THERMODYNAMICS

ALL YOU NEED TO KNOW

Contents
DEFINITION...................................................................................................... 2
LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS....................................................................... 2
TWO BASIC AREAS OF THERMODYNAMICS: MACRO AND MICRO ........... 4
APPLICATIONS OF THERMODYNAMICS....................................................... 5
COROLLARIES OF THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS ...................... 5
KELVIN–PLANCK AND CLAUSIUS STATEMENTS.......................................... 5
ENERGY ............................................................................................................ 6
REVERSIBLE AND IRREVERSIBLE PROCESSES ........................................... 6
CONTROL-VOLUME ANALYSIS ...................................................................... 8
EXTRAS ........................................................................................................... 10
DEFINITION
The word thermodynamics stems from the Greek words therme (heat) and dynamis
(force). Thermodynamics is a science in which the storage, the transformation, and the
transfer of energy are studied.

LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS

ZEROTH LAW
The Zeroth law of thermodynamics deals with thermal equilibrium and provides a
means of measuring temperature.
It states that if two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a third body, then they are also
in thermal equilibrium with each other.

Relevant equations

• Heat Transfer Equation: 𝛥𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐𝛥𝑇

• Ideal Gas Law: 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇

Examples of Zeroth’s law

• Thermometer Calibration
• Feeling a Cold Can
• Cooking Food
• Body Temperature Regulation
• Sweating
• Vasodilation
• Shivering
• Piloerection (goosebumps)
• Setting a Cup of Coffee Down

FIRST LAW
The first law of thermodynamics deals with the conservation of energy.
It states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed but can be transformed from
one form to another.
Relevant equations

• Heat Transfer Equation: 𝛥𝑈 = 𝑄 − 𝑊

Examples of First Law

• Light Bulb
• Combustion of Fuel
• Food and Exercise
• Hydroelectric Power Plant
• Photosynthesis
• A boiling tea kettle represents energy in motion

SECOND LAW
The second law dictates the limits on the conversion of heat into work and provides the
yardstick to measure the performance of various processes.
It states that the total energy of the universe or an isolated system never decreases. In
other words, in any isolated system including the universe, the entropy change is always
zero or positive.
Note: An isolated system is a system in which neither heat nor work leaves the
boundary.

Relevant equations
𝑑𝑄
Change in Entropy: ∆𝑆 = ∫ 𝑇

Examples of Second Law

• Ice Melting in a Warm Room

• Inefficiency of Heat Engines
• Friction
• Spoiling Food
• Diffusing Perfume
• Irreversible Processes
THIRD LAW
The third law defines the absolute zero of entropy.
It states that the entropy of a perfect crystal at absolute zero is exactly equal to zero, or
the entropy of a perfect crystal of a pure substance approaches zero as the temperature
approaches zero.

Relevant equations
𝐶𝑝
Change in Entropy: ∆𝑆 = ∫ 𝑑𝑇
𝑇

Examples of Third Law

• Reaching Absolute Zero

• Chemical Equilibrium
• Material Stability
• Fuel Cells and Batteries
• Astrophysics and Stellar Evolution

TWO BASIC AREAS OF THERMODYNAMICS: MACRO AND MICRO

Macroscopic Thermodynamics
Macroscopic thermodynamics, often referred to as classical thermodynamics, focuses
on the behavior of large-scale systems. It examines the properties and changes of these
systems without considering the individual particles that compose them. This approach
relies on observable, measurable quantities such as temperature, pressure, volume,
and entropy.

Microscopic Thermodynamics
Microscopic thermodynamics, also known as statistical thermodynamics or statistical
mechanics, focuses on the behavior of individual particles and their interactions. It
aims to explain macroscopic properties from the microscopic behavior of atoms and
molecules, utilizing statistical methods to relate the properties of individual particles to
the average behavior observed at the macroscopic scale.
APPLICATIONS OF THERMODYNAMICS

Heat Engines and Refrigerators: Analyzing the efficiency of engines (e.g., car engines,
steam turbines) and the performance of refrigerators and heat pumps.

Chemical Reactions: Understanding reaction spontaneity, equilibrium, and the energy

changes involved in chemical processes.

Material Science: Studying phase transitions (e.g., melting, boiling) and properties of
materials under different thermal conditions.

Biological Systems: Exploring metabolic processes and energy transformations in

living organisms.

Environmental Science: Investigating energy flows in ecosystems and the impact of

human activities on climate change.

COROLLARIES OF THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

1. The change in the internal energy of a closed system is equal to the heat added to
the system minus the work done by the system on its surroundings. 𝛥𝑈 = 𝑄 − 𝑊.

2. For any cyclic process undergone by a closed system, the net heat transfer into the
system is equal to the net work done by the system. ∮ 𝛿𝑄 = ∮ 𝛿𝑊.

3. It is impossible to construct a perpetual motion machine of the first kind, which

would produce work continuously without any energy input.

KELVIN–PLANCK AND CLAUSIUS STATEMENTS

Kelvin-Planck Statement

The Kelvin-Planck statement asserts that it is impossible to construct a heat engine that
operates in a cycle and produces no other effect than the conversion of heat from a
single reservoir into work.

Clausius Statement

The Clausius statement asserts that it is impossible to construct a device that operates
in a cycle and produces no other effect than the transfer of heat from a colder body to a
hotter body without the input of external work.
ENERGY

Energy is a fundamental concept in physics, representing the capacity to do work or

produce change. It is a conserved quantity, meaning it can neither be created nor
destroyed, only transformed from one form to another.
In the context of thermodynamics, energy refers to the capacity of a system to perform
work and transfer heat. The primary forms of energy in thermodynamics include internal
energy, heat, and work.

Common Forms of Energy

• Kinetic Energy
• Potential Energy
• Thermal (Heat) Energy
• Chemical Energy
• Electrical Energy
• Radiant (Light) Energy
• Nuclear Energy
• Mechanical Energy
• Sound Energy
• Magnetic Energy

REVERSIBLE AND IRREVERSIBLE PROCESSES

A process is a path followed by a system in reaching a given final state of equilibrium

state starting from a specified initial state. An actual process occurs only when the
equilibrium state does not exist. An ideal process can be defined in which the deviation
from thermodynamic equilibrium is infinitesimal
Several processes are described by the fact that one property remains constant. The
prefix iso- is used to describe such processes.

Example Of Processes
• Reversible: If the process happens slow enough to be reversed.
• Irreversible: if the process cannot be reversed (like most processes).
• Isobaric: the process is done at constant pressure
• Isochoric: the process is done at a constant volume
 • Isothermal: the process is done at a constant temperature
• Isentropic: the process in which the entropy is constant
• Isenthalpic: the process in which enthalpy is constant
• Adiabatic: the process where heat transfer is zero

Reversible Processes
A process is said to be reversible if both the system and its surroundings can be
restored to their initial state, by reversing the direction of the process. A reversible
process is defined as a process that can be reversed without leaving any trace on the
surroundings. Processes that are not reversible are called irreversible processes.

Examples:
• Ideal Gas Expansion
• Isothermal Expansion of an Ideal Gas
• Reversible Electrical Work
• Reversible Chemical Reactions
• Ideal Heat Transfer

Irreversible Processes
Irreversible processes are real-world processes that cannot be reversed completely
without leaving a change in the system or its surroundings. They are characterized by
entropy generation, energy dissipation, or irreversible changes.

Factors Responsible for Irreversiblities

The factors that cause a process to be irreversible are called irreversibilities.
irreversibility causes entropy, entropy reduces efficiency
Examples of Irreversibilities
• Friction
• Unrestrained expansion
• Mixing of two gases
• Heat transfer across a finite temperature difference
• Spontaneous chemical reactions
• Expansion or Compression with finite pressure difference
• Mixing of matter at different states
CONTROL-VOLUME ANALYSIS

In engineering and thermodynamics, a "control volume" refers to a specific region in

space chosen for analysis in studying the flow of mass, energy, and momentum. It's
often represented as an imaginary boundary enclosing a particular system or device,
such as a turbine, engine, or heat exchanger.

Examples: turbines, compressors, nozzle, diffusers, pumps, heat exchangers, reactors,

a thrust producing device, and combinations of these.

Nozzle

A nozzle is a device designed to control and direct the flow of fluid by converting
pressure energy into kinetic energy, often resulting in an increase in the velocity of the
fluid.

Function:

• Accelerates fluid flow by reducing pressure.

• Directs the fluid in a specific direction.

Applications:

• Jet Engines: Nozzles accelerate the exhaust gases from combustion to produce
thrust.
• Steam and Gas Power Plants: Nozzles are used in steam turbines and gas
turbines to expand
• high-pressure steam or gases.
• Firefighting: High-pressure water nozzles are used to control and direct water
streams for firefighting.

Turbine

A turbine is a rotary mechanical device that extracts energy from a fluid flow and
converts it into useful mechanical work.

Function:

• Converts the kinetic and potential energy of fluid (steam, water, gas) into
mechanical energy to generate electricity or perform mechanical work.
Applications:

• Steam Turbines: Used in thermal power plants to convert steam energy into
electrical energy.
• Hydropower Plants: Water turbines convert the kinetic energy of flowing water
into mechanical energy, which is then converted to electrical energy.
• Jet Engines: Turbines extract energy from high-speed exhaust gases to power
the compressor and other parts of the engine.

Diffuser

A diffuser is a device that reduces the velocity of a fluid while increasing its pressure,
typically used in fluid systems to slow down the fluid and recover pressure.

Function:

• Slows down the fluid flow, converting kinetic energy into pressure energy.

Applications:

• Jet Engines: Diffusers slow down the incoming air to increase pressure before it
enters the combustion chamber.
• Air Conditioning Systems: Diffusers are used to distribute air evenly throughout
a space.
• Centrifugal Compressors: Diffusers are used to recover pressure from the high-
velocity discharge of the compressor.

Compressor

A compressor is a mechanical device that increases the pressure of a gas by reducing

its volume through compression.

Function:

• Raises the pressure of gases, often for transportation or to enable chemical

reactions.

Applications:

• Refrigeration Cycles: Compressors are used to increase the pressure of the

refrigerant vapor to facilitate heat exchange.
• Process Plants: Compressors are used to transport gases through pipelines
and to feed high-pressure reactors.
 • Turbochargers and Superchargers: Compressors are used to increase the
pressure of the intake air, improving engine performance.

Heat Exchanger

A heat exchanger is a device that facilitates the transfer of heat between two or more
fluids (liquids or gases) without mixing them.

Function:

• Transfers heat from one fluid to another to either cool or heat the fluids involved.

Applications:

• Condensers: Used in steam power plants to condense exhaust steam from the
turbine.
• Air Conditioners and Heaters: Used to transfer heat between the indoor air and
refrigerant or water.
• Radiators: Used to transfer heat from the engine coolant to the air.

EXTRAS

Q: Why do car engines get hot?

A: Car engines get hot due to the inefficiencies inherent in the energy conversion
process, as explained by the second law of thermodynamics, which states that no
energy conversion is 100% efficient, and some energy is always lost as heat.
Car engines convert the chemical energy stored in fuel (gasoline or diesel) into
mechanical energy to move the vehicle. This conversion happens through the process
of internal combustion. The combustion of fuel generates high temperatures, heating
the engine components.

Q: How do refrigerators work?

A: Refrigerators work by transferring heat from the inside of the unit to the outside
environment. This is done through a cycle of compression and condensation, expansion
and evaporation of a refrigerant. The refrigerant absorbs heat from inside the refrigerator
as it evaporates and releases the heat to the outside as it condenses.
Q: With the aid of a T-V diagram, briefly discuss the heating process of a pure
substance.
A: The heating process of a pure substance can be understood through a temperature-
volume (T-V) diagram. Starting as a subcooled liquid, the substance heats up,
increasing temperature with little change in volume. Once it reaches the boiling point
(saturated liquid), further heating turns the liquid into vapor at constant temperature,
increasing specific volume (liquid-vapor mixture). When fully vaporized (saturated
vapor), additional heat raises both temperature and volume, making it superheated
vapor.