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Chapter 7
Urbanization and Rural-Urban Migration:
Theory and Policy

◼ Key Concepts
The chapter discusses the related problems of urbanization and migration. Key topics include:

• Urbanization trends and living conditions.

• The role of cities.
The Urban Giantism Problem.
• The role of the informal sector of the economy.
• The Todaro migration model.
• Policy options for limiting rural-urban migration.

In section 7.1, Urbanization is described using data on urban population growth over the past 50 years.
Urban population growth is generally far more rapid than aggregate population growth, with about half
the urban growth accounted by migrants from the rural areas.

Section 7.2 focuses on the role of cities. Developing-country cities are growing far more rapidly than those
in the developed countries. Shantytowns and similar makeshift settlements represent over one-third of
developing country urban residents. Box 7.1 (found in this section) provides a case study on industrial
clusters in China.

Section 7.3 explains the problems this growth causes. Section 7.4 focuses on the urban informal sector.
Many developing-country urban areas have experienced dualistic development where a modern formal
sector exists alongside a large urban informal sector. Between 30% and 70% of the urban labor force works
in the informal sector. Characteristics of urban informal sector jobs include:

• low skill
• low productivity
• self-employment
• lack of complementary inputs
• jobs in petty sales and services
• recent migrants.

©2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

52 Todaro/Smith • Economic Development, Twelfth Edition

Given constraints on modern sector growth, the text argues that the informal sector should be promoted as
a major source of employment and income for the urban labor force. This sector already generates up to a
third of urban income and demand for unskilled labor, and adopts appropriate technology. An improvement
in infrastructure and credit available to this sector could generate large benefits in terms of increases in
income and jobs for the poor. But promoting this sector runs the risk of encouraging more migration,
unless more resources are devoted to the rural sector at the same time.

In section 7.5, the pros and cons of rural-urban migration are reviewed. Migration is viewed as both a symptom
and contributor to underdevelopment, much as population growth is. The Todaro migration model helps
explain why it is rational for people to continue to move to crowded cities where unemployment is high and
rising in section 7.6. The model is based on differences in expected income between the urban and rural
sector. High urban unemployment is inevitable given the large expected income differentials between the
rural and urban sectors that exist in many developing countries. Both a verbal and a diagrammatic presentation
of the model are included.

Important conclusions from the Todaro model include:

• The need to reduce the urban bias of development strategies and encourage integrated rural
development. This will reduce the wage differential between the urban and rural area.
• Creating urban jobs is an insufficient solution to the urban unemployment problem because more
migration is induced.
• Expanding education opportunities often results in more migration.
• Urban wage subsidies are counterproductive as they encourage more migration by increasing the
probability of finding a job.

Section 7.7 describes policy options for reducing migration and increasing employment that follow from
the Todaro model and include creating an appropriate rural-urban economic balance, expanding small
scale labor intensive industries, eliminating factor price distortions, choosing appropriate labor-intensive
technologies, modifying the link between education and employment, reducing population growth, and
decentralizing authority.

A mathematical formulation of the Todaro migration model is included in an appendix to the chapter.

The chapter ends with a description of migration and urbanization in India and Botswana, with most
emphasis placed on the former.

◼ Lecture Suggestions
Students find the statistics on urbanization and the growth of the informal sector interesting. A debate on
the pros and cons of promoting the informal sector is more interesting if it comes after the discussion of
the price incentive model in Appendix 5.1 and the Todaro migration model. Some students think of urban
areas in New York or other fast-world cities (rather than a makeshift shantytown) when the term “slum” is
used. A vivid description of a shantytown will maintain student interest and make sure they understand the
very different condition of living in one of the urban areas in, say, Latin America (Rio or Sao Paulo) and
North America (New York or Washington DC). Here especially your personal experiences (along with
perhaps a PowerPoint of pictures you have taken) as well as videos of roadside stalls and other examples
of informal sector activities can make the idea of the informal sector that much more easily understood.

©2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Chapter 7 Urbanization and Rural-Urban Migration: Theory and Policy 53

It would be a very good idea to begin the discussion of the Todaro Model by reviewing the Lewis model
(as is done in the text) to make clear that the assumption that all labor that transfers from agriculture is
absorbed into the formal sector is far from the case in developing countries. Simple numerical examples
can help illustrate why it is rational to migrate given high rates of urban unemployment. The Todaro
model looks at the difference between the expected urban wage, (the urban wage times the probability of
finding a job) and the rural wage. Suppose the rural wage is 30 and the urban wage is 70. If unemployment
is 50% then it is still rational for some people to migrate, depending on their level of risk aversion and
other opportunities. A main point to stress is that migration will be influenced by any policy that directly
or indirectly affects rural and/or urban absolute incomes. This is important because migration, in turn, will
affect every aspect of development. It is worth stressing that migration may reinforce urban bias.

A point worth mentioning in class, and one which relates to chapter 9, is that excessive migration imposes
external costs on the rural areas emptied of better-educated, more venturesome young people, as well as on
urban infrastructure and lost output. On average migrants seem to have slightly better prospects in the urban
areas than those who do not migrate.

A discussion of the role of remittances can be of interest to the students, particularly in relation to Mexico,
California, and Texas. Migration possibilities have a positive impact on Mexico in terms of relieving pressure
to create jobs. Migration also relieves population pressure and economic stress within Mexico. At the same
time, surveys suggest Mexicans would prefer to stay in Mexico if they could find a job. Surveys also suggest
that the most educated people migrate internally rather than internationally. The significance of
remittances for many developing economies can be illustrated by consulting the following:
http://economia.unipv.it/docs/dipeco/quad/ps/DEM/DEMWP0062.pdf. The numbers presented for gross
national disposable income are for 2011. The authors of this paper (Carla Capelli and Gianni Vaggi) are
currently working on more current data and will present their results in June of 2015.

◼ Discussion Topics
• Debate the pros and cons of promoting the informal sector. Introduce the basic facts of the informal
sector and see what ideas the students come up with for the pros and cons. You can lead them with
questions about how to improve productivity and what is the most appropriate technology.
• Given the joint nature of poverty, population growth, and lack of employment faced by many developing
countries, see what kinds of solutions students can come up with to address simultaneously all three
problems. Possibilities include wage subsidies, investment credits, public works projects, credit for small
scale producers, and expanding or reforming the education system. Ask them to propose a policy and
discuss how it affects each of the 3 problems. If you are going to cover chapter 8 on education you may
wish to defer this discussion. You may also defer this discussion until after the discussion of agriculture
and the rural sector in chapter 9.
• Debate the pros and cons of multinational corporation hiring practices, in relation to urban bias. In other
words should MNCs pay higher than equilibrium wages? This discussion draws on labor demand and
supply analysis as well as the price incentive model. The discussion also draws on the media attention
given to such hiring practices within the developed countries, in terms of fairness and equity. This
question can be postponed until chapter 15 when MNCs are discussed in greater detail.

©2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

54 Todaro/Smith • Economic Development, Twelfth Edition

◼ Sample Questions
Short Answer
1. Suppose the rural wage is $1 per day. Urban modern sector employment can be obtained with
5 probability and pays $2 per day. Will there be any rural-urban migration? Explain your
reasoning, stating explicitly any simplifying assumptions, and show all work.
Answer: In this case the expected urban wage is equal to the rural wage. Only an individual who is
risk loving will migrate.
2. How could the removal of labor market distortions increase employment even if the elasticity of
factor substitution is very low?
Answer: Reduce speculative rural-urban migration based on expected wages as in the Todaro model.

3. What are the characteristics of those who migrate to urban areas? What positive and negative effects
does their leaving have on those who remain?
Answer: Younger, better educated, and probably less risk averse, given their willingness to migrate.
These factors suggest they could be more entrepreneurial than average had they not migrated,
which would benefit the rural area and help alleviate the urbanization problem.

4. Explain why policies designed to reduce urban unemployment may not greatly reduce poverty in
developing countries.
Answer: They may lead to more migration, and may draw capital away from labor intensive rural
development projects benefiting the rural poor.

5. Suppose that, for example in India, a minimum wage is instituted in the modern sector above the
market clearing wage, while the rural traditional wage is market determined at a lower level than in
the modern sector.
(a) Describe the impact of this policy on the rural labor force, urban unemployment, and the rural
wage.
(b) Will the modern sector wage be equal to the traditional sector wage after markets equilibrate
through migration? Explain.
(c) What effect might moving costs have on the equilibrium you described in part (b)?
(d) What effect might the introduction of factories to rural areas have no the equilibrium you
described in part (b)?
Answer: (a) Use of the Todaro model is called for here. The rural wage will not necessarily change
despite a reduction in the rural labor force as a result of migration. The minimum wage in
the urban sector will encourage migration until the expected urban wage is equal to the
rural wage. Urban unemployment will rise, both from migration and the minimum wage.
(b) Expected, not actual, urban wages will equal rural wages after equilibration.
(c) With moving costs, there would be less migration.
(d) With rural development, there would be less migration if this increased the rural wage.

6. Discuss the importance of rural-urban migration as a source of urban population growth in various
parts of the developing world, being as specific as you can.
Answer: Discussed in the chapter.

©2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Chapter 7 Urbanization and Rural-Urban Migration: Theory and Policy 55

7. Point out the main differences in job conditions and worker characteristics between the urban formal
and informal sectors.
Answer: Discussed in the chapter.

8. Explain some important policy measures that you would expect to reduce excessive rural-urban
migration. Explain.
Answer: Students may mention various types of traditional sector enrichment strategies.
9. Are developing country cities too large, too small, or about right in size? Justify your answer with
evidence from developing economies.
Answer: Too large. Cities are capital intensive, the largest cities are increasingly found in the
developing countries, and there are many urban biases causing the distortion.

10. Explain what is meant by urban bias. What are the major effects of urban bias?
Answer: Developing country policies that favor the urban sector with a disproportionate share of
investments in infrastructure, factories, buildings, and education. This creates a widening
gap in incomes and amenities between urban and rural economies and induces rural-urban
migration.

11. Describe some of the benefits and costs associated with the emergence of large cities in developing
countries.
Answer: Benefits include the ability to learn from others that are located in close proximity, a
reduction in transportation costs, and a large availability of skilled labor. Costs include
congestion and pollution.

12. Describe some of the causes of urban giantism in developing countries.

Answer: The hub and spoke transportation system, avoiding transportation costs, location of industry
in the political center, and the import substitution strategy that led firms to want to locate
close to the local market.

13. What are the main features of the Harris-Todaro model of rural-urban migration?
Answer: Rational economic decision based on costs/benefits. The reward to migration is expected
rather than actual urban income. The probability of obtaining an urban job depends on
urban employment rates. High rates of urban unemployment are inevitable.

14. Why is urban giantism less prevalent in mature democracies?

Answer: The student is asked to draw on the political economy explanation whereby autocratic
regimes must satisfy the demands of the urban masses to avoid political unrest (the Ades
and Glaeser argument).

15. Even though women may often constitute the majority of the rural-urban migrants in a country, they
usually still remain employed in the informal sector. Why? What are the consequences of this?
Answer: Men tend to dominate the formal sector therefore limiting employment opportunities
for women. This leaves women with employment in the informal sector which is usually
comprised of low wage and unstable employment with little or no employee or social
security benefits.

◼ Multiple Choice

©2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

56 Todaro/Smith • Economic Development, Twelfth Edition

1. An argument supporting promotion of the urban informal sector is

(a) the formal sector is incapable of providing enough employment.
(b) informal sector workers are poorly educated.
(c) it uses a relatively high capital intensity.
(d) it would reduce urban bias.
Answer: A
2. Rural-urban migrants differ from the rest of the rural population in that they are more likely to be
(a) well educated
(b) poor
(c) female
(d) all of the above
Answer: A

3. Other things constant, the elimination of factor price distortions in developing countries would
most likely
(a) decrease rural-urban migration.
(b) have little effect on rural-urban migration.
(c) increase rural-urban migration.
(d) increase urbanization.
Answer: A

4. The informal sector exhibits

(a) free entry
(b) labor intensive methods
(c) small, competitive firms
(d) all of the above
Answer: D

5. If the rural wage is 4 and the formal urban wage rate is 10, there will be rural to urban migration if
the formal urban unemployment rate is
(a) 50%
(b) 60%
(c) 70%
(d) all of the above
Answer: A

6. According to the United Nations, Millennium Development Goals Report, the annual growth in % of
slum population from 1990-2001 has been the largest in:
(a) Latin America and the Caribbean
(b) South-East Asia
(c) Sub-Saharan Africa
(d) Southern Asia
Answer: C

©2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Chapter 7 Urbanization and Rural-Urban Migration: Theory and Policy 57

7. For what percentage of urban population growth is rural-urban migration responsible?

(a) between 35% and 60%.
(b) between 40% and 80%.
(c) between 50% and 70%
(d) between 50% and 90%.
Answer: A

8. According to UN projections, what proportion of the world’s urban population will reside in the
urban areas of developing countries by 2025?
(a) two fifths.
(b) one half.
(c) two thirds.
(d) four fifths.
Answer: D

©2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Another random document with
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HELREITH BRYNHILDAR
 Brynhild’s Hell-Ride
[Contents]

Introductory Note
The little Helreith Brynhildar immediately follows the “short” Sigurth
lay in the Codex Regius, being linked to it by the brief prose note; the
heading, “Brynhild’s Ride on Hel-Way,” stands just before the first
stanza. The entire poem, with the exception of stanza 6, is likewise
quoted in the Nornageststhattr. Outside of one stanza (No. 11),
which is a fairly obvious interpolation, the poem possesses an
extraordinary degree of dramatic unity, and, certain pedantic
commentators notwithstanding, it is one of the most vivid and
powerful in the whole collection. None the less, it has been
extensively argued that parts of it belonged originally to the so-called
Sigrdrifumol. That it stands in close relation to this poem is evident
enough, but it is difficult to believe that such a masterpiece of
dramatic poetry was ever the result of mere compilation. It seems
more reasonable to regard the Helreith, with the exception of stanza
11 and allowing for the loss of two lines from stanza 6, as a complete
and carefully constructed unit, based undoubtedly on older poems,
but none the less an artistic creation in itself.

The poem is generally dated as late as the eleventh century, and the
concluding stanza betrays Christian influence almost unmistakably. It
shows the confusion of traditions manifest in all the later poems; for
example, Brynhild is here not only a Valkyrie but also a swan-
maiden. Only three stanzas have any reference to the Guthrun-
Gunnar part of the story; otherwise the poem is concerned solely
with the episode of Sigurth’s finding the sleeping Valkyrie. Late as it
is, therefore, it is essentially a Norse creation, involving very few of
the details of the German cycle (cf. introductory note to Gripisspo).

[Contents]

After the death of Brynhild there were made two

bale-fires, the one for Sigurth, and that burned first,
and on the other was Brynhild burned, and she was
on a [443]wagon which was covered with a rich cloth.
Thus it is told, that Brynhild went in the wagon on
Hel-way, and passed by a house where dwelt a
certain giantess. The giantess spake:

1. “Thou shalt not further | forward fare,

My dwelling ribbed | with rocks across;
More seemly it were | at thy weaving to stay,
Than another’s husband | here to follow.

2. “What wouldst thou have | from Valland here,

Fickle of heart, | in this my house?
Gold-goddess, now, | if thou wouldst know,
Heroes’ blood | from thy hands hast washed.”

Brynhild spake:

3. “Chide me not, woman | from rocky walls,

Though to battle once | I was wont to go;
Better than thou | I shall seem to be,
When men us two | shall truly know.”

The giantess spake:

4. “Thou wast, Brynhild, | Buthli’s daughter, [444]

For the worst of evils | born in the world;
To death thou hast given | Gjuki’s children,
And laid their lofty | house full low.”

Brynhild spake:

5. “Truth from the wagon | here I tell thee,

Witless one, | if know thou wilt
How the heirs of Gjuki | gave me to be
Joyless ever, | a breaker of oaths.

6. “Hild the helmed | in Hlymdalir

They named me of old, | all they who knew me.
. . . . . . . . | . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . | . . . . . . . .

7. “The monarch bold | the swan-robes bore

Of the sisters eight | beneath an oak; [445]
Twelve winters I was, | if know thou wilt,
When oaths I yielded | the king so young.

8. “Next I let | the leader of Goths,

Hjalmgunnar the old, | go down to hell,
And victory brought | to Autha’s brother;
For this was Othin’s | anger mighty.

9. “He beset me with shields | in Skatalund,

Red and white, | their rims o’erlapped;
He bade that my sleep | should broken be
By him who fear | had nowhere found.

10. “He let round my hall, | that southward looked,

The branches’ foe | high-leaping burn;
Across it he bade | the hero come
Who brought me the gold | that Fafnir guarded.

11. “On Grani rode | the giver of gold, [446]

Where my foster-father | ruled his folk;
Best of all | he seemed to be,
The prince of the Danes, | when the people met.

12. “Happy we slept, | one bed we had,

As he my brother | born had been;
Eight were the nights | when neither there
Loving hand | on the other laid.

13. “Yet Guthrun reproached me, | Gjuki’s

daughter,
That I in Sigurth’s | arms had slept;
Then did I hear | what I would were hid,
That they had betrayed me | in taking a mate.

14. “Ever with grief | and all too long

Are men and women | born in the world;
But yet we shall live | our lives together,
Sigurth and I. | Sink down, Giantess!”

[442]

[Contents]

NOTES
[443]

Prose. The prose follows the last stanza of Sigurtharkvitha en

skamma without break. Two bale-fires: this contradicts the statement
made in the concluding stanzas of Sigurtharkvitha en skamma, that
Sigurth and Brynhild were burned on the same pyre; there is no
evidence that the annotator here had anything but his own mistaken
imagination to go on.

2. Valland: this name (“Land of Slaughter”) is used elsewhere of

mythical places; cf. Harbarthsljoth, 24, and prose introduction to
Völundarkvitha; it may here not be a proper name at all. Gold-
goddess: poetic circumlocution for “woman.” [444]

6. In Regius these two lines stand after stanza 7, but most editions
place them as here. They are not quoted in the Nornageststhattr.
Presumably two lines, and perhaps more, have been lost. It has
frequently been argued that all or part of the passage from stanza 6
through stanza 10 (6–10, 7–10 or 8–10) comes originally from the
so-called Sigrdrifumol, where it would undoubtedly fit exceedingly
well. Hild: a Valkyrie name meaning “Fighter” (cf. Voluspo, 31). In
such compound names as Brynhild (“Fighter in Armor”) the first
element was occasionally omitted. Hlymdalir (“Tumult-Dale”): a
mythical name, merely signifying the place of battle as the home of
Valkyries.

7. Regarding the identification of swan-maidens with Valkyries, and

the manner in which men could get them in their power by stealing
their swan-garments, cf. Völundarkvitha, introductory prose and
note, where the same thing happens. The monarch: perhaps Agnar,
brother of Autha, mentioned in Sigrdrifumol (prose and quoted verse
following stanza 4) as the warrior for [445]whose sake Brynhild defied
Othin in slaying Hjalmgunnar. Eight: the Nornageststhattr
manuscripts have “sisters of Atli” instead of “sisters eight.”

8. Hjalmgunnar: regarding this king of the Goths (the phrase means

little) and his battle with Agnar, brother of Autha, cf. Sigrdrifumol,
prose after stanza 4. One Nornageststhattr manuscript has “brother
of the giantess” in place of “leader of Goths.”

9. Cf. Sigrdrifumol, prose introduction. Skatalund (“Warriors’ Grove”):

a mythical name; elsewhere the place where Brynhild lay is called
Hindarfjoll.

10. Branches’ foe: fire. Regarding the treasure cf. Fafnismol.

11. This stanza is presumably an interpolation, reflecting a different

version of the story, wherein Sigurth meets Brynhild at the home of
her brother-in-law and foster-father, Heimir (cf. [446]Gripisspo, 19 and
27). Grani: Sigurth’s horse. Danes: nowhere else does Sigurth
appear in this capacity. Perhaps this is a curious relic of the Helgi
tradition.
12. Eight nights: elsewhere (cf. Gripisspo, 42) the time is stated as
three nights, not eight. There is a confusion of traditions here, as in
Gripisspo. In the version of the story wherein Sigurth met Brynhild
before he encountered the Gjukungs, Sigurth was bound by no
oaths, and the union was completed; it is only in the alternative
version that the episode of the sword laid between the two occurs.

14. The idea apparently conveyed in the concluding lines, that

Sigurth and Brynhild will be together in some future life, is utterly out
of keeping with the Norse pagan traditions, and the whole stanza
indicates the influence of Christianity. [447]

[Contents]
DRAP NIFLUNGA
 The Slaying of The Niflungs
[Contents]

Introductory Note
It has been already pointed out (introductory note to Reginsmol) that
the compiler of the Eddic collection had clearly undertaken to
formulate a coherent narrative of the entire Sigurth cycle, piecing
together the various poems by means of prose narrative links. To
some extent these links were based on traditions existing outside of
the lays themselves, but in the main the material was gathered from
the contents of the poems. The short prose passage entitled Drap
Niflunga, which in the Codex Regius immediately follows the Helreith
Brynhildar, is just such a narrative link, and scarcely deserves a
special heading, but as nearly all editions separate it from the
preceding and following poems, I have followed their example.

With Sigurth and Brynhild both dead, the story turns to the slaying of
the sons of Gjuki by Atli, Guthrun’s second husband, and to a few
subsequent incidents, mostly late incorporations from other narrative
cycles, including the tragic death of Svanhild, daughter of Sigurth
and Guthrun and wife of Jormunrek (Ermanarich), and the exploits of
Hamther, son of Guthrun and her third husband, Jonak. These
stories are told, or outlined, in the two Atli lays, the second and third
Guthrun lays, the Oddrunargratr, the Guthrunarhvot, and the
Hamthesmol. Had the compiler seen fit to put the Atli lays
immediately after the Helreith Brynhildar, he would have needed only
a very brief transitional note to make the course of the story clear,
but as the second Guthrun lay, the next poem in the collection, is a
lament following the death of Guthrun’s brothers, some sort of a
narrative bridge was manifestly needed.

Drap Niflunga is based entirely on the poems which follow it in the

collection, with no use of extraneous material. The part of the story
which it summarizes belongs to the semi-historical Burgundian
tradition (cf. introductory note to Gripisspo), in many respects parallel
to the familiar narrative of the Nibelungenlied, and, except in minor
details, showing few essentially Northern additions. Sigurth is
scarcely mentioned, and the outstanding episode is the slaying of
Gunnar and Hogni, following their journey to Atli’s home.

[Contents]

[448]

Gunnar and Hogni then took all the gold that Fafnir
had had. There was strife between the Gjukungs and
Atli, for he held the Gjukungs guilty of Brynhild’s
death. It was agreed that they should give him
Guthrun as wife, and they gave her a draught of
forgetfulness to drink before she would consent to be
wedded to Atli. The sons of Atli were Erp and Eitil,
and Svanhild was the daughter of Sigurth and
Guthrun. King Atli invited Gunnar and Hogni to come
to him, and sent as messenger Vingi or Knefröth.
Guthrun was aware of treachery, and sent with him a
message in runes that they should not come, and as
a token she sent to Hogni the ring Andvaranaut and
tied a wolf’s hair in it. Gunnar had sought Oddrun,
Atli’s sister, for his wife, but had her not; then he
married Glaumvor, and Hogni’s wife was
[449]Kostbera; their sons were Solar and Snævar and
Gjuki. And when the Gjukungs came to Atli, then
Guthrun besought her sons to plead for the lives of
both the Gjukungs, but they would not do it. Hogni’s
heart was cut out, and Gunnar was cast into the
serpent’s den. He smote on the harp and put the
serpents to sleep, but an adder stung him in the liver.
[447]

[Contents]

NOTE
[448]

Prose. Niflungs: regarding the mistaken application of this name to

the sons of Gjuki, who were Burgundians, cf. Brot, 17 and note.
Draught of forgetfulness: according to the Volsungasaga Grimhild,
Guthrun’s mother, administered this, just as she did the similar
draught which made Sigurth forget Brynhild. Erp and Eitil: Guthrun
kills her two sons by Atli as part of her revenge; the annotator here
explains her act further by saying that Guthrun asked her sons to
intercede with their father in favor of Guthrun’s brothers, but that they
refused, a detail which he appears to have invented, as it is found
nowhere else. Svanhild: cf. Sigurtharkvitha en skamma, 54 and note.
Vingi or Knefröth: Atlakvitha (stanza 1) calls the messenger
Knefröth; Atlamol (stanza 4) speaks of two messengers, but names
only one of them, Vingi. The annotator has here tried,
unsuccessfully, to combine the two accounts. Andvaranaut:
regarding the origin of Andvari’s ring cf. Reginsmol, prose after
stanzas 4 and 5 and notes; Sigurth gave the ring to Guthrun. Here
again the annotator is combining two stories; in Atlakvitha (stanza 8)
Guthrun sends a ring (not Andvaranaut) with a wolf’s hair; in Atlamol
(stanza 4) she sends a message written [449]in runes. The
messenger obscures these runes, and Kostbera, Hogni’s wife, who
attempts to decipher them, is not clear as to their meaning, though
she suspects danger. Oddrun: cf. Sigurtharkvitha en skamma, 57
and note. Glaumvor: almost nothing is told of Gunnar’s second wife,
though she appears frequently in the Atlamol. Kostbera (or Bera),
Hogni’s wife, is known only as skilled in runes. Her brother was
Orkning. The sons of Hogni and Kostbera, according to the Atlamol
(stanza 28), were Solar and Snævar; the third son, Gjuki, named
after his grandfather, seems to be an invention of the annotator’s.
Adder: according to Oddrunargratr (stanza 30) Atli’s mother
assumed this form in order to complete her son’s vengeance. [450]

[Contents]
GUTHRUNARKVITHA II, EN FORNA
The Second, or Old, Lay of Guthrun
[Contents]

Introductory Note
It has already been pointed out (introductory note to Guthrunarkvitha
I) that the tradition of Guthrun’s lament was known wherever the
Sigurth story existed, and that this lament was probably one of the
earliest parts of the legend to assume verse form. Whether it
reached the North as verse cannot, of course, be determined, but it
is at least possible that this was the case, and in any event it is clear
that by the tenth and eleventh centuries there were a number of
Norse poems with Guthrun’s lament as the central theme. Two of
these are included in the Eddic collection, the second one being
unquestionably much the older. It is evidently the poem referred to
by the annotator in the prose note following the Brot as “the old
Guthrun lay,” and its character and state of preservation have
combined to lead most commentators to date it as early as the first
half of the tenth century, whereas Guthrunarkvitha I belongs a
hundred years later.

The poem has evidently been preserved in rather bad shape, with a
number of serious omissions and some interpolations, but in just this
form it lay before the compilers of the Volsungasaga, who
paraphrased it faithfully, and quoted five of its stanzas. The
interpolations are on the whole unimportant; the omissions, while
they obscure the sense of certain passages, do not destroy the
essential continuity of the poem, in which Guthrun reviews her
sorrows from the death of Sigurth through the slaying of her brothers
to Atli’s dreams foretelling the death of their sons. It is, indeed, the
only Norse poem of the Sigurth cycle antedating the year 1000 which
has come down to us in anything approaching complete form; the
Reginsmol, Fafnismol, and Sigrdrifumol are all collections of
fragments, only a short bit of the “long” Sigurth lay remains, and the
others—Gripisspo, Guthrunarkvitha I and III, Sigurtharkvitha en
skamma, Helreith Brynhildar, Oddrunargratr, Guthrunarhvot,
Hamthesmol, and the two Atli lays—are all generally dated from the
eleventh and even the twelfth centuries.

An added reason for believing that Guthrunarkvitha II traces its origin

back to a lament which reached the North [451]from Germany in
verse form is the absence of most of the characteristic Norse
additions to the narrative, except in minor details. Sigurth is slain in
the forest, as “German men say” (cf. Brot, concluding prose); the
urging of Guthrun by her mother and brothers to become Atli’s wife,
the slaying of the Gjukungs (here only intimated, for at that point
something seems to have been lost), and Guthrun’s prospective
revenge on Atli, all belong directly to the German tradition (cf.
introductory note to Gripisspo).

In the Codex Regius the poem is entitled simply Guthrunarkvitha; the

numeral has been added in nearly all editions to distinguish this
poem from the other two Guthrun lays, and the phrase “the old” is
borrowed from the annotator’s comment in the prose note at the end
of the Brot.

[Contents]

King Thjothrek was with Atli, and had lost most of his
men. Thjothrek and Guthrun lamented their griefs
together. She spoke to him, saying:

1. A maid of maids | my mother bore me,

Bright in my bower, | my brothers I loved,
Till Gjuki dowered | me with gold,
Dowered with gold, | and to Sigurth gave me.

[452]

2. So Sigurth rose | o’er Gjuki’s sons

As the leek grows green | above the grass,
Or the stag o’er all | the beasts doth stand,
Or as glow-red gold | above silver gray.

3. Till my brothers let me | no longer have

The best of heroes | my husband to be;
Sleep they could not, | or quarrels settle,
Till Sigurth they | at last had slain.

4. From the Thing ran Grani | with thundering feet,

But thence did Sigurth | himself come never;
Covered with sweat | was the saddle-bearer,
Wont the warrior’s | weight to bear.

5. Weeping I sought | with Grani to speak,

With tear-wet cheeks | for the tale I asked;
The head of Grani | was bowed to the grass,
The steed knew well | his master was slain.
6. Long I waited | and pondered well
Ere ever the king | for tidings I asked.
. . . . . . . . | . . . . . . . .

[453]

7. His head bowed Gunnar, | but Hogni told

The news full sore | of Sigurth slain:
“Hewed to death | at our hands he lies,
Gotthorm’s slayer, | given to wolves.

8. “On the southern road | thou shalt Sigurth see,

Where hear thou canst | the ravens cry;
The eagles cry | as food they crave,
And about thy husband | wolves are howling.”

9. “Why dost thou, Hogni, | such a horror

Let me hear, | all joyless left?
Ravens yet | thy heart shall rend
In a land that never | thou hast known.”

10. Few the words | of Hogni were,

Bitter his heart | from heavy sorrow:
“Greater, Guthrun, | thy grief shall be
If the ravens so | my heart shall rend.”

11. From him who spake | I turned me soon,

In the woods to find | what the wolves had left;
Tears I had not, | nor wrung my hands, [454]
Nor wailing went, | as other women,
(When by Sigurth | slain I sat).

12. Never so black | had seemed the night

As when in sorrow | by Sigurth I sat;
The wolves . . . . | . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . | . . . . . . . .

13. . . . . . . . . | . . . . . . . .
Best of all | methought ’twould be
If I my life | could only lose,
Or like to birch-wood | burned might be.

14. From the mountain forth | five days I fared,

Till Hoalf’s hall | so high I saw; [455]
Seven half-years | with Thora I stayed,
Hokon’s daughter, | in Denmark then.

15. With gold she broidered, | to bring me joy,

Southern halls | and Danish swans;
On the tapestry wove we | warrior’s deeds,
And the hero’s thanes | on our handiwork;
(Flashing shields | and fighters armed,
Sword-throng, helm-throng, | the host of the king).

16. Sigmund’s ship | by the land was sailing,

Golden the figure-head, | gay the beaks;
On board we wove | the warriors faring,
Sigar and Siggeir, | south to Fjon.

17. Then Grimhild asked, | the Gothic queen,

Whether willingly | would I . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . | . . . . . . . .

[456]

18. Her needlework cast she | aside, and called

Her sons to ask, | with stern resolve,
Who amends to their sister | would make for her
son,
Or the wife requite | for her husband killed.

19. Ready was Gunnar | gold to give,

Amends for my hurt, | and Hogni too;
Then would she know | who now would go,
The horse to saddle, | the wagon to harness,
(The horse to ride, | the hawk to fly,
And shafts from bows | of yew to shoot).

20. (Valdar, king | of the Danes, was come,

With Jarizleif, Eymoth, | and Jarizskar). [457]
In like princes | came they all,
The long-beard men, | with mantles red,
Short their mail-coats, | mighty their helms,
Swords at their belts, | and brown their hair.