory to replace it.
Where there is sufficient accommodation it is usual for makers to
season their own timber in specially constructed sheds, which are
kept from bad weather, but at the same time thoroughly well
ventilated. In these the timber is stacked, with small fillets between
each plank or board, to insure a free current of air circulating all
round. One year should be allowed for seasoning for every inch of
thickness in the timber, and none should be used in which this rule
has not been observed.
Thin portions of timber, such as panel stuff and the like, should be
treated in the same way, and in addition the ends should be secured
to prevent splitting. The panel stuff undergoes another process of
seasoning after it is planed up; in fact, all the thin timber required for
roofs, sides, &c., does. And about the first thing done in commencing
to build a carriage is for the body-maker to get his thin stuff ready, as
far as planing it up goes, and then to put it aside in some moderately
dry place, with slips of wood between each board to allow a
circulation of air round them. The other stuff that is likely to be
required should also be selected and put aside. If all these things be
strictly attended to, there is not likely to be much trouble about bad
joints; and it will be to the employer’s interest to look after such
workmen who have not enough scientific knowledge to see the
reason of things themselves, and put them in the right direction. But
an intelligent workman will soon appreciate the advantage of getting
his stuff ready at the commencement, instead of waiting till he wants
to use it.
The parts composing the body may be thus enumerated:—
The frame or case.
The doors.
The glasses, which are fixed in thin frames of wainscot, covered
with cloth or velvet. It is a very good thing to have india-rubber for
these to fall on, and little india-rubber buffers would prevent them
from rattling.
The blinds, which are sometimes panel, but more generally
Venetian, so adjusted with springs that the bars may stand open at
any required angle.
The curtains, of silk, which slide up and down on spring rollers.
The lining and cushions, of cloth, silk, or morocco, as the case
may be, ornamented with lace, &c. The cushions are sometimes
made elastic with small spiral springs.
The steps, which are made to fold up and fit into recesses in the
doors, or in the bottom, when they are not in use.
The lamps, which are fixed to the fore part of the body by means
of iron stays.
The boot, on which is carried the coachman’s seat.
In carriages suspended from C springs we have in addition:—
The check-brace rings, to which are attached leather braces from
the spring heads, to prevent the body from swinging too much
backwards and forwards.
The collar-brace rings, to which are attached leather braces from
the perch, to prevent the body swinging too much upwards or
sideways.
The curve or rounding given to the side of the body from end to
end is called the side-cant, and the rounding from the top to the
bottom the turn-under. Some makers arrive at this curve by framing
the skeleton of the body together with square timber, and then round
these off to the required curve after they are put together. It must be
evident to any one that this proceeding will greatly strain the joints,
and under any circumstances will never give thorough satisfaction or
good results, and the waste of time and material must be very
considerable.
The proper way is to set the curve out beforehand on a board
called the “cant” board, and the method of doing this is as follows:—
Take a clean pine board, plane it up to a smooth surface. Shoot
one edge perfectly true with a trying-plane. This straight edge may
be taken to represent the side of the carriage if it were a straight line.
Apply this edge to the full-sized draught, and mark along it the
various parts of the body (see Fig. 8, in which the numbered points
are those required to form the side-cant). By means of these points
the required sweep can be set up or drawn, as shown by the dotted
line C in the figure. Now, if you choose, you can cut away the portion
between A and B, and a template will be formed to which the
constructional timbers can be cut; and it possesses the advantage of
being easily applied to the carriage as it proceeds, to see that the
curve is true and uniform. As this template forms the pattern to which
the timber, &c., is cut, great care is requisite in forming it, so that it
shall be perfectly true.
In order to get the turn-under, the same process is gone through
on another board. This gives what is called the “standing” pillar
pattern, the standing pillar being the upright timber to which the door
is hinged.
There is no rule in particular for determining the amount of side-
cant or turn-under to be given to a vehicle, 2½ or 3 inches on each
side making the outside width of the body; 5 or 6 inches less at the
bottom than at the elbow line is a usual allowance, but this is entirely
dependent on the will or taste of the workman.
The cant-board described above is one having a “concave”
surface; but it quite as often has a convex surface, and it is just as
well to have one of each, and use the convex for cutting the timbers
to, and the concave for trying them when in place, though, if this be
done, it is imperative that the curves on the two boards should be
one and the same. The same remarks apply to the standing pillar
pattern.
The body is a species of box, fitted with doors and windows, and
lined and wadded for the purpose of comfort. As the greatest amount
of strain is put upon the bottom part, and the forces acting on the
other parts are transmitted to the bottom, it is necessary that it
should be very strongly put together. The two side bottom timbers
are bonded, or tied together, by two cross timbers called bottom
bars, which are firmly framed into them. To give depth to the floor,
without destroying the symmetry of the side, deep pieces of elm
plank are fixed to the inside of the side bottom pieces, and to these
the flooring-boards are nailed, being additionally secured by iron
strap plates, nailed or screwed beneath them. In the central portion
of the bottom sides are framed the door-posts, called standing
pillars. At the angles of the bottom framework are scarfed the corner
pillars. The cross framing pieces, which connect the pillars, are
called rails. Two of these rails stretch across the body inside, on
which the seats are formed; these are called seat rails. The doors
are framed double, to contain a hollow space for the glasses and
blinds, and they are fastened by means of a wedge lock, forced into
a groove by a lever handle. There is a window in each door and one
in front of an ordinary carriage, say a brougham. The doors are
hinged with secret or flush hinges.
Before cutting the timber to the various sizes required, patterns or
templates of all the parts are made in thin wood from the full-sized
draught; also of the various curves likely to be given to the different
parts of the body.
Before a workman could be trusted with the making of a body, he
must of course have considerably advanced in the knowledge of his
craft beyond the mere use of his tools, because the success of a
carriage depends very largely upon the individual skill of the
workman, more so than perhaps in any other trade.
The stuff is marked out from the thin patterns before mentioned by
means of chalk, and in doing so care should be taken to lay the
patterns on the timber so that the grain may run as nearly as
possible in a line with it, and thus obtaining the greatest possible
strength in the wood, which lies in the direction of the grain. Thus if
the pattern be straight, lay it down on a piece of straight-grained
timber; if the pattern sweep round, then get a piece of timber the
grain of which will follow, or nearly follow, the line of pattern.
The strongest timber that can be obtained is necessary for the
construction of the hind and front bottom sides; for the weight is
directly transmitted to these, more particularly the hind bottom sides,
where the pump-handles are fixed.
The body-maker, having marked and cut out the various pieces of
timber he will require, planes a flat side to each of them, from which
all the other sides, whether plain or curved, are formed and finished.
They are then framed and scarfed together, after which the various
grooves are formed for the panels and rebates, for the floor-boards
to fit on to. Then, if there is to be any carved or beaded work, it is
performed by the carver. Previous to being fitted in, some of the
panels have strong canvas glued firmly on their backs, and when
fitted in blocks are glued round the internal angles to give greater
security to the joints, and to fix the panels firmly in their places.
Before the upper panels are put in, the roof is nailed on, and all the
joints stuck over with glued blocks inside. The upper panels are then
put on, united at the corners, and blocked inside.
If the foreman who superintends all this be a thoroughly skilful
artisan, and the men under him possess equal intelligence and skill,
the work might be distributed amongst almost as many men as there
are parts in the framework of the body. These parts will be worked
up, the mortises and tenons, the rabbets and tongues, being all cut
to specified gauges; and when they are all ready it will be found that
they go together like a Chinese puzzle.
The woodwork being completed, the currier now takes the body in
hand, and a hide of undressed leather, specially prepared for it, is
strained over the roof, the back, and the top quarters of the body
whilst in a soft pulpy state, and carefully sleeked or flattened down till
it is perfectly flat. This sleeking down is a rather tedious process, and
takes a long time and a great amount of care to bring it to a
successful issue; when it is flattened down satisfactorily, it is nailed
round the edges and left to dry, which will take several days.
Such panels as require bending may be brought to the required
sweep by wetting one side and subjecting the other to heat, as of a
small furnace.
The doors are now made and hinged, and the hollow spaces
intended to hold the glasses and blinds are covered in with thin
boards, to prevent any foreign matter from getting down into the
space, and being a source of trouble to dislodge.
In constructing the body the aid of the smith is called in. His
services are required to strengthen the parts subjected to great
strain, more particularly the timbers forming the construction of the
lower portion. All along each side of the body should be plated with
iron; this should be of the best brand and toughest quality. It is
several inches wide, and varies from ¼ to ¾ of an inch in thickness.
This is called the “edge plate,” and is really the backbone of the
body, for everything depends on its stability. It should run from one
extremity to the other, commencing at the hind bottom bar, on to
which it should be cranked, and ending at the front part of the front
boot, bottom side. This plate should take a perfectly flat bearing at
every point. Great care must be taken in fitting it, for although the
plate may be of the requisite strength the absence of this perfect
fitting will render it comparatively weak, the result of which will be
found, when the carriage is completed and mounted on the wheels,
by the springing of the sides, which will cause the pillars of the body
to press on the doors, and it will be a matter of great difficulty to
open them.
In the application of smith’s work to coach-building, it is often
necessary to fit the iron to intricate parts while it is red hot, and if due
precaution be not taken the wood becomes charred and useless,
and in cases where there are glued joints it may cause the loosening
or breaking of these joints and other material defects. It is an easy
matter to have the means at hand to get over the difficulty. All that is
necessary is to have handy some heat neutraliser. One of the
commonest things that can be used is chalk, and no smith’s shop
should ever be without it. If chalk is rubbed over the surface to which
the hot iron is to be applied it will not char or burn. Plaster of Paris is
a still more powerful heat neutraliser, and it is freer from grit. A small
quantity of the plaster mixed with water, and worked up to the proper
consistency, will be ready for use in about two hours. Many smiths
will say that they never have any accidents in applying heated iron,
but on inquiry the reason is apparent, for it will generally be found
that such men use chalk, in order to see that the iron plate takes its
proper bearings, thus inadvertently using a proper heat neutraliser. If
it were more generally known that the difficulty could be met by such
simple means, there would be less material spoilt in the smith’s
shop.
It has been very common of late years for body-makers to use
glue instead of screws and nails for panel work, &c.; but it requires a
great deal of experience for a man to use glue with successful
results. It is useless for the tyro to try it; he will only spoil the work.
So, unless the artisan be well experienced in the treatment and
application of glue, he had better leave it alone. To render the
operation successful two considerations must be taken into account.
First: To do good gluing requires that the timber should be well
seasoned and the work well fitted. Second: In preparing for gluing
use a scratch plane or rasp to form a rough surface of the pieces to
be joined together, for the same purpose that a plasterer scores over
his first coat of plaster-work, in order to give a key or hold. The shop
in which the gluing is done should be at a pretty good temperature,
and so should the material, so that the glue may flow freely. Having
the glue properly prepared, spread it upon the parts, so as to fill up
the pores and grain of the wood, and put the pieces together; then
keep the joints tight by means of iron cramps where it is possible,
and if this cannot be done the joints must be pushed tightly up, and
held till the glue is a little set and there is no fear of its giving way. All
superfluous glue will be forced out by this pressure and can be
cleaned off.
A great cause of bad gluing is using inferior glue and laying it on
too thick. Before using a new quality of glue, the body-maker should
always test it by taking, say a piece of poplar and a piece of ash, and
glue them together, and if when dry the joints give way under
leverage caused by the insertion of the chisel, the glue is not fit for
the purposes of carriage-building and should be rejected. With good
glue, like good cement, the material should rather give way than the
substance promoting adhesion. This is a very severe test, but in
putting it into practice you will be repaid by the stability of your work.
Waterproof Glue.
It is often found that joints glued together will allow water to

dissolve the glue, and thereby destroy its adhesive power. It may
have been well painted and every care taken to make it impervious
to water, but owing to its exposed position water has managed to get
in. Often where screws are put in the glue around them will be
dissolved, caused by the screws sweating; and it is very often found,
where the screws are inserted in a panel, that the glue loses its
strength and allows the joint to open, and there is little or no
appearance of glue on the wood, which shows that it has been
absorbed by the moisture.
To render ordinary glue insoluble, the water with which it is mixed
should have a little bichromate of potash dissolved in it. Chromic
acid has the property of rendering glue or gelatine insoluble. And, as
the operation of heating the glue pot is conducted in the light, no
special exposure of the pieces joined is necessary.
Glue prepared in this manner is preferable in gluing the panels on
bodies, which are liable to the action of water or damp. The strength
of the glue is not affected by the addition of the potash.
In plugging screw holes glue the edge of the plug; put no glue into
the hole. By this means the surplus glue is left on the surface, and if
the plug does not hit the screw it will seldom show.
Where brads are used the heads should be well set in; then pass
a sponge well saturated with hot water over them, filling the holes
with water. This brings the wood more to its natural position, and it
closes by degrees over the brad heads. The brad must have a
chance to expand, when exposed to the heat of the sun, without
hitting the putty stopping; if it does it will force the putty out so as to
show, by disturbing the surface, after the work is finished.
CHAPTER V.
PARTS COMPOSING THE UNDER-CARRIAGE.

—FRAMING THEM TOGETHER.—WROUGHT-
IRON PERCHES.—BRAKES.
We have now to consider the construction of the lower framework, or
carriage.
The following is a list of the chief parts of a coach, as generally
known:—
Wheels.
Axles.
Springs.
Beds, or cross framing timbers, which are technically termed the
fore axle bed, the hind axle bed, fore spring bed or transom,
hind spring bed, and horn bar.
Perch, or central longitudinal timber connecting the axletrees.
Wings, which are spreading sides, hooped to the perch and
framed to the hind beds.
Nunters, or small framing pieces, which help to bind the hind
beds together.
Hooping-piece. A piece of timber scarped and hooped to the
fore end of the perch to secure it to the
Wheel plate, which is the circular iron beneath which the fore
carriage turns.
The fore carriage consists of the fore axle beds, into which are
framed the
Futchells (French, fourchil, a fork), which are the longitudinal
timbers supporting the
Splinter-bar and the
Pole, to which the horses are attached.
The hinder ends of the futchells support the
Sway-bar—a circular piece of timber working beneath the
wheel-plate.
A circular piece of timber of smaller size, supported on the fore
part of the futchells for a similar purpose, is called the
Felloe-piece (often made of iron).
On the splinter-bar are fixed the
Roller bolts, for fastening the traces.
On the pole is fixed the
Pole hook, to secure the harness.
The perch and beds are strengthened with iron plates, where
necessary, and the other ironwork consists of
Splinter-bar stays, to resist the action of the draught. Formerly
these were affixed to the ends of the axles and called
“wheel-irons.”
Tread-steps, for the coachman to mount by.
Footman’s step.
Spring-stays.
On the beds are placed
Blocks, to support the
C springs; to which are attached

Jacks, or small windlasses, and
Leathern suspension braces.
These parts fitted together would form what is generally known as
a coach, or a vehicle, the body of which is large, and suspended by
leathern braces from the ends of C springs. They enter into the
formation of all vehicles more or less, but for the other kinds some
part or parts are omitted, as in a brougham hung on elliptic springs,
the C springs, perch, leather braces, &c., would be omitted, and, of
course, elliptic springs and a pump-handle would be added. All the
woodwork is lightened as much as possible by the introduction of
beading, carving, chamfering, &c.
In starting the carriage part the workman first takes the perch and
planes a flat side to it, and then works it taper from front to back. The
top and bottom curves are then worked up, or at least some portion
of them, and then the front and hind spring beds are framed on. A
pair of spreading wings are then fitted to the sides of the perch;
these are simply circular iron stays, swelled and moulded to take off
their plainness. A pair is fitted at each end of the perch. The hind
axletree bed is then scarfed upon the top of the perch and wings,
and is connected with the hind spring bed by two small framing
pieces called nunters. At the front end of the perch a cross bed
called a horn-bar is scarfed on the perch, at the same distance from
the fore spring bed as the hind axle bed is from the hind spring bed,
viz. the length of the bearing of the spring, or about 15 inches. The
horn-bar is connected with the fore spring bed by the two spring
blocks, which are either framed into them or scarfed down on them,
and also by the hooping-piece, which is scarfed on the top of the
perch. The perch is then planed up to the curve it is to have when
finished, and it is then taken to the smith, who fits and rivets on the
side plates, which have ears at the ends for the purpose of bolting
them to the beds. The carver then does his work by beading the
perch and beds, having due regard to the finish of the parts, rounds
and curves all the ends. On the under side of the perch is riveted an
iron plate, and on this plate is an iron hook for hanging the drag shoe
and chain (if such be used). The hind framing is now put together, all
connections being by means of mortises and tenons secured by

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Synthesis and Generation of Evidence

Understanding Nursing Research Building an Evidence

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Understanding Nursing Research Building an Evidence

Foundations of Nursing Research 7th Edition Nieswiadomy

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DIF: Cognitive Level: Application REF: Page 208

2. What is the principal disadvantage of triangulated research?

DIF: Cognitive Level: Synthesis REF: Page 208

DIF: Cognitive Level: Comprehension REF: Page 195

4. Why is selection of an appropriate design for a research study important?

DIF: Cognitive Level: Analysis REF: Page 195

DIF: Cognitive Level: Application REF: Page 195

DIF: Cognitive Level: Synthesis REF: Page 202

DIF: Cognitive Level: Analysis REF: Page 195

DIF: Cognitive Level: Application REF: Page 197

DIF: Cognitive Level: Application REF: Page 197

DIF: Cognitive Level: Analysis REF: Page 198

DIF: Cognitive Level: Analysis REF: Page 198

DIF: Cognitive Level: Analysis REF: Page 200

DIF: Cognitive Level: Analysis REF: Page 200

DIF: Cognitive Level: Analysis REF: Page 200

DIF: Cognitive Level: Analysis REF: Page 202

DIF: Cognitive Level: Application REF: Page 203

DIF: Cognitive Level: Application REF: Page 206

DIF: Cognitive Level: Synthesis REF: Page 207

DIF: Cognitive Level: Application REF: Page 199

DIF: Cognitive Level: Application REF: Page 199

DIF: Cognitive Level: Application REF: Page 199

22. What is the antidote to the carryover effect?

DIF: Cognitive Level: Comprehension REF: Page 204

DIF: Cognitive Level: Application REF: Page 208

24. As Denzin claimed, there is an advantage to performing mixed methods or triangulated

DIF: Cognitive Level: Application REF: Page 208

DIF: Cognitive Level: Analysis REF: Page 198

DIF: Cognitive Level: Comprehension REF: Page 198

DIF: Cognitive Level: Comprehension|Cognitive Level: Application

DIF: Cognitive Level: Comprehension|Cognitive Level: Application

DIF: Cognitive Level: Analysis REF: Page 201

DIF: Cognitive Level: Synthesis REF: Page 203

DIF: Cognitive Level: Analysis REF: Page 202

8. Why does subject attrition affect internal validity?

DIF: Cognitive Level: Synthesis REF: Page 200

DIF: Cognitive Level: Analysis REF: Page 206

DIF: Cognitive Level: Application REF: Page 204

VARIOUS MATERIALS USED IN COACH-

POINTS TO BE CONSIDERED BEFORE

It is often found that joints glued together will allow water to

PARTS COMPOSING THE UNDER-CARRIAGE.

C springs; to which are attached

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