"

Cri
ti
calt
hinki
ngi sadesir
etoseek,pat
iencet
odoubt,
fondnesstomedi
tat
e,slownesstoasser
t,
r
eadi
nesstoconsi der
,car
eful
nesstodi
sposeandseti
norder;andhat
redforever
ykindof
i
mpostur
e".-
FrancisBacon(1605)

"
Logi
cist
heanat
omyoft
hought
".
-JohnLocke

ASTUDYGUI
DEONLOGI
CANDCLEARTHOUGHTPREPAREDBY

USULORCHUKWUEBUKAPRI
NCE

CAVEAT

Thisi
sjustastudygui
de.I
tisnotmeantt
osubst
it
utetherecommendedtextandlect
ures.You
arewelladvi
sedtogett
hetext
bookandanyot
hermateri
alrequi
redf
oryoursuccessi
nt he
examinati
on.

Asyoupreparefortheexam,devel
opandnurt
ureaposi
ti
vemi
ndsetandat
ti
tude,
knowi
ngf
ull
y
wel
lthatexcel
lenceiswit
hinr
each.Goodl
uck!
.

THENOTI
ONOFLOGI
C

Logi
cmaybedef
inedast
hatbr
anchofphi
l
osophywhi
chr
efl
ect
supon

t
henat
ureoft
hinki
ngi
tsel
f.I
tat
tempt
stoanswersuchquest
ionsas

:
Whati
scor
rectr
easoni
ng?Whatdi
sti
ngui
shesagoodar
gumentf
rom a

badone?Ar
ether
eanymet
hodt
odet
ectf
all
aci
esi
nreasoni
ngandi
f

so,
whatar
ethey
?.I
tcanbeseenf
rom t
hef
oregoi
ngt
hatl
ogi
cis

per
hapst
hemostf
undament
aldi
vi
sionofphi
l
osophy
.

Thoughl
ogi
cdeal
swi
tht
henat
ureoft
hinki
ng,
thi
sdoesnoti
mpl
y

t
hatl
ogi
cisabr
anchofpsy
chol
ogy
.Whi
l
ethepsy
chol
ogi
sti
s

concer
nedwi
tht
hement
alpr
ocessesoft
het
hinkeranddeal
swi
thal
l

t
ypesoft
hinki
ngsuchasl
ear
ning,
remember
ing,
day
-dr
eami
ng,

supposi
ng,
etc,
thel
ogi
cian'
sint
eresti
sint
her
easoni
ngi
tsel
f.

Thechar
act
eri
sti
csofr
easoni
ngar
ethatwepr
oducer
easonas

ev
idencef
orcer
tai
nconcl
usi
onswewi
sht
oest
abl
i
sh.Reasoni
ngi
s

cl
osel
yconnect
edwi
thi
nfer
ri
ng.Thei
nfer
encecoul
dbeei
ther

deduct
ionori
nduct
ion.
Modernl ogictracesitsor i
ginmainlytoAnci
entGreektr
adi
tion.BothPl
atoandAristot
le
conceivedlogicast hest udyofargumentsandf r
om aconcernwithcor
rect
nessof
argument at
ion.Aristotl
epr oducedsixworksonlogi
cknowncol l
ecti
vel
yast he"
ORGANON" ,the
fi
rstofthese,the" Pri
orAnal yt
ics"
,beingt
hefir
stexpl
ici
tworkinformall
ogic.Healsoespoused
twoprincipl
esinl ogic,theLAW OFEXCLUDEDMI DDLEandt heLAW OFNON- CONTRADI CTI
ON
andintroducedsy ll
ogism.

DEFI
NITI
ONOFLOGI
C

Logi
chasbeendef
inedi
nsev
eral
way
sbydi
ff
erentt
hinker
sandwr
it
ers.

Accor
dingt
oA.
G.ABel
l
o,l
ogi
cist
hest
udyoft
hepr
inci
plesand

t
echni
quesofdi
sti
ngui
shi
nggoodar
gument
sfr
om badar
gument
s.

St
ephenLay
manseesl
ogi
cast
hest
udyofmet
hodsf
orev
aluat
ing

whet
hert
hepr
emi
sesofanar
gumentadequat
elysuppor
t(orpr
ovi
de

goodev
idencef
or)i
tsconcl
usi
on.

Ari
stot
ledef
inedl
ogicas"newandnecessaryreasoning"
,'
new'becauseitonel
ear
nwhats/
he
doesnotknowand'necessar
y'becausei
tsconclusi
onsareinescapabl
e.

Fol
l
owi
ngf
rom t
heabov
e,Copi
'
svi
ewt
hat"
all
reasoni
ngi
sthi
nki
ng

butnotal
lthi
nki
ngi
sreasoni
ng"i
ssuppor
ted.Thus,
onemay"
thi
nk"

ofanumber
,houseort
reewi
thoutdoi
ngany"
reasoni
ng"abouti
t.The

l
ogi
ci
ani
sonl
yint
erest
edwi
tht
hecompl
etedpr
ocessandnott
he

dar
kway
sbywhi
cht
hemi
ndar
ri
vesati
tsconcl
usi
onsdur
ingt
he

pr
ocessofr
easoni
ng.

I
MPORTANCEOFLOGI
C

1.Logi
caidsi
ntheacqui
sit
ionoft
hemeansandt
ool
sneededf
orcr
it
ical
thi
nki
ngand
eval
uat
ion.

2.Logi
cbui
l
dsuppr
obl
em-
sol
vi
ngski
l
lsi
nus.

3.Logi
ciscent
ral
tot
heoper
ati
onsoft
hemi
nd,
maki
ngcl
ari
tyoft
houghtpossi
ble.

4.Itpr
ovi
desway
sofl
ear
ningnewexper
iencest
hrought
hepr
ocessofcont
inual
sel
f-
assessment
.

5.Logicprovi
desbasi
sforarat
ionalandr
easonabl
eemot
ional
li
febydev
elopi
ngand
enhancingourabi
li
tyt
othinkcr
it
ical
l
y .
6.I
tenabl
esusi
dent
if
y,av
oidorcount
erf
all
aci
esi
nar
gument
s.

7.Logicencour
ageslear
nerst
ot hi
nkf ort
hemsel
ves,dev
elophy
pot
heses,
dev
elopal
ter
nat
ive
hypothesesandtot
estthosehypothesesagai
nstknownfact
s.

8.Logi
cempower
sonewi
tht
heabi
l
ityt
odef
endhi
sorbel
i
efs.

SENTENCE

Mostof
tent
hannot
,ourr
easoni
ngsar
eexpr
essedi
nsent
ences.

Asent
encei
sawor
dorgr
oupofwor
dst
hatcont
ainsav
erbandmakes

sense,
expr
essedi
nthef
orm ofast
atement
,quest
ion,
command,
etc.

Howev
er,
iti
sper
ti
nentt
opoi
ntoutt
hatl
ogi
c,asasci
enceofgood

r
easoni
ng,
doesnotdeal
wit
hal
lki
ndsofsent
ences.

KI
NDSOFSENTENCES

i
.ANI
NTERROGATI
VESENTENCE:
Thi
sisal
socal
l
edaquest
ion.I
tisa

ki
ndofsent
encet
hatasksaquest
ion.Becauset
heyar
enotf
act
sthat

ar
etr
ueorf
alse,
logi
cdoesnotconcer
nit
sel
fwi
thquest
ionst
hat

appeari
ndi
scussi
ons.

i
i
.ANI
MPERATI
VESENTENCE:
Thi
sisaki
ndofsent
encet
hat

expr
essesorgi
vesacommand,
requestoranadv
ice.I
tisal
sosi
mpl
y

cal
l
edacommand.Logi
cisnotconcer
nedwi
thsent
encest
hatgi
vecommands.

EXAMPLE

GOt
oschooli
nti
me.

i
i
i.ANEXCLAMATI ONSENTENCE: Thi
sist
hesentencethatexpr
essessomestrongorsudden
f
eeli
ng.Iti
ssimplycal
l
edanexclamati
onandendswi t
hexclamati
onmark(!
).Logici
snot
i
nter
estedinexcl
amatorysent
ence.

EXAMPLE

Whatabr
ightday
!

i
v.ANOPTATI VESENTENCE:Thisisasentencet
hatexpr
essesawi
sh,
desi
reorpr
ayer
.Logi
c
i
snotconcer
nedwithopt
ati
vesentences.

EXAMPLE
Iwi
shy
ousuccessi
nyourexams

v
.ANASSERTI
VEORDECLARATI
VESENTENCE

Thisisasent
encethatstat
esafact
.Iti
salsocalledastatementorapr oposi
ti
on.InLogi
c,a
stat
ementorproposit
ionisaki
ndofsentencethatisei
thertr
ueorfalse.Proposi
ti
onsareused
toform ar
gument
s,wheretheymakeupthepr emisesandtheconclusions.

Thi
sist
het
ypeofsent
encet
hatl
ogi
cdeal
swi
th.

EXAMPLE

Al
lgoat
sar
emammal
s

TYPESOFPROPOSI
TIONS

Gener
all
y,t
her
ear
evar
iouski
ndsofpr
oposi
ti
onandt
heyar
e:

1.Si
mpl
ePr
oposi
ti
ons

2.Compl
exPr
oposi
ti
ons

3.CompoundPr
oposi
ti
ons

4.Mul
ti
plePr
oposi
ti
ons

5.Rel
ati
onal
Proposi
ti
ons

6.Negat
ivePr
oposi
ti
ons

7.Condi
ti
onal
orHy
pot
het
ical
Proposi
ti
ons

8.Cat
egor
ical
Proposi
ti
ons

9.Di
sjunct
ivePr
oposi
ti
ons

10.Conj
unct
ivePr
oposi
ti
ons

I
nthi
scase,wear
egoi
ngt
orest
ri
ctour
sel
vest
othel
astf
ive.

CATEGORI
CALPROPOSI
TIONS

Categor
icalproposit
ionsareuniquety
peofproposi
tioninlogi
c.Acategor
ical
pr oposi
ti
onisa
stat
ementt hatassertsarel
ati
onshipbet
weentwoset s,categor
ies,t
ermsorclasses,whi
ch
rel
ati
onshipcouldbet hatofi
nclusi
onorexcl
usion.

FORMSOFCATEGORI
CALPROPOSI
TIONS

Ther
ear
efourst
andar
dfor
msofcat
egor
ical
proposi
ti
onsandt
heyar
e
4.PARTI
CULARNEGATI
VEPROPOSI
TIONS

Thesepr
oposi
ti
onsasser
tthatatl
eastonememberofacl
assi
s

excl
udedf
rom anot
hercl
ass.

EXAMPLE

Somemenar
enotmor
tal
s

Thest
andar
dfor
m oft
hispr
oposi
ti
oni
s:

SomeSar
eP

B.HYPOTHETI
CALORCONDI
TIONALPROPOSI
TIONS

Thesear
econdi
ti
onal
stat
ement
sandhav
e"i
f-
the-
"st
ruct
ure

EXAMPLE

I
fther
eisr
aint
hent
hegr
oundwi
l
lbewet

C.DI
SJUNCTI
VEPROPOSI
TIONS

Thesear
est
atement
sthatcont
ain"
eit
her
..
.or
"st
ruct
ure

EXAMPLE

Ei
theri
tisni
ghtori
tisday
.

I
nlogi
c,adi
sjunct
ivepr
oposi
ti
oni
sfal
sei
fbot
hit
sdi
sjunct
s

ar
efal
se;
other
wisei
tist
rue.

D.CONJUNCTI
VEPROPOSI
TIONS

Thesear
est
atement
sthathav
etwoconj
unct
s,whi
chexpr
esst
woi
deas.

EXAMPLE

Dr
.Azi
ki
weandChi
efOkpar
awer
ebor
nin1904.

Not
ethataconj
unct
ioni
str
uei
nlogi
cifbot
hit
sconj
unct
sar
e

t
rue;
other
wise,
iti
sfal
se.

E.NEGATI
VEPROPOSI
TIONS

St
atement
sorpr
oposi
ti
onscanbenegat
ive.

EXAMPLE
I
tist
ruet
hatChi
efShonekanwasaf
ormerHeadofSt
ateofNi
ger
ia.

Thent
henegat
ion:
"Chi
efShonekanwasnotaf
ormerHeadofSt
ateof

Ni
ger
ia"i
sfal
se.

Anegat
ioni
stheopposi
teoft
hest
atementnegat
ed.

ARGUMENT

Anar
gumenti
sasetofst
atement
s,oneofwhi
ch,
cal
l
edt
he

concl
usi
on,
isaf
fi
rmedont
hebasi
soft
heot
her
s,whi
char
ecal
l
ed

t
hepr
emi
ses.

Ar
gument
sar
eusedi
nver
bal
orwr
it
tendi
scour
set
odi
scov
ert
rut
h

andper
suadeot
her
stobel
i
evet
heconcl
usi
on.Anar
gumentcanbe

soundorunsound,
val
i
dori
nval
i
d.I
tissoundi
fitpr
ovi
desgood

r
easonsf
orbel
i
evi
ngt
hatt
heconcl
usi
oni
str
ue,
whi
l
eunsound

ar
gument
sfai
ltosuppor
ttheconcl
usi
onadequat
ely
.

TYPESOFARGUMENT

Ther
ear
etwot
ypesofar
gumenti
nLogi
c:Deduct
ionandI
nduct
ion.

Al
thoughev
eryar
gumenti
nvol
vest
hecl
aimt
hati
tspr
emi
sespr
ovi
de

somegr
oundsf
ort
het
rut
hofi
tsconcl
usi
ons,
onl
yadeduct
ive

ar
gumenti
nvol
vest
hecl
aimt
hati
tspr
emi
sespr
ovi
deconcl
usi
ve

gr
ounds.Deduct
ivear
gument
smov
efr
om gener
alst
atement
sto

par
ti
cul
arconcl
usi
on.Concl
usi
oni
sdr
awnf
rom oneormor
epr
emi
ses.

I
ndeduct
ivear
gument
s,t
het
echni
cal
ter
ms"
val
i
d"and"
inv
ali
d"ar
e

usedi
npl
aceof"
cor
rect
"and"
incor
rect
".I
tisi
mpossi
blef
ort
he

concl
usi
onofav
ali
dar
gumentt
obef
alsewhi
l
eit
spr
emi
sesar
e

t
rue.Ont
heot
herhand,
ani
nval
i
dar
gumenti
sonesucht
hati
tis

possi
blef
ori
tsconcl
usi
ont
obef
alsewhi
l
eit
spr
emi
sesar
etr
ue.

Deduct
ivear
gument
sar
eval
i
dundert
hef
oll
owi
ngf
orms:
i
.Iti
spossi
blet
ohav
eav
ali
ddeduct
ivear
gument
s,al
lofwhose

pr
emi
sesandconcl
usi
onar
einf
actt
rue.

i
i
.Av
ali
dar
gumentcanal
sohav
efal
sepr
emi
sesandat
rueconcl
usi
on.

i
i
i.I
tisal
sopossi
blet
ohav
eav
ali
dar
gumentwi
thf
alsepr
emi
ses

andaf
alseconcl
usi
on.

*I
tisi
mpossi
blet
ohav
eav
ali
dar
gumentwi
tht
ruepr
emi
sesanda

f
alseconcl
usi
on.

Deduct
ivear
gument
sar
einv
ali
dundert
hef
oll
owi
ngf
orms:

i
.Iti
spossi
blet
ohav
eani
nval
i
dar
gumentwi
tht
ruepr
emi
sesanda

t
rueconcl
usi
on.

i
i
.Iti
spossi
blet
ohav
eani
nval
i
dar
gumentwi
thatl
eastonef
alse

pr
emi
seandaf
alseconcl
usi
on.

i
i
i.I
tispossi
blet
ohav
eani
nval
i
dar
gumentwi
tht
ruepr
emi
sesand

af
alseconcl
usi
on.

*
Iti
sthef
ormt
hatdet
ermi
nest
hev
ali
dit
yofanar
gument
.Ifan

ar
gumenthast
hef
orm ofanar
gumentt
hati
scer
ti
fi
edv
ali
d,t
heni
t

i
sval
i
d.Buti
fithast
hesamef
orm wi
thanot
herar
gumentwhi
chi
s

cer
ti
fi
edi
nval
i
d,t
heni
tisi
nval
i
d.

DEDUCTI
VELYSOUNDANDUNSOUNDARGUMENT

ForLay
man,
val
i
dit
ymat
ter
sbecauset
ruepr
emi
sesbyt
hemsel
vesdo

notmakegoodar
gument
s.Adeduct
ivel
ysoundar
gumenthast
wo

essent
ial
feat
ures:
iti
sval
i
d,andal
li
tspr
emi
sesar
etr
ue.A

deduct
ivel
ysoundar
gumentcannothav
eaf
alseconcl
usi
on.Becausea

soundar
gumenti
sval
i
dandhasonl
ytr
uepr
emi
ses,
itmusthav
ea

t
rueconcl
usi
on.EXAMPLE

I
fUdi
isi
nEnugut
henUdi
isi
nNi
ger
ia
Udi
isi
nEnugu,
soUdi
isi
nNi
ger
ia.

Adeduct
ivel
yunsoundar
gumentf
all
sinoneoft
hef
oll
owi
ngt
hreecat
egor
ies:

i
.Iti
sval
i
dbuthasatl
eastonef
alsepr
emi
se

i
i
.Iti
sinv
ali
dbutal
lpr
emi
sesar
etr
ue

I
II
.Iti
sinv
ali
dandhasatl
eastonef
alsepr
emi
se

EXAMPLE

i
.Al
lrept
il
esar
eani
mal
s

Somesmal
lel
ephant
sar
enotani
mal
s

So,
somesmal
lel
ephant
sar
enotr
ept
il
es

I
NDUCTI
VEARGUMENT

Thi st ypeofargumentmov esfr

om par t
icularst
atementtogeneralconcl
usions,andpr oceeds
from t heknownt ot heunknown.Ani nductiveargumentinvol
vestheclai
m, notthatit
spr emises
giveconcl usi
vegroundsforthetruthofitsconclusion,
butonlythatt
heyprov i
desomegr ounds
forit .Inducti
veargumentsconcer ntest
sf orstr
engthandweakness, andassuchmaybe
ev aluat edasstr
ongorweakaccor di
ngt othedegr eeofli
keli
hoodorprobabil
it
ywhi chtheir
premi sesconferupontheirconclusi
on.

Theessenti
alf
eatureofstr
onginductiv
eargumentisthati
tisunl
ikely(
thoughpossi
ble)thatit
s
concl
usionisf
alsewhil
eitspremisesaretr
ue.Ontheotherhand,foraweakargument,itisnot
l
ikel
ythatit
spremisesaretr
uearet r
uethanit
sconclusi
onisfal
se.

Fact
orst
hatmakei
nduct
ivear
gument
sst
rongar
e:

1.Appeal
toAut
hor
it
y

2.Appeal
toAnal
ogy

3.Appeal
toEnumer
ati
on

I
NDUCTI
VELYSOUNDANDUNSOUNDARGUMENTS

aninducti
vel
ysoundar
gumenti
sonet
hati
sst
rong(
thati
s,mostl
i
kel
yorpr
obabl
e)andal
li
ts
pr
emi sesaretr
ue.

Aninducti
vel
yunsoundar
gumenti
sonet
hati
sei
therweakorst
rongwi
thatl
eastonef
alse
pr
emi se.

ARGUMENTFORMS

ar
gument
shav
efor
msandi
tist
hef
orms,
nott
hecont
ent
,thatdet
ermi
nest
hev
ali
dit
yofan
argument.Thefor
msarepat
ternsofr
easoni
nginanar
gument
.Whatmakesanar
gumenti
s
'
formal
'isthatt
heyhav
ecert
ainspeci
fi
abl
eforms.

EXAMPLES

I
.Al
lAar
eB

Al
lBar
eC

Ther
efor
e,Al
lAar
eC

i
i
.Al
lAar
eB

SomeCar
eB

Ther
efor
e,SomeCar
enotA

i
i
i.Al
lAar
eB

Al
lCar
eB

Ther
efor
e,al
lAar
eC

i
v.Al
lAar
eB

SomeBar
enotC

Ther
efor
e,someCar
enotA

v.NoAar
eB

Al
lBar
eC

Ther
efor
e,noAar
eC

EXERCI
SE

SUBSTI
TUTETHEABOVELETTERS(
A,B,
C)WI
THSUITABLETERMS(
NAMESOFPEOPLE,
THINGSORPLACES)
.USETHI
STESTMEASUREYOURPROGRESS

SYLLOGI
SM

Syll
ogi
sm comesf rom t
heGr eekword"syl
logi
smos"meani
ng"t
oreasontoget
her
",ortoput
stat
ementstogetherwit
hapat t
ernofr
easoning.Sy
ll
ogi
sm i
saki
ndofargumentthatappli
es
deducti
vereasoni
ngtoar r
iveataconclusi
onbasedontwoormoreproposi
ti
onst
hatar e
assert
edorassumedt obet rue.Aa

Wherev
erthereareproposi
tionsinwhicht
hefi
rstandthesecondpr
oposi
ti
onsandther
eason
f
orthethi
rdproposit
ionwhichistheconcl
usi
onistakenfr
om orfol
l
owsfrom t
het
wopremises,
wesaythattheargumentissy l
l
ogist
ic.
EXAMPLE

Al
lthosewhost
udi
edi
nUNNar
eint
ell
i
gent

Benst
udi
edi
nUNN

So,
Beni
sint
ell
i
gent

FORMSOFSYLLOGI
SM

Thef
oll
owi
ngar
efor
msofsy
ll
ogi
sm :

1.CATEGORI
CALSYLLOGI
SM

Thisi
st heform ofargumentthathasthr
eepr oposi
ti
ons,
twoofwhicharepr
emi
seswhilethe
thi
rdproposit
ionistheconclusi
on.Theinfer
enceinacategor
ical
syl
logi
sm i
smedi
ate,
inthe
sensethatthere'
sonlyonepr emiseandtheconclusi
on.

2.HYPOTHETI
CALSYLLOGI
SM

Thi
sisanar
gumentt
hati
nvol
vesonl
yhy
pot
het
ical
orcondi
ti
onal
stat
ement
s.

3.DI
SJUNCTI
VESYLLOGI
SM

Thi
sisanar
gumentt
hatcont
ains"
eit
her
..
.or
"st
atement
s.

Underthedi
sjunct
ivesyl
l
ogism,wehavet heincl
usi
vesenseinwhi
ch"
eit
her
..
.or
"means"
bot
h"
andtheexcl
usivesenseinwhich"
eit
her
..
.or"means"notbot
h".

WHETHERLOGI
CISSCI
ENCEORART

Questi
onshav ebeenaskedconcerni
ngthe'group'
whichLogi cbelongst o.Ononeside,some
arguethatLogi
cbelongstothereal
m ofSci
encewhi l
eother sdisagreewi t
hthi
sv i
ew,hol
ding
thecontrar
yopini
onthatLogici
snotaSciencebutanAr t.Toappr eci
atethereasonbehi
ndthe
contr
oversy,wemustfir
stunderst
andwhatt hekeywords'science'and'art
'mean.

Thewor d'science'comesf rom t

heGr eekwor ds' scientia'whichmeans' knowl edge'from the
verb'sci r
e' whichmeans' t
oknow' .Sciencemeansknowl edgeoff actsortr
utht ogetherwith
thei
rexpl anation,j
ust i
ficati
ons,t
heircausesandef fects, etcetera.Scienceasat heorythat
explainsphenomenoni sacoherent ,
consi stentandsy stemat icknowledgeofabei ngorsubj ect
mat t
er .Logi casasci enceseekst odiscov err ulesthatdi sti
nguishgoodr easoningf rom bad
reasoni ng.Theser ul essuchasr ulesf orvalidityandr ulesofi nfer
encear esimpl i
fi
edand
systemat ised.Thosewhoar eoftheopi niont hatlogici sasci encer ef
ertoitast hescienceof
reasoni ng.Logi cconsi stsofabodyofpr inciplesand, andcoher entandconsi stentconclusions.
Iti
sont heabov est atedgr oundthatlogici sregardedassci ence.

Ontheotherhand,Arti
sanintel
lectual
activi
tythatprepar
est hemindforthedi
recti
onof
const
ruct
iveacti
vi
ty.Arti
sacreativ
eapplicati
onoft hepri
nciplesofnatur
efortheproduct
ionof
worksofbeauty,
skil
landpracti
calusage.Logicisanacquiredskill
ortechni
que.Logicasanart
appli
est
hepr
inci
plesofcor
rectr
easoningt
ocr
eat
e,anal
yseandsy
stemat
isear
gument
s,
proof
sandot
herchainsofr
easoning.

Howev er ,
itisi
mportanttopoi
ntoutthatl
ogi
cisarti
ntheliber
alorsecondar
ysensebecause
i
tsoper ationsarepurel
ymentalandnotconcr
eteandpercepti
bleasotherar
tsl
ikepai
nti
ngand
scul
ptur e.

Theacceptabl
eandpr acti
cableposi
ti
onont hecontrov
ersyist
he'middle'
or'syntheti
c'posit
ion.
Logi
cisbothasci enceandart.J.SMill
whoshar esthi
sv i
ewholdsthateveryartisby
i
mplicat
ionaScience.Forhim, l
ogi
cisboththe"sci
enceandaswel ltheartofreasoning".Logic
asasciencediscoverst
her ul
esofreasoni
ngwhi l
elogicasanartappli
esthoser ul
est orat
ional
di
scourse.

ORDERORLEVELSOFRATI
ONALORMENTALOPERATI
ON

Logi
cdealswithunderst
andingoftheoperati
onsoft hemind.Reasoni
nghasapr
ocedur
efori
ts
oper
ati
on.Iti
simportanttoknowt hesenecessarystagesofr
easoningsi
ncet
hemindworksi
n
asyst
ematicwaytoachi evethepurposeofreasoning.

Ther
ear
ethr
eest
agesofr
ati
onal
orment
aloper
ati
on.Theyar
e:

SI
MPLEAPPREHENSI
ON

Apprehensioni st
hement aloperati
onbywhi chanideaisformedinthemi nd.Itisthear
tby
whichnotionsorsimpleobj ect
sar emanifest
edandgr asped.Att
hislevel
,themi ndmerely
graspsanobj ectofsensati
onwi thoutacti
ngfur
theronit.Themindsimplyr espondstoa
sti
muluscal l
i
ngf ori
tsattenti
on.There'snoeval
uati
onorj udgementsincenot hi
ngisaff
ir
medor
deniedaboutt heobj
ect.

Knowledgebegi
nswit
happrehensi
on.Fori
nstance,aprett
yladyappear
sonthesceneandy
ou
not
iceher.Youhav
erespondedtosti
mulusandthisissimpleappr
ehensi
on.

JUDGEMENT

Judgementisthementaloperat
ionbywhichwepredi
catesomethi
ngofasubject
.Atthisstage,
themindaffi
rmsordeniessomet hi
ngofthesubj
ect
.Thethingwhi
chisdeni
edoraffi
rmed
aboutthesubj
ectist
heattri
butewhilet
hethi
ngwhichemitstheat
tri
but
eisthesubj
ect.Iti
s
ri
ghttosaythatj
udgementistheactofthemindwherebyi
taffi
rmsordeni
estheatt
ri
but eofa
subj
ect.

Logicbeginsatt
hisst
age.Forexampl
e,i
fyounowaf
fi
rmt
hatt
hel
adyi
spr
ett
y,y
ouhav
e
passedjudgementonher.

Thereareargumentst
ot heeff
ectthatsi
mpleappr ehensi
onandjudgementhappenatthesame
ti
me.Thisisbecausetheyhappeninstri
ctcloseness.Howev
er,t
het rueposi
ti
oni
sthatthough
theseactscomecloseinti
me, t
heyaredisti
nctlevel
sofmentaloperati
on.

REASONI
NGORI
NFERENCE
I
nfer
enceorreasoni
ngisthet
hirdactoft
hemind.I
tist
heactbywhi
chf
rom t
wo
j
udgements,
themindpassesajudgementdi
sti
nctf
rom t
hetwobuti
mpl
i
cit
lycont
ainedi
nthem.

Forexample,i
fit
'spopular
lybeli
evedthatal
lmonksarepoorandweseeamonkcall
edPius,
thenwewoul di
nferthatPi
usispoor .Thi
sjudgementcomesfr
om t
hetwopr
emises(si
mple
apprehensi
onandjudgement )
.

CONCEPTS

TheideaofConceptiscent
raltoLogic.Anyt
hingthatexi
stsorcanbeconceivedint
hemindisa
concept.I
tisi
mportanttoensurethatwrongconceptsarenotusedinarguments.Mor
eover
,
ther
emustbeconsistencyinthemeani ngat
tachedtoaconceptinarguments.

TYPESOFCONCEPTS

AccordingtoOkaf
or,
ev erystatementorproposi
tionofnecessi
tycont
ainstwoconcepts.The
fi
rstcouldbeseenasintell
ectual i
deaandthesecondanearment alpi
ctur
ewhichcoul dal
so
becalledphant
asm.Whi l
eintellectual
ormentali
deaisuniver
sal,
phantasm i
spart
icul
ar.

Intel
l
ect
ualideashavetheattr
ibut
eofuni v
ersal
it
y,posingasrepr
esent
ati
veofall
obj
ectsoft
he
samecharacter
.Thehumanmi ndisabl
et oform aconceptofmanofuniver
sal
natur
eby
abstr
act
ingindi
vidual
quali
ti
esofapar t
icul
armant orepresental
lot
hermanintheworl
d.

Ontheotherhand,phantasm i
sasit
uat
ionwherethemindisf
ixedonapar
ti
cul
art
hing.
Exampl
e:Wher eonethinksofJohni
nparti
cul
arandnotall
men.

Thepowerofsif
ti
ngacci
dent
aldi
ff
erencesbet
weenoneconceptandanot
heri
scal
l
edt
he
powerofabst
ract
ion.

TYPESOFCONCEPTS

Ther
ear
efourki
ndsofconcept
s:

1.RepugnantConcept
s

2.Adequat
eConcept
s

3.Cl
earConcept
s

4.Obscur
eConcept
s

REPUGNANTCONCEPTS

Repugnantconcept
saremutual
lyexcl
usi
veconcept
swhichcannotbeuni
tedi
nonesubst
ance.
Forexample:Anhonestf
raudst
er,embodi
edspir
it
,et
cet
era.

ADEQUATECONCEPTS

Adequat
econceptr
epr
esent
sper
fect
lyal
lthef
eat
uresofanobj
ect
.Her
e,i
tisi
mpossi
blet
o
i
ncl
udeanyot
herf
eat
urebecauset
headequat
econcepti
sal
li
ncl
usi
veandcompr
ehensi
ve.

CLEARCONCEPTS

Clearconceptsemphasi
zeoncl ar
it
yoft hefeat
urest
hatdi
sti
nguishoneobjectf
rom anot
her
resembl i
ngit
.Themajordi
ffer
encebetweenadequateandclearconceptsi
sthatwhil
ethe
formerinsist
sontheadequacyofattr
ibutesandqual
it
iesbutt
hel at
teri
nsi
stont hei
r
suffi
ciency.

OBSCURECONCEPTS

Obscur
econceptsar
enotsuf
fi
cient
lycl
eart
oenableoneappr
eci
atet
hebasi
cdi
ff
erence
bet
weenonethingandot
hert
hingsincl
oseassoci
ati
onwit
hit
.

TERMS

Logicfor
mall
ystartswit
hthest
udyofterms.Atermist
hebasiccomponentofastat
ement.A
ter
m maybedef inedasawordorphrasewhichst
andsasthesubj
ectofalogi
cal
proposi
ti
on.A
ter
mi snotsynonymouswithwords.Whi
let
er msar
eautomati
cal
lywords,
wordsarenot
necessar
il
yterms.

ACATEGOREMATICwordisawordcapableofbeingemploy
edaloneasater
m.Theycanstand
ast
ermswit
houtt
hesupportofot
herwords.Examples:
Goat,Cl
assroom,
Justi
ce,
Good,et
c.

Incontr
ast,
wordswhi
chcanonlybecomeaterm whenj
oinedt
oCategor
emati
cwordsare
knownasSYNCATEGOREMATI Cwor ds(
orSYNCATEGOREMA).Examples:
'a'
,'i
n'
,'
the'
,'
at'
,'
of'
,
'
every'
,'
and'
,et
c.

Termsinlogi
careonl
yconcernedwiththei
nfor
mativeuseoflanguage.Theyonlyexpress
i
nformati
on,t
houghtorr
easoning.Theydonotexpr
essemotions,questi
ons,
wishes,
requestsor
commands.

CLASSI
FICATI
ONOFTERMS

Ter
mscanbecl
assi
fi
edaccor
dingt
o:

1.Meani
ng

2.Ext
ensi
on

3.I
ntensi
on

4.Qual
i
ty

5.Quant
it
y

MEANI
NG

Accor
dingt
omeani
ng,
ater
m canbe:
a.Unequi
vocal

b.Equi
vocal

c.Anal
ogous

d.Met
aphy
sical

e.Absol
ute

f
.Rel
ati
ve

Awordisunequi
vocali
fitkeepst
oapart
icul
armeani
ngal
lthet
ime.Exampl
es:
tel
evi
sion,
radi
o,
cr
uci
fi
x.Theymaintai
nthesameconcept
sallthet
ime.

Equi
vocal
ter
msexpr
essdi
ff
erentmeani
ngsi
ndi
ff
erentoccur
rences.At
erm canbeequi
vocal
i
n:

1.PRONUNCI
ATI
ON.Exampl
es:
Sol
eandSoul
,Al
landOwl
.

2.WRI
TING.Exampl
es:
Bow(
weapon)&Bow(
post
ure)
;Fat
her(
par
ent
)&Fat
her(
pri
est
).

3.
BOTHPRONUNCI
ATI
ONANDWRI
TING.Exampl
es:
Bank(
ri
verbank,
bloodbank,
dat
abank,
et
c.)

Anal
ogoust
ermsexpressr
elat
edmeani
ngs.Anal
ogymeanscompar
ison,
alway
sbet
weent
he
knownandunknown.

EXTENSI
ON

Thi
sref
erst
ot hetot
ali
tyofaclassorcat
egor
y.Exampl
e:Af
ri
ca,
Amer
icaandEur
opeansar
e
ext
ensi
onoftheterm'cont
inent
'.

I
NTENSI
ON

Thishastodowiththeabil
it
ytoabst
ractt
hecommonquali
ti
esorf
eatur
espr
esenti
nthi
ngs
percei
vedbyoursenses.Exampl
e:Whenweseeaboydressedi
nunif
orm,weter
m hi
ma
student
.

QUALI
TY

Accor
dingt
oqual
i
ty,
ater
m canbe:

1.Af
fi
rmat
ive

2.Negat
ive

Ater
mi saff
irmat
iveorposi
ti
vei
fitexpr
esseswhati
sreal
,tr
ue,
oressent
ial
ofat
hing.Ex
ampl
e
:exi
stence,
li
feandopti
mism.
Ther
ear
etwoki
ndsofaf
fi
rmat
ivet
erms:

1.Posi
ti
vei
nfor
m

2.Posi
ti
vei
nmeani
ng

Ater
mi snegat
ivei
fiti
ndi
cat
est
henon-
appear
anceofsomet
rai
tsorqual
i
ties.Exampl
e:deat
h,
i
mmor al
it
y.

Ther
ear
etwoki
ndsofnegat
ivet
erms:

1.Negat
ivei
nfor
m

2.Negat
ivei
nmeani
ng

QUANTI
TY

Si
ngul
ar,
Par
ti
cul
ar,
Uni
ver
sal
andCol
l
ect
iveTer
ms

1.At
ermi
ssi
ngul
ari
fitr
efer
stoonl
yonet
hingori
ndi
vi
dual

2.At
ermi
spar
ti
cul
ari
fitst
andsf
orani
ndef
ini
tepar
tofawhol
e

3.At
ermi
sgener
aloruni
ver
sal
ifi
tref
erst
oal
li
ndi
vi
dual
ssi
gni
fi
edbyt
het
erm.

4.At
ermi
scol
l
ect
ivei
fitr
efer
stoagr
oupofi
ndi
vi
dual
sconsi
der
edasasi
ngl
euni
t.

DEFI
NITI
ON

Theword'defi
nit
ion'i
sder
ivedf
rom theLat
inword'def
ini
re'
whichmeans' concerning
boundar
ies'
,'
toenclosewi
thinl
i
mits'or'
tomakeboundari
es'.Adef
ini
ti
onisast atementt
hat
gi
vesthemeaningofat er
m.Adefinit
ioncl
ari
fi
esthemeaningofaterm andt hi
sissometimes
donebyrestr
ict
ingandcir
cumscri
bingthemeaning.

*Def
ini
ti
oni
sdi
ff
erentf
rom descr
ipt
ion.

PARTSOFADEFI
NITI
ON

DEFI
NIENDUM :
Thi
sist
het
ermt
hati
sdef
ined.I
tisf
oundont
hel
eft
.

DEFI
NIENS:
Thi
sist
hephr
aset
hatexpl
ainst
hedef
ini
endum.I
tisl
ocat
edont
her
ight
.

TYPESOFDEFI
NITI
ON

1.FUNCTI
ONALDEFI
NITI
ON

Thi
shast
odowi
tht
hest
ati
ngofawor
d'smeani
ngbyr
efer
encet
oit
suseorf
unct
ion.

Usi
ngthefuncti
onofathi
ngt
odef
inei
tispr
obl
emat
icduet
othef
actt
hatt
her
eal
way
sexi
sts
si
mil
ari
tyoffuncti
ons.
2.SYNONYMOUSDEFI
NITI
ON

Thi
sinvol
vest
heuseofwordswi
thsi
mil
armeani
ngt
odef
ineawor
d.Ex
ampl
e:'
Opt
ion'
coul
d
berepl
acedwi
th'
al
ter
nati
ve'
.

3.STI
PULATI
VEDEFI
NITI
ON

Thisi
sakindofdef
ini
ti
oninwhi chanewwordortermiscoi
nedi
nor
dert
osi
gni
fyameani
ng
forwhi
chnowordinthelanguagehasprev
iousl
ybeengiv
en.

Thi
sty
peofdef
ini
ti
onemer
gedf
rom t
hef
iel
dsofLaw,Sci
enceandEconomi
cs.

4.OSTENTATI
OUSDEFI
NITI
ON

Thi
sinv
olv
espoi
nti
ngoutanobj
ectt
hatneedsbedef
ined.

5.LEXI
CALDEFI
NITI
ON

Alexi
cal
defi
nit
ioni
sthedefi
nit
ionofawor
daccordi
ngtothemeani
ngcust
omar
il
yassi
gnedto
i
tbythecommunityofuser
s.Thissi
mpl
ymeansthedict
ionar
ymeani
ngofawor
dorphrase.

DEFI
NITI
ONTHROUGHGENUSETDI
FFERENTI
A

Athingcanbedefi
nedbyl
ocati
ngthegroupt
owhichitbel
ongs.Genusmeansfamil
y.Thisty
pe
ofdefi
nit
ioni
sregar
dedasthebestki
ndofdef
ini
ti
onbecauseitt
ell
swhatathi
ngreall
yis.

Thi
sisdefi
nit
ionaccordi
ngt
othespecif
icgr
oupaconceptbel
ongst
oandt
hedi
sti
ngui
shi
ng
di
ff
erencebetweenitandot
herconcept
sint
hesamegenus.

RULESOFDEFI
NITI
ON

1.Adef
ini
ti
onshoul
dst
atet
heessent
ial
att
ri
but
esoft
heobj
ectbei
ngdef
ined.

2.Adef
ini
ti
onmustnotbeci
rcul
ar.Awor
dshoul
dnotbeusedt
odef
inei
tsel
f.

3.Thedef
ini
ti
onshoul
dnei
therbet
oonar
rownort
oobr
oad.

4.Adef
ini
ti
onshoul
dnotbeexpr
essedi
nfi
gur
ati
ve,
obscur
eandambi
guousl
anguage.

5.Adef
ini
ti
onshoul
dasmuchaspossi
blebeaf
fi
rmat
ive,
rat
hert
hannegat
ive.

I
MPORTANCEOFDEFI
NITI
ON

1.I
tai
dsunder
standi
ng.

2.I
tspel
l
soutt
heessenceofat
hing.

3.I
tai
dsi
nthedev
elopmentofv
ocabul
ary
.

4.I
tset
sboundar
ybet
weenconcept
s
5.I
tgi
vesdi
rect
iont
oanar
gument
.

6.I
tenhancescr
eat
ivet
hinki
ngabi
l
iti
es.

LAWSOFTHOUGHT

Therearet
hreebasi
ccl
assi
cal
lawsorpr
inci
plest
hatgov
ernr
easoni
ngwhi
chanycor
rect
reasoni
ng

assumesandmustnotv
iol
ate.Theyar
eknownasl
awsoft
hought
.Anyar
gumentt
hatv
iol
ates
them i
s

i
nval
i
d.Thet
hreebasi
ccl
assi
cal
lawsar
e:

a.Thel
aworpr
inci
pleofi
dent
it
y

b.Thel
aworpr
inci
pleofnoncont
radi
cti
on

c.Thel
aworpr
inci
pleofexcl
udedmi
ddl
e

a.LawofI
dent
it
y:Themeani
ngofat
ermi
sconsi
stentwi
thi
nagi
vencont
ext
.Thel
awhol
ds
that

t
hei
dent
it
yofat
hingi
sconsi
stent
.“P”i
s“P”
.Ifany
thi
ngi
s“P”
,theni
tis“
P”.At
abl
eisat
abl
e.

I
nav
ali
dar
gument
,thedef
ini
ti
onof“
P”mustbeconsi
stent
lymai
ntai
nedt
hroughoutt
he

cour
seoft
hear
gument
.Ifapr
oposi
ti
oni
str
ue,
theni
tist
rue.I
facari
swhi
te,
theni
tiswhi
te.

Lawsoft
hought
Therearet
hreebasi
ccl
assi
cal
lawsorpr
inci
plest
hatgov
ernr
easoni
ngwhi
chanycor
rect
reasoni
ng

assumesandmustnotv
iol
ate.Theyar
eknownasl
awsoft
hought
.Anyar
gumentt
hatv
iol
ates
them i
s

i
nval
i
d.Thet
hreebasi
ccl
assi
cal
lawsar
e:

a.Thel
aworpr
inci
pleofi
dent
it
y

b.Thel
aworpr
inci
pleofnoncont
radi
cti
on

c.Thel
aworpr
inci
pleofexcl
udedmi
ddl
e

a.LawofI
dent
it
y:Themeani
ngofat
ermi
sconsi
stentwi
thi
nagi
vencont
ext
.Thel
awhol
ds
that

t
hei
dent
it
yofat
hingi
sconsi
stent
.“P”i
s“P”
.Ifany
thi
ngi
s“P”
,theni
tis“
P”.At
abl
eisat
abl
e.

I
nav
ali
dar
gument
,thedef
ini
ti
onof“
P”mustbeconsi
stent
lymai
ntai
nedt
hroughoutt
he

cour
seoft
hear
gument
.Ifapr
oposi
ti
oni
str
ue,
theni
tist
rue.I
facari
swhi
te,
theni
tiswhi
te.

b.Lawofnoncont
radi
cti
on:
Athi
ngcannotbot
hbeandnotbeatt
hesamet
imeandcont
ext
.
“P”

cannotbebot
h“P”and“
not
-P”
.Acarcannotbebot
hwhi
teandnotwhi
teatt
hesamet
ime
andcont
ext
.Apr
oposi
ti
oncannotbebot
htr
ueandnott
rueatt
hesamet
imeandcont
ext
.

c.LawofExcl
udedMi
ddl
e:Ther
eisnomi
ddl
ecour
sei
nlogi
cal
asser
ti
on.
”P”i
sei
ther“
P”or
“not
-

P”
.Iti
sei
therawhi
tecarornotawhi
tecar
.Apr
oposi
ti
oni
sei
thert
rueornott
rue.

d.LawofSuf
fi
cientReasonwasaddedbyWi
l
hel
m Lei
bni
zast
hef
our
thl
aw.Ther
emustbe

suf
fi
cientr
easonf
orat
hingt
obewhati
tisandnotsomet
hingel
se.Ther
emustbesuf
fi
cient

r
easont
oasser
tthat“
P”i
s“P”and“
notQ”
,orapr
oposi
ti
oni
str
ueandnotf
alse.

*
Readupt
hemeani
ngandpr
inci
plesoft
eleol
ogy
.