CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Background to the Study

There was a time when the traditional approach of teaching was adopted by most

teachers, where students were used to depending only on the teacher to dispense the enitre

knowledge about the topic to be taught during classroom learning process. The teacher was

always the one speaking and dispensing knowledge. The students according to Gosh(2010)

had no chances to practice speaking on their own and hence the interaction among the

students in the classroom is almost absent

Nowadays, this teacher-fronted instruction are no longer suitable in language teaching

classrooms especially with the changing education system and teaching methods. Classroom

teachings now require more communication during the learning process rather than just

listening to the teacher. This is what conversation in the classroom entails and this is

fundamental to today’s education system and second language (L2) learning and for a steady

and healthy growth of any school, classroom communication is very vital in the instructional

and learning process. This is because in communication model, second language (L2)

classrooms are students-centered activities where they practice (L2) through authentic

communication. Students are exposed to spoken and written discourse, which reflects real

communication.

Long et al (1998) explained that student-centered classroom offers more chance for

the teacher to positively react to the learning styles and needs of his learners in a practical

way because emphasis is on students’ involvement in real communication and integrating the

forms learnt through interaction. The emphasis is on students’ engagement in real

communication and integrating the forms learnt through interaction This shifts from the non-

communicative or teacher-centered teaching which focuses mainly on grammatical structures

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that do not give the opportunity for L2 learners to engage in natural and realistic interactional

classroomsituations.

According to Conchita (2018), recent researches have emphasized that teacher

language used in interaction with learners is likely to elicit learning when it provides an

opportunity for negotiating meaning as this is regarded crucial in the construction of

appropriate responses among interactants (teacher and students) in classroom discourse. One

practical approach that can give strong hints if classroom interaction is likely to generate

learning opportunities is through conversation analysis of the speech acts of ESL learners.

And drawing on personal experience as a teacher of English Language, classroom interaction

enhances the development of the two very important language skills which are speaking and

listening among the students. This tool helps the students not only to be competent in

listening and speaking, but to think critically and share their views among their peers as well.

During classroom interaction, students have the opportunity to learn English in a meaningful

and constructive way. As a result, students are active learners, free to express their opinions

freely and to participate actively in the learning process which aids better understanding of

the subject matter.

In order to engage in an all inclusive classroom learning process, conversation in

classroom interaction should be well managed so as to aid better understanding in the

classroom. This classroom interaction involves not only the interaction between the teacher

and the students but among students in the classroom. This can only be done by taking a

critical look at the classroom interaction activities such as peer group, discussion, debates,

role play methods, etc. The level of communication in the classroom, the gender of the

teacher, misunderstanding or mishearing, coherence of ideas generated and background

knowledge could determine the intensity of the classroom interaction during the learning

process. And in managing the classroom conversation, it must be noted that conversation is a

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two way dimension. Therefore, classroom interaction and communication are interwoven and

essential in the teaching and learning process.

In line with the expectations of an ideal classroom interaction and the UNESCO

standard, Njamaeze (2015) identified sevenrelevance of interaction in an ideal English

Language Classroom

i. Learners learn best if they work in groups to share different perspectives

ii. It enables them bring their prior knowledge on the task.

iii. Learning is more effective when students collaboratively and actively engage in the

learning process.

iv. It is through interaction with people, their environment and relating the concept taught

to what they already know; that help learners to reflect on past experiences and in

knowledge construction.

v. The learner gains knowledge through real experiences that is purposeful and

contextualized.

vi. Through collaboration learners develop the habit of thinking as they learn.

vii. Learners are made to be active participants in the classrooms.

Yet there are some problems that are still noticeable in the interaction of English Language

classroom:

i. The teacher still dominates the classroom interaction with the lecturing interaction

activities (the monologue style identified by UNESCO 2006).

ii. The students’ in-active participation and low responses to the classroom activities.

(The students are still passive during teaching learning process)

iii. The students are most times afraid to ask about something they still do not understand

about the topic under discussion to their teacher (especially in a male teacher’s class).

That is, gender influence in learners’ participation in classroom interaction.

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 iv. The coherence of learners’ ideas to the classroom conversation (most students do not

even understand what the teacher is saying). Due to cases of misunderstanding or

mishearing by the learner.

v. The learners do not understand the cooperative principles of conversation and turn

taking.

vi. Most teachers do not test background knowledge of the learners and if they do they

only use question and answer method.

vii. The only type of interaction used is teacher-learner interaction while the other two;

learner-learner interaction and teacher-learner-material interaction are seldom used.

In view of the above and goal to achieving a better understanding in the. classroom,

conversation is very essential and crucial to classroom interaction. Psathas (1995) defined

conversation as a kind of communication which is based on interaction between two or more

people. It is the way people relate in everyday life. It is form of expressing one’s thoughts,

intentions and motivations to others. In L2 communication or conversation in the classroom

is greatly emphasized because it provides the opportunity for learner to communicate their

thoughts effectively and this is what conversation analysis attempts investigate.

Conversation analysis (CA)is a form of discourse analysis whichattempts to

understand how communication and talks are organized and how participants understand or

display understanding of each other as their talk unfolds. In the classroom interaction process

CA seeks to investigate the principles of conversation involved in the communication process

via all the classroom interaction activities which may involve the use of Speech Acts and

Cooperative Principles. This principles include turn-taking, adjacency pairs, repairs, among

others. It goes to analyse speech in social context. However, CA as a tool for analysing

classroom interaction in L2 involves mainly listening and speaking language skills.

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 Conchita (2018:47) explained that speech acts by definition, following Austin’s

(1962) and Searle’s (1969) theory, perform an action, which means that an utterance has not

only a locutionary meaning (literal meaning), but also an illocutionary meaning (intended

meaning), and a perlocutionary force (effect that is generated in the hearer of an

utterance).These are done using the six identified types of speech acts namely, expressives

(reaction to other people’s behaviour e.g apologize, welcome, congratulate), directives

(giving decisions in favour or against e.g dismiss, order, etc), verdictives (make assessments,

judgment, condoning, etc), commissives (promises, pledges, threats, vows, etc),

representatives (make assertions, statements, descriptions, suggestions, etc) and declaratives

(used according to the name they bear, e.g. hiring, firing).Yet in the classroom analysis,

obeying certain principles are mandatory, this is what is regarded as cooperative principles.

Lulu (2017:564) in explaining cooperative principles stated that the participants in a

conversation obey a general Cooperative Principle (CP), which is expected to be in force

whenever a conversation unfolds: “Make your conversational contribution such as is

required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk

exchange in which you are engaged.” Grice according to Lulu thinks that in all language

communications, there is a sense of privacy between speaker and hearer that the two parties

should obey. In order to guarantee the dialogue can be carried out smoothly and ensure that

the task can be completed effectively, both sides of speakers ought to observe this principle.

Grice views pragmatic interpretation as heavily relying on inferential processes: the hearer is

able to hypothesize about the Speaker’s meaning, based on the meaning of the sentence

uttered, on background or contextual assumptions and, last but not least, on general

communicative principles which speakers are expected to observe. These maxims are; maxim

of quantity (try to make your contribution as information as is required for the current

purpose of the exchange, do not make your contribution more informative than is

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required),the maxim of quality (make your contribution one that is true, do not say what you

believe to be false, do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence),the maxim of

relation (the conversation between the speaker and the hearer is closely related to the topic in

a specific context), the maxim of manner (avoid obscurity of expression, avoid ambiguity, Be

brief, be orderly).

Adjacency pairs are paired utterances such that on production of the first part of the

pair (e.g. question) the second part of the pair (answer) becomes conditionally relevant.

Nadya (2014) stated that adjacency pair in a conversation refers to automatic sequences, e.g.

greeting and goodbye. In the structure of conversation there are many other kinds of

automatic patterns that certainly help the interaction.

Turn taking is another aspect of conversation that the researcher will explore, Nadya

also explained this as a system where participants in an ongoing conversation are taking their

turns regularly. While she described repair as a name given to periods of talk in everyday

conversation in which an error occurred is noted and then resolved.

In listening skills, analysis or accounts of misunderstanding and mishearing are

considered crucial to CA in L2. This is not unconnected to the background knowledge of the

students in the learning process or the environmental factor or teacher’s factor. Mishearing is

regarded as ‘slip of the hear’. Per (2015:24) explained thatmishearing occur when the listener

spontaneously and clearly hears something different from what the speaker has said(or

intended to say) in his/her immediately prior utterance (which we will call the ‘source

utterance’, that which becomes a problem source). Misunderstanding is regarded as

‘misinterpretation ‘of the communication process. These occur often in the learning process.

In speaking skills, coherence and cohesion of the communication in the learning process are

of great importance to CA in investigating L2 classroom interaction.

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 It is now generally accepted that classroom discourse is a potential tool to study

learners’ capabilities in interaction and in meaning negotiation. It is less clear, however, as

professed, whether the kind of communication that occurs in a classroom is sufficient to ensure

development of full language comprehension. Harmer (2001) explained that even recent

researches are now based on communicative language teaching and learning methodologies

place emphasis on providing learners with opportunity to communicate

Taking everything into account, this research investigates the role of classroom

interaction using conversation analysis.

Statement of the Problem

UNESCO 2006, report stated that the content of teacher training programmes in

Nigeria does not focus adequately on reflective practice, active learning, innovation,

creativity, or partnership building. This gave rise to asking questions as to know if the

Nigerian Secondary school teachers were not trained in conversation (dialogue) mode of

teaching. As an administrator and a classroom teacher in one of the Nigerian secondary

schools, one can say that there are so many teaching methods in the classroom learning

situation (play away, lecture, discussion, etc). These can be monologue (teacher-centered

curriculum) or dialogue (learner-centred curriculum which gives learners the opportunity to

participate actively in the classroom discussion). Yet it appears that many students are

estranged or cut-out from benefitting from classroom conversations and this hinders their

understanding especially in ESL situation. This is not in line with the UNESCO policy of no

child must be left behind. Most times, the classroom discourse is always one way and

monologue in nature.

Although various researches have been carried out and some factors have been

identified such as gender, location, environment, economic situations, race, class, etc

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especially at the secondary level. Even the reknowned conversation analyst Seedhouse

(2015) focused mainly on language classroom process.

Not much has been done to examine classroom interactions with particular emphasis

on the discourse going on in the classroom, that is, teacher’s language and style in the

classroom interaction with the aim of how it leads to students’ understanding or otherwise in

the classroom situation using conversation analysis. This study intends to fill that gap.

Purpose of the Study

The main objectives of the study include investigating the styles and language of classroom

interaction through the use of conversation analysis such as turn taking; pause; adjacency

pairs) with the following sub-objectives:

i. to find out the underlying norms of interaction commonly used by the teachers.

ii. to investigate whether there will be gender difference in the norms of teachers and

students’ interaction.

iii. to examine whether turn taking occurs in the classroom interaction without

prompting.

iv. to explore whether thereare instances of misunderstanding or mishearing in classroom

interactions of teacher and students.

v. to identify different strategies of repairs used by both teachers and students during

classroom interaction.

vi. to affirm that the background knowledge used by teachers at the beginning of the

classroom interactions are relevant.

vii. to observe whether there is coherence of ideas in classroom interaction between the

teacher and students.

Research Questions

The following research questions will guide the study:

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 i. What are the underlying norms of interaction used by the teachers?

ii. Will female teachers differ from male teachers in the norms of interaction?

iii. Does turn taking occur in the classroom interaction without prompting?

iv. Do instances of misunderstanding or mishearing occur during classroom interaction?

v. What are the strategies of repair used by the teacher or the students?

vi. What is the relevance of the background knowledge used by the teacher at the

beginning of the lesson?

vii. Are the ideas generated in the classroom interaction coherent?

Significance of the Study

The findings of this study will be beneficial to students, teachers and researchers.

This research results can be used as reference for the teacher about her teacher’s

performance, so that the teacher can improve her performance in teaching during teaching-

learning process. At least the other teachers can apply this teaching model in their own

classroom.

For students, the results of this research will cover multiple advantages, namely

attitude, improvement, verbal competence, and reasoning pattern of the students, all ofwhich

are useful for their preparation to enter a higher education level as well as the teacher’s skill

in developing teaching-learning process which enables them to motivate students to use

language.

For other researchers, this research will develop the writer’s knowledge about the

characteristics of classroom interaction and the teaching effectiveness in teaching learning

process and help for further researches which focus on developing classroom interaction

between teacher and students by using English Language especially in bi-lingual schools.

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Delimitation of the Study

The research work is delimited to classroom conversation analysis in Secondary

Schools in the three senatorial districts of Ondo State and the participants were SS2 students

and English Language teachers.

Definition Of Terms

Classroom Interaction: refers to the communication process between the teacher and the

learner during the teaching-learning process that enhances learning. It involves the process,

method, activities that happen in a classroom.

Conversation Analysis: is a form of discourse analysis attempts to understand how

communication and talks are organized and how participants understand or display

understanding of each other as their talk unfolds.

Norms: inthis study refers to the classroom interaction techniques/standards used by the

teachers in a language class.

Prompting: refers to a cue given to a learner in communication.

Repairs: to the processes available to speakers through which they can deal with the

problems which arise in talk. (Liddicoat 2007)

Coherence: Coherence is the linking of thought to thought in such a way that the meaning

can be easily followed from sentence to sentence.

Background to the Study:

Misunderstanding: The notion of misunderstanding has been described under a variety of

terms in sociolinguistics: as miscommunication, misinterpretation, misperception and

pragmatic failure or breakdown in communication. It is a failure to understand the speaker by

the hearer.

Mishearing: this is concerned with immediate, spontaneous utterance perceptions that appear

in the listener’s mind on the spot, without any prior conscious reflection or internal dialogue.

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Turn Taking: is a characteristic of conversation which refers toa shift in the direction of the

speaking flow.

CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

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 This chapter deals with the review of literature related to the present study. The related

literature reviewed in this chapter include:

A. Theoretical Framework

The theoretical framework and conceptual frameworks for this for the study is based on

the following:

 Conversation Analysis.

 Speech Acts and Conversation.

 The Cooperative Principles and Conversation.

 Classroom Interaction Theories and Conversation

 Flanders Classroom Interaction Analysis Categories Theory

 Classroom, Classroom Interaction and Conversation.

 Conversation Analysis and Language Learning.

 Coherence, Cohesion and Utterance.

 Mishearing and Misunderstanding.

 Background Knowledge

 Gender and Classroom Interaction in ESL/EFL Classroom

Conversation Analysis

Conversation Analysis (CA) is a methodology for the analysis of naturally occurring

spoken interaction. It is a multi-disciplinary methodology which is now applied in a very

wide range of professional and academic areas. Emanuel Schagloffpresented the meaning of

CA in terms of social talk especially analyzing the calling phone recorded. He considered it

as a talk in occasions when people speak about their society, culture, beliefs, traditions,

norms in the sixties instead of study their history.

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 Goffman (1957) defines “conversation analysis (CA) as a move to direct sociology

attention to “Situation” the ordinary life and extra-ordinary ways in which people interact

with one another in the course of everyday life”.

The concept of CA (and interaction analysis in general) is that knowledge is produced

through social interaction; the study of talk-in-interaction can make this knowledge

accessible to the researcher in the same way that it is understood by the participants (Jordan

and Henderson 1995). A key point, however, is that assumptions cannot and should not be

made about the intentions of the participants; only where intentions and motivations are

displayed to other participants, and are ‘proved’ through other participants’ recognition of

them as such can they be brought into the analysis Jordan and Henderson (1995).

Maynard (2013) defined conversation analysis as the study of talk as a medium for

people to perform action. Any kind of action and reaction as the result of conversation among

people are scrutinized in this field of study. The scope under conversation analysis study is

wide, for instances: turn taking, adjacency pairs, preference organization, sequence

organization, and repair.

Broadly, conversation analysis examines “the order/organization/orderliness of social

action... in discursive practices, in the sayings/telling/doings of members in society” Psathas

(1995). In other words, talk is a fundamental aspect of human life and CA attempts to

understand how it is organized and how interactants understand and display understanding of

each other as their talk unfolds.

Conversation is a kind of human communication which is based on interaction

between two or more people. However, conversation analysis in an EFL context implies a

different perspective mainly the study of talk-in-interaction; or the analysis of the speech in

social contexts. Broadly, conversation analysis examines “the order/organization/orderliness

of social action... in discursive practices, in the sayings/telling/doings of members in society”

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(Psathas 1995). In other words, talk is a fundamental aspect of human life and CA attempts to

understand how it is organized and how interactants understand and display understanding of

each other as their talk unfolds. The process of CA should be undertaken from an emic, or

bottom up, position. That is, talk-in- interaction, the generally recognized object of CA

research, should be viewed from the participants perspective, by stepping inside their shoes,

as it were, with an aim to “discover how participants understand and respond to one another

in their turns at talk, with a central focus on how sequences of action are generated” Hutchby

and Wooffitt (1998). Such can be referred to as how the receiver of a communication process

‘decodes’ the message sent by the ‘encoder’.

Fatemeh et al (2018) explained that studies of L2 classrooms aim to focus on micro

details of recorded naturally occurring interaction and to describe organizational features of

talk in order to enable researchers to analyze data from an emic and inductive perspective.

Principles of Conversational Analysis

Seedhouse (2015) identified four principles of CA, these principles states that:

i. there is order at all points in interaction.

ii. “contributions to interaction are context shaped and context shaping”.

iii. “no order of detail can be dismissed a priori as disorderly, accidental or irrelevant”

iv. “analysis is bottom up and data driven” (Seedhouse 2015).

Methods of CA

The methods of CA relevant to this study are discussed below:

i. Turn taking: Turn is a characteristic of conversation which refers toa shift in the

direction of the speaking flow. The scheme of turn-taking as depicted by Levinson

(1983) is: one participant (x) talks and then stops; another participant (y) talks and

then stop; return to x and so on. Therefore a pattern of talk between two participants is

obtained: X-Y-X-Y-X-Y. Commonly in a conversation, there are natural breaks.

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 According to Mey (1994), it is a moment when a current speaker of a conversation

takes a breath, has nothing else to say, or declares that his or her contribution has all

done.

ii. Adjacency pairs: Adjacency Pairs are paired utterances such that on production of the

first part of the pair (e.g. question) the second part of the pair (answer) becomes

conditionally relevant. If, however, the second part is not immediately produced, it

may nonetheless remain relevant and accountable and appear later, or its absence may

be accounted for. The adjacency pair concept does not claim that second parts are

always provided for first parts. Here, it is noted that certain turns have specific follow-

up turns associated with them. For instance, questions receive answers. The reply to a

greeting is usually also a greeting, for an invitation it is either acceptance or refusal,

etc

Characteristics of Adjacency Pairs

a. They are contiguous. There are structured to be consecutive and uttered by

different speakers.

b. They are ordered: The answer to a question cannot precede a the question.

c. They are matched: The first and the second parts of the adjacency pairs are

appropriately matched.

iii. Pause: This is the process when a speaker stops to allow another speaker take the

floor.

iv. Sequence Organization: The notion of sequence organization, according to Liddicoat

(2007) has its foundation from a consideration that talk is a form of social action.

Turns in conversation are places for the participants to perform action through words.

The term sequence itself, as defined by Cutting (2002) as a stretch of utterances or

turns. This sequence is divided into three namely: pre-sequences (they serve as

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 precursors to other utterances), insertion sequences (a participant urges to greet, order,

ask a question, request for information, which practically having anything to do with

the topic of the exchange), opening and closing sequences.

v. Repairs: The term repair is relevant to all levels of talk from the turn-taking system to

sequence organization and preference. Repair, as noted by Liddicoat (2007) refers to

the processes available to speakers through which they can deal with the problems

which arise in talk. He adds that repair is a set of practices designed for dealing with

difficulties which emerge in talk. According to Schegloff, Jefferson, and Sacks (1977)

repair mechanisms are designed to deal with turn-taking errors and violations.

Levinson (1983) suggests the phenomena under the notion of repair. They are word

recovery problems, self-editing where no discernible (able to be seen) error occurs,

and correction problem. Mey (1994) adds that repair is a device for correcting oneself,

gaining time to think, or preventing somebody else from jumping into the

conversation at an upcoming TRP. Furthermore he explains that repair sequence is

initiated by some reason including a request for information, and an apology. They

are particularly divided into two; the repaired segment and repairing segment.

Repaired segment refers to the trouble source. It is an error made by a participant in

his or her turn for which another participant involves in the conversation initiates a

repair. It is important to be noted that a trouble source is not always discernible.

Sometimes, the trouble is on the interlocutor itself. It is probably because of a

misheard utterance, a non-heard utterance, or a misunderstanding. Repairing segment

refers to the segment of utterance that repairs the repaired segment or also known as

trouble source.

Types of Repair

i. Self-Initiated-Self Repair

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 ii. Self-Initiated Other Repair

iii. Other-Initiated Self-Repair

iv. Other-Initiated Other-Repair

Patterns of Repair Completion

i. Replacement

ii. Modification

iii. Abandonment

iv. Reorganization

v. Correction

vi. Specification

vii. Elaboration

viii. Exemplification

ix. Rewording

x. Restructuring.

Speech Acts and Conversation

The primary concept of speech act is that, various functions can be implemented by

means of language. According to Yule (1996) speech acts is performed action via utterance.

In his famous work, How to do Things with Words 1953), J. L. Austin outlined his Theory of

Speech Acts and the concept of performative language, in which to say something is to do

something . We really communicate our ideas, feeling, and intentions through our utterances

we made. Besides our physical acts such as cooking, running, driving, , etc, we accomplish a

great deal each and every day through verbal acts. For instance in our day-to-day

conversations via telephone calls, job application letters, notes scribbled to colleagues or

roommates, etc , we perform verbal acts of different types. In short, actions carried out

through language are called Speech Acts.

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Classifications of Speech Acts

Austin (1962) describes kinds of acts; they are locutionary act, illocutionary act and

Perlocutionary act. Locutionary act is roughly equivalent to uttering a certain sentence with a

certain sense and reference, which again is roughly equivalent to meaning‟ in the traditional

sense. The locutionary acts are uttered by the speaker to send specific meaning. The meaning

is stated in illocutionary acts.Illocutionary acts such as informing, ordering, warning,

undertaking, etc are the examples of utterances which have certain (conventional) force.

Perlocutionaryacts is what we bring about achieve by saying something, such as convincing,

persuading, deterring, and even, say, surprising or misleading.

Moreover, Yule (1996) describes locutionary act as the basic act of utterances, or

producing a meaningful linguistic expression. The illocutionary act is performed via

communicative force of an utterance. We might utter to make a statement, an offer, an

explanation, or for some other communicative purpose.Perlocutionary act is an utterance with

a function without intending it to have an effect. Depending on circumstances, you will utter

on the assumption that hearer will recognize the effect you intended ( for example, to account

for a wonderful smell, or to get the hearer to drink some coffee). This is also generally known

as the perlocutionary effect.

Types of Speech Acts

There are many types of speech acts but six of them have received particular attention:

1. Verdictives: are acts that consist of delivering a finding, official or unofficial,

upon evidence or reasons as to value or fact, so far as these are distinguishable, such as

acquit, hold (as a matter of law), read something as, etc. They make assessment or judgment

such as ranking, assessing, appraising, condoning,

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2. Directives: are acts of giving a decision in favour of or against a certain course of action, or

advocacy of it, for instance, appoint, dismiss, order, sentence, etc.They are intended to get the

addressee to carry out an action.

3. Commissives: are acts whose point is to commit the speaker to a certain course of action,

for examples, contract, give one’s word, declare one’s intention, promises, pledges, threats,

vows, etc.

4. Expressives: include the notion of reaction to other people’s behavior and fortunes and

expressions of attitudes to someone else‟ past conduct or imminent conduct, such as

apologize, thank, congratulate, welcome, etc.

5. Declaration: bring about the state of affairs they name: blessings, hirings, firings,

baptisms, arrest, marrying, etc.

6. Representatives: represent the state of affairs such as assertions, statements, claims,

hypotheses, descriptions, suggestions. They can generally be characterized as true or false.

The Cooperative Principle (CP) and Conversation

Cooperative Principle (CP) as propounded by Paul Grice (1975) is as follows:

Make your conversation contribution such as is required, at the stage it

which it occurs, by accepted purpose or direction of the talkexchange in

which you are engaged.

The concept of being an expected amount of information provided in conversation is just one

aspect of the moral general idea that people involved in a conversation will cooperate with

each other. This part of cooperation as stated in the above touches on four areas of

communication principles called maxims.

The four principles or maxims purposed by Grice (1975) are:

1. Maxim of Quantity: Relates to the quantity of information provided and say as much as but

no more than is necessary. This can be described in the following

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a. Make your contribution as informative as is required (for the current purposes exchange).

b. Do not make your contribution more informative that is required.

2. Maxim of Quality: Relates to the truthfulness of the information provided and can be

explained as:

a. Do not say what you believe to be false.

b. Do not say that for which you lack evidence.

3. Maxim of Relation: Be relevant.

The participants are expected to make a contribution to communication that is relevant to the

topic at hand and to the situation of the exchange. Your speech must be relevant at the time of

the conversation.

4. Maxim of Manner: Grice suggests that the maxims of manner are different from the others

in the sense that whereas other maxims are related to “what is said, manner is related to “how

what is said to be said “ (1975). Orderliness in conversation is not only dictated by the order

of events by there are rules governing every language naturally. This can be explained as

follows:

a. Be Clear.

b. Avoid ambiguity.

c. Be brief.

d. Be orderly.

It is important to recognize these maxims as unstated assumptions in conversations. It

is assumed that people are normally going to provide an appropriate amount of information.

It is also assumed that the information told is

true, relevant, and as clear as it is possible.

Implication of CP in conversation

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 It has been recognized that generally when we are involved in a conversation, weare

cooperating with each other. In other words, when a listener hears an expression she or he

firstly has to assume that the speaker is being cooperative and intend to communicate more

than is said. It is an additional meaning or that something more than what the words mean

called implicature (Yule, 1996).

There are two types of occasion on which implicatures are drawn. Implicatures are

obtained when what A says obey the CP, in this case implicatures strengthen or achieve the

communicated meaning in economical way. In this case, A is observing the CP. The second

types of occasion on which implicatures are drawn is one in which the exact meaning of what

A has said is an obvious violation of the CP; it seems to A that S clearly aware of this and,

yet, A seems to be attempting to communicate. Accordingly, A tries to interpret what A

intended to convey, a meaning that is related to the CP as it applies to the speech context as a

whole. In this case A is, o n the surface, exploiting or flouting the CP. Working out an

implicature in this type of situation requires that A recognizes that A has

purposefully violated or flouted the CP. Thus, if A fails to recognize the violation

as deliberate, A may assume erroneously that A is being uncooperative (Mohammed, 2012).

Situations when the CP is flouted can result from Indirect Speech Acts which must violate at

least one CP.

Classroom Interaction Theories and Conversation

(a ) Interactionism/interactionist theory

In the field of second language acquisition, interaction has long been considered

important in language learning. It requires in the process of second language learning the

presence of two or more learners who collaborate in achieving communication. Interaction

is a way of learning in general and developing the language skills in particular. Long’s

(1990) as cited in Ellis (1994) interaction hypothesis emphasizes the importance of

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comprehensible input and claims that it is most effective when it is modified through the

negotiation of meaning.

Interactionism refers to the central role of social interaction in the development of

language. Trevathen (1974) writes, “Human intelligence develops from the start as an

interpersonal process”. Furthermore, Gordon Wells (1981) writes, learning to communicate

is a collaborative affair. Right up to the early years of schooling and beyond, the adult is the

more skilled participant, with a responsibility for helping the child to develop and extend his

communicative skills at first pre-verbally then verbally, and later in written language. But at

each stage, the child also has a contribution to make, stemming from his own purposes. The

sort of interaction that will be most beneficial for his/her development therefore is that

which gives due weight to the contribution of both parties, and emphasized mutuality and

reciprocity in the meanings that are constructed and negotiated through talk.

The interactionist stresses the unification of nature and culture (Toulmin 1978), the

interweaving of the biological and the social factors. The term “interactionist” includes both

the Vygotskian notion of social sources of development and also the dialectical mode of

analysis. It attempts to capture the complex non-reductionist and nonlinear features of our

subject. The term is used at times by researchers using an information theory perspective

particularly in discussing bottom-up and top-down processes (Stanovich 1980). As a

consequence, some authors reject the term interactionist just because of this association with

computational models.

With Tinto’s interactionist theory, Tinto (2000) expanded on his earlier model to

include the linkage between learning and persistence. In expanding upon his earlier

Interactionist theory, Tinto (1975) emphasized the classroom community’s role in student

departure. The author believes the interaction that occurs in the classroom has the same

linkage for student departure as the interaction within the larger social system he first

22
suggested in 1975. He suggests in his revision that is the student involvement that springs

from the students’ interaction with other students and faculty within and related to the

classroom that leads to the broader process of academic and social integration discussed in

hid original theory (Tinto,2000b).

Long (1983) and Vygotsky (1987) have investigated the learning process of second

language learners and argued that second language learning can happen through in class

interaction and oral communication. According to Long’s (1983) Interaction Hypothesis

theory, the interactional collaboration among peers can lead to second language learning.

Then, Long (1983) introduced the Interaction Hypothesis theory about the role of

interaction in the second language learning. According to this theory, the modified input

created within interaction can be facilitating in explaining linguistic forms that learners

found difficult to understand. By modified input, it is thought to mean the input that is

created through interaction by the interlocutors, in order to facilitate their comprehension

(Ellis 1999). According to that, a second language can be acquired by the learners through

in-classroom interaction (Ellis 1999; Ellis 1998; Ellis 1995; Long 2006; Ellis 1997).

Through out the process of interaction the second language learners have the possibility to

create the input they need in order to better understand new information (Mackey 1999;

Ellis 1999).

Also, Long (1983), justified his theory through a study where he used a sample of

sixteen non-native and sixteen native speaker pairs. He observed their oral communication

during informal conversations, on their effort to explain the instructions of a game to each

others. He found that even though linguistically all pairs - irrespectively of native or non-

native combinations - were producing similar grammatical utterances, the native-non-native

pairs in their effort to overcome the communication difficulties were more likely to use

repetitions, clarification requests, or confirmation checks. Long (1983) Interaction

23
Hypothesis theory maintains that the collaboration between the native – non-native

interlocutors, in an effort to adjust the new input to their interlocutors’ level of competence,

increases the chances of comprehension.

Moreover, Long (1983) supports that during negotiation of meaning, interlocutors

modify their conversation, recruiting strategies such as comprehension and clarification

checks and comprehension requests in order to facilitate communication and understanding

of the new input, without being aware of their intention (incidental acquisition).

Long’s Interaction Hypothesis (1985) argues that negotiation of meaning in verbal

interactions contributes to the generation of input favourable for second language

development, and several studies have built upon the effect of negotiation of meaning on

second language acquisition (Mackey , 1999; Pica, 1988, 1994, to name a few). In Ellis’

review (1999) of the updated version of Long’s Interaction Hypothesis (1996) two views of

interaction are incorporated in the revised version of the theory that was presented by Long

a decade earlier: an interpersonal process, to help learners notice relevant features in the

input, and an intrapersonal activity, which involves different types of processing operations

for learners to acquire the negotiated input.

It is clear that interactionist methods of investigation and analysis focus on the

processes rather than the products of learning and development. Learning and development

are the best examined as dynamic processes in meaningful contexts of social activity.

Besides, one of the most important aspects of the interactionist theory of education concerns

the ways in which teachers make sense of and respond to the behaviour of their students.

In summary, interactionism emphasizes the communication that actually takes place

in the classroom between teachers and students and among students for language input and

creating meaningful contexts for classroom activities.

(b)Sociocultural theory and Classroom Interaction

24
 Sociocultural theory by Vygotsky and his colleagues has been widely applied in the

field of education. Due to Vygotsky’s views can be seen in the process approaches, which

appeared as a reaction against the dominant product approaches in the 1960s and 1970s.

The product approaches are grounded on behaviourist principles and relate language

teaching to linguistic form, discrete linguistics skills and habit formation. They claim that

language consists of parts, which should be learned and mastered separately in a graded

manner. The learner’s role is to receive and follow the teacher’s instructions; an example of

these approaches is the audio-lingual approach. However, process approaches came up with

views emphasizing the cognitive aspect of learning and acknowledge the contributions that

the learner brings to the learning context. According to these approaches, students should be

taught what Horrowtiz (1986) terms as ”systematic thinking skills”. As a result, planning,

setting goals, drafting and generating ideas became part of teaching strategies in second

language (L2) classroom, particularly in the field of writing. In addition, the social aspect of

teaching second language became an important part of L2 classroom literature, as

spearheaded by Genre Approach (Gee 1997; Badger et al. 2000). Proponents of Genre tool

for teachers to use in their teaching. Therefore, the theoretical basis of Genre Approach is

firmly premised in the systemic functional model that refers to the theory of genre as theory

of language use, description of relationship between the context in which language occurs

and the actual language being used (Gee 1997). Here, the emphasis is on social uses of

language according to context, which tally with Vygotsky’s ideas of the role of language as

a social tool for communication.

The importance of meaning construction in the act of learning (reflecting Vygotsky’s

claims) is a hot topic in L2 classroom interactions. The rise of approaches such as

integrative teaching of reading and writing is nothing but a recognition of the importance of

meaningful interaction of L2 students with texts in classrooms. Zimmerman (1997) argues

25
that enhancing students’ competency in L2 should not be seen to be located in mastering

skills. Too much concentration on skills could deprive students from engaging with what he

refers to as aspects of literacy such as meaning construction, competency, fluency and

flexibility with dealing with texts as readers and writers.

In Hall’s study (1995) he mentioned a group of scholars concerned with interaction

and additional language learning has recently begun exploring other fields (Block, 1996;

Firth & Wagner, 1997, 1998; Hall, 1995a, 1997; Lantolf, 1995; Lantolf & Appel, 1994).

These explorations have led to assumptions on the nature of language and learning that

differ fairly substantially from those embodied in the more traditional approach to research

on interaction and language learning.

In socio-cultural view, language is not comprised of internal structures located in the

individual. Rather, it is considered to be fundamentally social, comprised of linguistic

resources whose meanings are both embodied in and constitutive of our everyday

communicative activities and practices. So language learning is considered not the internal

assimilation of structural components of language systems. Rather, it is a fundamentally

social process, initiating in our social worlds. Constituting these worlds is a heterogeneous

mix of goal-directed, regularly occurring, communicative activities and events comprised of

various communicative means for their accomplishment. Through repeated participation in

these activities with more capable members, we acquire the linguistic, socio-cultural and

other knowledge and competencies considered essential to full participation.

In the socio-cultural perspective of learning, the essence of mind is considered to be

inseparable from the varied worlds it inhabits. That is, the communicative contexts in which

we participate, along with the particular linguistic means that are needed to communicate

with others in these contexts, do not simply enhance the development of universal mental

structures that already exist. Rather, they fundamentally shape and transform them

26
(Leontiev, 1981; Vygotsky, 1981). The more opportunities for taking part in our activities,

the more fully we develop the linguistic, social and cognitive knowledge and skills needed

for competent engagement.

In fact the classrooms are important socio-cultural contexts so they are considered

fundamental sites of learning. Because most learning opportunities are accomplished

through face-to-face interaction, its role is considered especially consequential to the

creation of effectual learning environments and ultimately to the shaping of individual

learners’ development. For it is in the discourse created in the interaction of these

classrooms that teachers and students together develop particular understandings of what

constitutes language and language learning.

(e) Flanders Classroom Interaction Analysis Categories Theory

Flanders Interaction Analysis is a system of classroom interaction analysis which is

concerned with verbal behaviour only, primarily because it can be observed with higher

reliability than can non-verbal behaviour and more also, the assumption made that the verbal

behaviour of an individual is an adequate sample of his total behaviour. Flanders Interaction

Analysis Categories (FIAC) is a Ten Category System of communication which are said to be

inclusive of all communication possibilities. There are seven categories used when the

teacher is talking (Teacher talk) andtwo when the pupil is talking (Pupil talk) and tenth

category is that of silence or confusion.

TEACHER INDIRECT 1. ACCEPTS FEELING: accepts and clarifies the

TALK feeling tone of the students in a non-threatening
INFLUENCE manner. Feeling may be positive or negative.
Predicting or recalling feeling is included.
2. PRAISES OR ENCOURAGES: praises or
encourage student actions or behavior. Jokes that
release tension, not at expense of another
individual, nodding head or saying “um hum?” or “go
on” are included.
3. ACCEPTS OR USES IDEAS OF STUDENTS:
clarifying, building, or developing ideas suggested by
a student. As a teacher bring more of his own ideas

27
 into play, shift to category five.
4. ASK QUESTIONS: asking a question about content
or procedure with the intent that a student
answers.
DIRECT 5. LECTURING: giving facts or opinion about content
or procedure with his own ideas, asking rhetorical
INFLUENCE question.
6. GIVING DIRECTIONS: directions, commands, or
orders to which a student is expected to comply.
7.CRITICIZING OR JUSTIFYING AUTHORITY:
statements intended to change student behavior from
non-acceptable to acceptable pattern; bawling
someone out; stating why the teacher is doing what he
is doing; extremely self-reference.

STUDENT TALK 8. STUDENTS TALK-RESPONSE: a student makes a

predictable response to teacher. Teacher initiates the
contact or solicits student statements and sets limits to
what the student says.
9. STUDENTS TALK INITIATION: talk by
students which they initiate. Unpredictable
statements in response to teacher. Shift from 8 to 9 as
student introduced own ideas.

10. SILENCE OR CONFUSION: pauses, short

periods of silence, and periods of confusion in which
communication cannot be understood by the observer

The Flanders Interaction Analysis model for the study is the modification of Amatari (2015)

and is as follows:

i. In a normal classroom situation, it is verbal communication, which is predominant.

ii. Even though the use of spoken language might resort to non-verbal gestures in

classroom, verbal behaviour can be observed with higher reliability than most non-

verbal behaviour and also it can reasonably serve as an adequate sample of the total

behaviour in classroom.

iii. We can normally assume that verbal statements of a teacher are consistent with his

non-verbal gestures and,in fact, his total behaviour.

iv. The teacher exerts a great deal of influence on the pupils. Pupil’s behaviour is

affected to great extent by this type of teacher behaviour exhibited.

28
 v. The relation between students and teacher is a crucial factor in the teaching process

and must be considered an important aspect of methodology.

vi. It has been established that social climate is related to productivity and to the quality

of interpersonal relations. It has been proved that democratic atmosphere tends to

keep work of a relatively high level even in the absence of the teacher.

vii. Children tend to be conscious of a warm acceptance of the teacher and to express

greatest fondness for the democratic teacher.

viii. The role of classroom climate is crucial for the learning process.

ix. The teacher-classroom verbal behavior can be observed objectively by the use of

observational technique designed to ‘catch’ the natural modes of behaviour, which

will also permit the process of measurement with a minimum disturbance of normal

activities of the group of individuals.

x. Modification of teacher classroom behaviour through feedback is possible, though

how much can change occur and more knowledge relating to the permanence of these

changes will require further research.

xi. Teacher influence is expressed primarily through verbal statements. Non –verbal acts

of influence do occur, but are not recorded through interaction analysis. There

asonableness of this assumption rests upon the assertion that the quality of the non-

verbal acts is similar to the verbal acts; to assess verbal influence, therefore it is

adequately a simple of all influences.

Related Literatures

The following studies have been reviewed in relation to the present study.

i. Pheasanty (2003) conducted a research with the objective to identify the

characteristics of the classroom interaction in the elementary school English classes;

29
 to identify the English mastery of the Elementary school students; and to find out

whether there are significant differences in the effectiveness of teaching learning

process among classes with different percentages of classroom interaction features.

This study involved the fifth grade students and the English language teachers of

some schools as the subjects. The observation used Flanders Interaction Analysis to

identify the classroom interaction. While the English mastery test were analyzed by

using one way ANOVA.The result of the analysis showed that the dominant

characteristics of classroom interaction in Elementary School are the student

participation, indirect ratio, and content cross. The analysis revealed that there are

significant differences in the effectiveness of teaching learning English among classes

which have different percentages of characteristics of classroom interaction.

ii. Also in 2005 Inamullah conducted a research to explore patterns of classroom

interaction at secondary and tertiary levels in the North West Frontier Province

ofPakistan employing Flanders Interaction Analysis system. This study is

significantbecause its findings and conclusions may stimulate teachers to improve

their teaching behavior in order to maximize students learning. Fifty observations

were carried out, each in one classroom, using FlandersInteraction Analysis system to

secure the data. In achieving this, time sampling was employed and each classroom

was observed for 810 second in a 45-minutes class. After obtaining and encoding the

data, it was tabulated, analyzed and interpreted by using percentages, means, standard

deviations and t-test. The result shows that the students talk time at secondary and

tertiary level differed although in favor of secondary level classes where students talk

time was greater than that of the tertiary level. While the talk time of teacher at

tertiary level was greater than that of the teacher’s at secondary level. Silence time at

secondary level was significantly greater than at tertiary level.

30
Interaction, Classroom Interaction and Conversation

Interaction:There are a lot of definitions that have been put forward in the research on

interactions. Berge’s (1999) definition was based on a compilation of researchers’

interpretations as two-way communication among two or more people within a learning

context, with the purposes either task/instructional completion or social relationship-building,

that includes a means for teacher and learner to receive feedback and for adaptation to occur

based upon information and activities with which the participants are engaged. While Wagner

(1994) provided a definition of interaction within the context of learner performance: “An

instructional interaction is an event that takes place between a learner and the learner’s

environment. Its purpose is to respond to the learner in a way intended to change his or her

behavior toward an educational goal”. Henri (1995) noted that true interaction consists of three

actions configured as a message from A to B; a message 16 from B responding to A; and, 4

and ultimately, a message from A responding to the message from B. Common to all the

aforementioned definitions is that interaction is seen as back- and-forth communication.

On the other hand, Yacci (2000) built on the concept of interaction with the following

components: message loop, student’s perspective, outputs in the form of content learning and

affective benefits, and mutually coherent messages. The message loop flows from an

originating entity to a target entity and back to the originating entity. Entities can take the form

of students, instructors, computers, and others capable of sending and receiving messages.

Loop patterns follow these pathways: student to teacher to student, Student 1 to Student 2 and

back to Student 1, or student to interface and back to student. However, interaction is an

important component of the educational experience that must be carefully planned and

designed in the online classroom (Berge, 1999; Liaw & Huang, 2000; Northrup, 2001).

In fact teaching-learning interactions, like other interpersonal relationships, are

characterized by both explicit and implicit communication (Mehrabian, 1981). Interpersonal

31
perceptions and communicative relationships between teachers and students are crucial to

the teaching-learning process, and the degree of immediacy between teacher and students is

an important variable in those relationships (Andersen, 1978,1979; Richmond, Gorham &

McCroskey, 1986).

Interaction is an important word for language teachers. Brown (1994) says that in the

era of communicative language teaching, interaction is the heart of communication; it is what

communication is all about.

Classroom Interaction:The study of classroom interaction may be a part of studies of

Classroom Discourse, Teacher Talk and Classroom learning is a co-operative effort between

the teacher and the students. It points to how the teacher and the students interact and how

students interact amongst themselves, all of which affects the learning process.

The teacher initiates interactions with the whole group of students and with

individuals, right from the beginning of the class/lesson. Initially the students can only

respond non-verbally or with a few target words. Later on, the students have more control of

the target topic and can respond more appropriately and even initiate interaction themselves.

This is better described by M.L. Tickoo (2009):

i. The teacher interacts with the whole class.

ii. The teacher interacts with a group, a pair or an individual pupil.

iii. Pupils interact with each other: in groups, in pairs, as individuals or as a class.

iv. Pupils work with materials or aids and attempt the task once again individually, in

groups and so on.

Studies of the classroom, both primary and secondary, have shown that the language used

by the teacher affects the language produced by the learners, the interaction generated and

hence the kind of learning that takes place. Classroom language and interaction are even

32
more important because language is the subject of study as well as the medium for learning.

When students listen to the teacher’s instructions and explanations, when they express their

views, answer questions and carry out tasks and activities, they are not only learning but also

putting to use what they are learning. This is summarized by Okebukola (2002)

‘Collaborative learning strategies, including interactive strategies, provide genuine

communication and interaction environment for learners to illustrate their individual ideas.’

Classroom communication is a vital ingredient in the instructional and learning process in

the school environment. It is as necessary as food is a prerequisite for healthy growth. The

quality and quantity of teacher-student interaction is a critical dimension of effective

classroom teaching. The term ‘interaction’ implies an action/reaction or a mutual or

reciprocal influence which may be between individuals, e.g. pupil – pupil; teacher-pupil in

classroom setting or between materials and individuals or groups.

To study and describe what happens in the classroom, to know classroom teaching and

learning and what goes on in a language classroom, we have to gain knowledge about the

classroom, classroom interaction, task and activity. Amy B.M. Tsui defines classroom thus:

The classroom can be defined as a place where more than two people

gather together for the purpose of learning, with one having the role of

teacher. The teacher has certain perceptions about his or her role in the

classroom.

Interaction occursevery day in the classroom activities between the teacher and the

learners. Interaction commonly defines as a kind of action that occurs as two or more objects

has an effect upon one another. The idea of a two-way effect is essential in the concept of

interaction, as opposed to a one-way causal effect. Education with its correlated activities of

teaching and learning process involves interaction between teacher and students as channels

of realizing its objectives. Interaction occur every day in teaching and learning process. It is

33
managed by everyone, not only by the teacher in the classroom, but also the students. This

interaction is usually used to express their ideas together. Allwright and Breen as quoted by

Chaudron (1988:10) stated:

Interaction in classroom is viewed as significant because it is argued that:

a. Only through interaction, the learner can decompose the TL structures and derive meaning

from classroom events.

b. Interaction gives learners the opportunities to incorporate TL structures into their own

speech (the scaffolding principles) and

c. The meaningfulness for learners of classroom events of any kind, whether thought of as

interactive or not will depend on the extent to which communication has been jointly

constructed between the teacher and learners.

Allwright and Bailey (1991) explained that through classroom interaction, the plan

produces outcomes (input, practice opportunities, and receptivity). The teacher has to plan

what he intends to teach (syllabus, method, and atmosphere). So, the classroom interaction

has important role in teaching earningprocess.Teaching as we know is an interactive act. In

the classroom, communication between the teacher and pupils goes on constantly as initiatory

or responsive acts.

This can be represented in the figure below

Planned Aspect Lesson Co-Produced

Outcomes
Syllabus Output

Method Classroom Practice

Interaction
Opportunities

Atmosphere

Receptivity

Adopted from Nurmasitah 2010

34
This communication is called “interaction”. Jack C. Richards, John Platt and Heidi Platt,

(1992) defined this process as:

The patterns of verbal and non verbal communication and the types of social

relationships which occur within classrooms.

Onocha and Okpala (1990) in examining classroom interaction of science related subjects

explained that classroom interaction as relationships between teacher characteristics and

students’ in the learning process coupled with the materials used and environmental factors.

But Ononye (2015) in studying the linguistic choices and teaching methods explained that

classroom interaction involves the teacher-students classroom language communication.

Studies have established that there are some linguistic patterns, or structures, which are

commonplace in classroom talk between teachers and pupils. In particular, there is a

exchange structure which has been shown to be characteristic.

Conversation in the Classroom

The role of conversation as the medium to all learners and have contributed to the

notion that effective teaching is essentially a long conversation. Nwagbo (2008) describes

classroom discourse and learning process as opportunities necessary for the acquisition of

knowledge, skills, attitudes and values. These are not accumulated for storage, but for use to

better the life of the individual and his society.

One wonders if these are so in Nigeria Secondary schools because of the nature of the

teaching methods employed in the classroom. This has therefore led to a steady growth in the

study of classroom interaction, as good quality talk is increasingly seen as central to effective

learning and teaching. This is because learning is increasingly being recognized as a

fundamentally social process. Mercer (1995) building on the work of Vygotsky (1986) has

articulated well the possibilities of ‘exploratory talk’ (participants engaging critically but

constructively) and ‘interthinking’ (talk in learning as a reciprocal process) for the

35
collaborative building of knowledge. The role of these types of talk between peers or between

children and adults is increasingly being seen as crucial in ensuring the most successful

learning possible. Onojerena & Eromosele (2018) describes the learner-centred as enhancing

effective learning. The concepts of ‘dialogic talk’ and ‘dialogic teaching’, developed by

Alexander (2005), emphasizes the importance of genuine questions, and the teacher’s active

engagement with children’s answers, questions and ideas. Knowledge is therefore seen not in

terms of being transmitted, but transformed through social interaction. As a result of the

growth of interest in this area, decisions have needed to be made, and continue to be made,

regarding the most suitable methodologies for the study of classroom interaction in order to

inform practice. In addition, advances in technology have made data available which are

increasingly complex and therefore demand increasingly sophisticated means of analysis and

representation.

Johnson (1995) identifies an integrated view of communication in second language

classrooms and puts forward a framework which may be used for describing and analyzing

classroom interaction. She identifies the most essential aspects of classroom discourse: the

academic task structures, the social participation structures and the ways in which the teacher

reinforces these structures. The elements of the framework according to him include forms

of teachers’ control of classroom communication – shaped mostly by their professional and

practical knowledge; students’ perceptions of these patterns – norms and expectations based

on their previous learning experience, including preconceived notions of “appropriate”

classroom communication; students’ use of the target language; the extent to which the

existing patterns of communication create opportunities for students to use the target

language for classroom learning.

Johnson then postulates that, in order to be effective, classroom interaction must

fulfill a number of conditions. First of all, it has to ensure the optimal conditions for target

36
language learning and use, open up a space for both meaning-focused and form-focused

language practice, and give students opportunities to use planned and unplanned discourse

within authentic contexts. Secondly, it should enable learners to initiate interaction, control

the topic and engage in meaning-focused discussion. Finally, classroom interaction is

supposed to challenge students to operate beyond their current level of language proficiency

by participation in the negotiation of meaning and performing different language functions.

Leo van Lier (1996) claims that classroom communication does not have to imitate

closely the patterns typical of a casual, spontaneous conversation, as classroom interaction is

a special kind of discourse constructed collectively by the teacher and students in which the

focus of interaction may shift from the pedagogic to the natural mode at any moment. The

specific property of classroom discourse referred to as contingency is central to van Lier’s

model, and may be interpreted as a kind of departure from the script of the lesson in response

to the current circumstances of the ongoing communication in the classroom. As van Lier

(2001) puts it “when talk is contingent, utterances are constructed on the spot, rather than

planned in advance”. In other words, contingent classroom discourse is improvised and not

based on a script, and as such it reflects the interplay between dependency and uncertainty in

interactions (Pawlak 2004) in which learners act communicatively, being, at the same time,

resourceful with the language when they need to respond or provide a solution.

Types of Classroom Interaction

a) Teacher-learner interaction

The main relation between the teacher and student according to Harmer, is focused on the

input of the learner, he say that “The teacher focuses on the type of the input he should

provide his students with because the meaningful and understandable input leads the students

to respond to their teacher and interact with him”. Most characteristics of this type of

interaction teacher-learner introduce the mission of teacher more than the learner.

37
 b) Learner- Learner interaction

Here, the learners are the main participants since they need to interact among themselves

in order to negotiate meaning through speaking tasks. this interaction can occur either in

groups or in pairs for the sake of giving students opportunities to practice what they have

been taught. This type of classroom interaction helps students to recognize many things

during the activities in the classroom.

The dominant pattern of interaction is that of the teacher’s question, the student’s

response and the teacher’s feedback. This is commonly found in all classrooms and is typical

of classroom exchange. Teacher’s talk not only takes up the largest portion of talk but also

determines the topic of talk and who talks. It is therefore a very important component of

classroom interaction.

Amy B.M. Tsui defines teacher’s explanation, which is another component that takes

up a significant portion of teacher’s talk: There are different ways of defining explanation.

Some define it very generally as providing information or communicating,content, others

make a distinction between explanation of procedures and explanation of concepts,

vocabulary and grammatical rules. How teachers deal with explanation is very important:

inappropriate explanation or over- explanation hinder rather than help students to

comprehend.

The ways in which students behave and interact during a classroom organized and

controlled by the teacher (or sometimes by the learners themselves) to enable teaching to take

place most effectively is called classroom management.

And this involves different types of classroom activities.

Different Classroom Interaction Activities

Interaction method(activities) according to Izuagba(2012), Njameze (2010), and Aigo (2012)

a) Group work

38
 b) Think-Pair-share

c) Debates.

d) Prediction.

e) Discussion and practice method.

f) Diagrams.

g) Brainstorming.

h) Scaffolding.

i) Small group activity.

j) Role playing method.

k) Jigsaw.

l) Mentoring and many others.

Festus (2015) explained some of these above:

Group work

Group work gives students the opportunity to learn from their classmates and

exchange information, build teams and form cohesion. At the end of the interaction, each

group is encouraged to present her work to the whole class. The presentation further gives

students the opportunity for whole class interaction, argument and explanation. The teacher

then summarizes and clarifies all issues on the task.

'Think-Pair-Share'

Using this interactive strategy to teach grammar, the grammatical item is introduced

and each learner is expected to first work alone, think and come up with the solution. This is

done in a short period of time and it induces group discussion. The discussion centers on the

answers each person or group present to the group task. This is reviewed in order to reach a

compromise. The group work provides the learners a safe environment for everyone to ask

questions, and find out why some answers are right or wrong. There could be disagreements,

39
arguments as the learners discuss; they can refer to their texts for solution or invite the

teacher who is always around to monitor and facilitate the activities. The teacher does not

give the answers unless in very difficult contexts; rather he uses probing questions to make

the group think deeper and reflect in order to resolved the issue. Example of the topic used in

this activity is in teaching lexical relations such as homonyms, homophones, antonyms and

more.

Prediction

This is an interactive activity which enables learners to think as they learn. It teaches

reflective thinking, critical and creative thinking. For instance, in teaching reading

comprehension, the title of the passage can be used for this activity. The teacher can also read

the introductory sentences and ask the learners to make a prediction on what could be the

next action, using common question word such as; apply, construct, locate, what would be the

expected result and more. It does not really matter how exact their predictions are, the

important thing is that the learners are given the opportunity to communicate in the target

language. The teacher also can use probing questions to make them reflect, share and think

deeper.

Discussion and practice method

This strategy exposes students to deeper reasoning in order to make them contribute

effectively in the discussion. Discussion and practice method help students to discuss,

analyze and criticize issues raised in the classroom. Discussions are elaborately and

collaboratively arrived at and responsibility for learning is shared. In a classroom, learners

were asked to discuss the issue of school girls who were abducted by Boko Haram

Insurgents. This scenario helped the shy students to discuss freely and their errors corrected

by their lecturers. Learners are able to freely discuss their learning experience based on the

knowledge they generated from collaborative learning. The positive effects of concept

40
mapping technique and other collaborative learning strategies on the performance of students

have been widely researched and documented empirically. These strategies should be used by

the teacher to enhance the learners’ performance.

Diagrams

Diagram is another interactive activity used in showing the relationships among

concepts. It is a technique used to visually represent the relationships among different

concepts. Diagrams are graphic tools for organizing and representing knowledge. In

diagrams, key concepts are usually represented using squares while the sub ideas are put in

circles. They may also be connected with arrows in a downward-branching hierarchical

structure in the order related to the concepts.

Brainstorming

This involves creative activity which generates spontaneous ideas. Brainstorming can

be undertaken as a pair task, or in groups. It can be use at any point during the lesson. Such

words as what was the motive? What is the main idea, what is the relationship between? And

more are used to elicit response. Brainstorming has the

following qualities;

- It is usually short as it does not last for more than five minutes

- It helps the learners to think deeply about the concept by relating it to their prior

knowledge and background.

- As they brainstorm, each learner in the group brings to the task his/her experience and

this enriches their knowledge and what is generated.

- Brainstorming makes them learn how to think critically and reflectively.

- Through brainstorming, students develop team spirit and the ability to work as a group.

Small Group Activity

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 This strategy is related to the discussion and practice method. Such words as

demonstrate, interpret etc are used in this activity. The difference is that every student in this

group is maximally involved in activity participation. The co-coordinator induces an activity

that is fully participatory, involving brainstorming sessions.

Role Playing Method

This is an important strategy used to engage the students in activity that will bring out

their intellectual potentials. “Role playing helps the students to examine thoughtfully

different ways of resolving social and personal conflict. It equips students with skills to be

more efficient and effective in their world. It has the function of identifying the real potential

of students in average classroom setting” It enhances student involvement in a classroom

setting. By playing the role of another person, the student learns to modify his behavioral

pattern and attitude. He is expose d to interpersonal relations and feelings of high or low

esteem; if he/she does well or derails. In our use of English language classroom, some

students may be assigned roles based and in the process criticized later let others try to play

similar roles better

Conversation Analysis(CA) and Language learning.

CA studies have impacted in a number of ways on several issues related to language

learning. Studies have critiqued the notion of ‘task’ employed by the task-based approach to

language teaching and learning. There have been a number of different conceptions of the

relationship between CA and the broad field of language learning and teaching, and CA has

indeed been applied in research in this field in many different ways. It has to be underlined

that the context of foreign language teaching or learning requires a specific approach to

classroom discourse as the target language functions here as both the medium and the goal of

teaching (Majer 2003).

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 Conversation analysis has been studied by linguists and sociologist, for its importance

in teaching and learning foreign language.

Teaching the English Language depending on the conversation principles is

considered as a new tool in the educational system, especially at University level. Teachers

try to incorporate the procedures in their lesson plans in order to achieve certain objectives

specifically who associated with interaction activities within the classroom like (Role-play;

oral presentation; dialogue; topic discussion). These are appropriate interaction tasks to

practice techniques of conversation analysis. Teachers attempt to explain these techniques,

and then their application in classroom interaction.

However, current student centered, communicative language teaching and learning

methodologies place emphasis on providing learners with opportunity to communicate

(Harmer 2001). Such methodologies, in no small part, are based on second language

acquisition (SLA) theory that interactional modification of language and negotiation for

meaning within talk provide a means for comprehensible language input and output, which in

turn, are considered valuable to the SLA process (e.g. Krashen 1980; Long 1983a, 1983b,

1996; Swain 1985). As a result, the “landscape of the language classroom” (Mori 2004) has

adapted to incorporate a large amount of pair and group work, and activities, for example,

information gap tasks, which promote the acquisition process in this way. Indeed, Hall and

Walsh (2002) noted that while a connection between social interaction and language learning

has long been asserted, “only recently have researchers begun gathering empirical evidence

for those assertions.” Conversation analysis (CA) has become an analytic tool commonly

used in the attempt to gather such evidence (Huth 2011).

The term Conversation analysis (CA) has studied from the major researchers of

applied linguists and sociologists. It is a part of discourse analysis (DA) in teaching a second

language (TSL) and foreign language (FL). According to Granfekal (cited in Liddecoat 2007)

43
defined CA as a technique for the study for interpreting the talk in- interaction orderly within

speech community, this examines depending on certain parameters as such: Linguistic

dimension, social cultural dimension, and finally psychology

The role of conversation analysis in teaching English as a foreign language is a

worthy issue in the teaching process, In connection with classroom interaction, because it

plays an important role in the relation to speaking skills and talk in-interaction.(Grafinkel in

Liddicoat, 2007) defined conversation analysis as an approach to the study of talk in

interaction which grew out the ethno methodological tradition in sociology”. It has become

cross disciplines of sociology, Anthropology, social psychology, communicative studies and

applied linguistics. Consequently, the application of conversation constitutes has an essential

factor in the goal of TEFL in the field of Discourse Analysis.

According to him conversation analysis seeks to understand these shared procedures

which participants in interaction use to produce and recognize meaningful action.

An example of a CA analysis of language learning processes by Seedhouse (2015)

EXTRACT

(The teacher has been asking learners to talk about their

favourite movies)

1 L: Kung Fu.

2 T: Kung Fu? you like the movie Kung Fu?

3 L: yeah. . . fight.

4 T: that was about a great fighter? . . .a man who knows how to fight with this hands.

5 L: Ifight. . .my hand.

6 T: you know how to fight with your hands?

7 L: I fight with my hand.

8 T: do you know karate?

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9 L: I know karate.

10 T: watch out guys, Wang knows karate.

According to him the analysis will be divided into three stages. Firstly, what can we

say about the learner’s actual developmental level or current ability in L2? We can note in

lines 3 and 5 that his grammatical resources are fairly limited. Nonetheless, the learner is able

tomake use of these limited resources to nominate a sub-topic (line 1), to develop the sub-

topic (line 3) and to turn the discussion to his own fighting abilities (line 5). Although it can

be challenging for children to interact with the teacher in a classroom setting, even in the L1,

we can see that L is able to use the turn-taking and sequence organizationsof the L2

proficiently. L constantly needs to analyse T’s turns. From the learner’s perspective, it is not

just a matter of understanding the propositional content of what T says in the L2; it is also a

matter of analysing what social and sequential action T is performing and what an appropriate

social and sequential action in response would be. So we can

see that L skillfully manages to co-construct meaning with T in the L2 from his limited

grammatical resources.

Secondly, what can we say about the learning environment in terms of input to the

language learning process and facilitation of upgrading as a result of the interaction? Line 6

reads: ‘you know how to fight with your hands?’ We will break its contribution down into

four points. Firstly, the utterance places the sequence within the teacher’s overall pedagogical

plan for the lesson, which ‘was to allow the students to share their ideas and possibly

generate some new vocabulary words within the context of the discussion’. Secondly, it may

promote positive affect and motivation in that the teacher engages with the ideas and personal

meanings which the learner chooses to share and produces a conversational action of

confirmation check which validates the utterance. Line 6 also displays interest in the learner’s

extra-curricular abilities. It then demonstrates confidence in the learner by returning the floor

45
to him with the question. Thirdly, it makes it possible for the other learners in the class to

follow the topic of the interaction (the others are explicitly addressed in line 10) and to

receive correctly formed linguistic input.

A typical Nigerian Secondary school teacher will enter into the class and takes this

familiar steps:

i. The class greets and he introduces the topic to the students.

ii. Ask questions on the previous lesson (in most cases reviews the previous lesson all by

himself or herself.)

iii. Goes on to the present topic and teaches the class giving copious examples and in

most cases from his prepared lesson note.

iv. Ask questions to know if the students got it and then proceeds to evaluation.

v. Gives assignment.

This steps reveal the monologue teaching style of Nigeria Secondary school teachers.

And this is actually not in accordance with the UNESCO standard.

Although divers aapproaches have been used in the study of classroom interactions and these

include discourse analysis, content analysis, and systematic observations.

Coherence

This is the way in which ideas in a text are linked logically. The principle of

coherence is derived from the Latin cohaerere which means ‘to stick together’. Coherence is

the linking of thought to thought in such a way that the meaning can be easily followed from

sentence to sentence. Without this connection or continuity, the reader’s mind would be

jarred and confusion would result. If you are to guide your reader’s thoughts so that he can

follow our ideas easily, your sentences and paragraphs must hold together so that there is no

break in the development of your thought. This quality of coherence can be achieved in part

by careful attention to certain points of grammar.According to Abdel (2010) Coherence is

46
defined as “the organization of discourse with all elements present and fitting together

logically

Mishearing

This is concerned with immediate, spontaneous utterance perceptions that appear in

the listener’s mind on the spot, without any prior conscious reflection or internal dialogue

(for example, with the listener already being aware of a problem and asking herself what the

speaker actually said). Thus, we are concerned with immediate reaction rather than

retrospective reasoning. Immediate speech understanding has to be quick since the acoustic

events (and their memorizing) are rapidly transient. A mishearing (misperception, ”slip of the

ear”) occurs when, under these conditions, a hearer H hears something specific in another

person’s (speaker S) utterance (the ‘source utterance’), something which, as it transpires later

on (and typically immediately afterwards), is clearly distinct, in terms of lexical and

sometimes grammatical content, from what S actually said or intended to say/pronounce.

Accordingly, these mishearings are different from both non-hearings, on the one hand, and

reflected interpretations, on the other. Just like most of accurate hearings, they are literally

the first percepts in the process of making sense of somebody else’s utterance.

Misunderstanding

The notion of misunderstanding has been described under a variety of terms in

sociolinguistics: as miscommunication, misinterpretation, misperception and pragmatic

failure or breakdown in communication.

Causes of misunderstanding are closely related to the types of misunderstanding. A

useful classification of causes of misunderstandings, which they call "triggers", is provided

by Bazzanella and Damiano (1999b). These triggers fall into four categories, namely

structural misunderstandings (such as ambiguity – often the main cause of

misunderstandings); misunderstandings related to the speaker; misunderstandings related to

47
the interlocutor and misunderstandings related to the interaction between the two speakers

(such as cultural differences, e.g. between male and female communicative styles [Tannen

1991]).

Misunderstandings are assumed to occur daily which is evidenced by the frequent use

and availability of specific repair structures in conversational turns (Dascal 1999). Dascal

(1999) claims that speakers become aware of misunderstandings almost immediately after

they had occurred (second turn) and most misunderstandings are repaired in the third or

fourth turn. There are, however, exceptions, where misunderstanding continues for several

turns. If unresolved, these misunderstandings are sustained and may lead to breakdown in

communication, which is equal to miscommunication or pragmatic failure. Some authors

have stressed that misunderstandings are a fundamental part of the comprehension process

and not merely a breakdown (Kreuz & Roberts 1993; Blum-Kulka & Weizman 1988; Dascal

1985). However, it seems as if all authors agree that an inconsistency between speaker

meaning and hearer interpretation is the chief determining aspect of misunderstanding.

Background Knowledge

Students, of any age, bring beliefs and life and academic experiences to

theclassroomthat influence what and how they learn. At times, such prior knowledge

facilitates learning by creating mental hooks that serve to anchor instructional concepts.

Conversely, the acquisition of new content can be thwarted if it conflicts with students’

preexisting misinformation. As a result, the role of prior knowledge in learning is

paradoxical: it can lead to success and failure inthe classroom. Many students lack adequate

prior knowledge to extract meaning from instruction. Yet we often make assumptions that

they come to class possessing the skills and information to learn what we teach. Some

research suggests that this assumption is erroneous and that learning is influenced as much by

students’ prior knowledge as by the new instruction they receive.

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Gender and classroom interaction in second/foreign language classrooms

The influence of gender has been studied in foreign/second language learning and

teaching, from various perspectives, including gender and learning styles and strategies,

gender and attitudes towards foreign/second language learning (Bacon and Finnemann 1992;

Carr and Pauwels 2006; Guimond and Roussel 2001), gender and foreign/second language

assessment (O’Loughlin 2002; O’Sullivan 2000); gender and foreign/second language

materials (Bağ 2012; Bağ and Bayyurt 2008; Jones, Kitetu, and Sunderland 1997; Porreca

1984; Poulou 1997; Sunderland et al. 2002), gender and foreign/second language classroom

interaction (Bayyurt 1999; Bayyurt and Litosseliti 2006; Farooq 2000; Gass and Varonis

1986; Sunderland 1996; Yepez 1994).

Analyzing classroom interaction in foreign/second language classrooms is significant

as the language is both the target and means of communication. As noted by Sunderland

(1996) “The assumption that much of what is gendered that occurs in a given non-foreign-

language class may well occur too in a foreign language class”. As one of the first studies on

gender and classroom interaction in a foreign language setting, Alcón’s study examined turn

taking in teacher-initiated discussions and in same- and cross-gender discussions at a

secondary level EFL classroom. Her findings indicated that both the female and the male

teachers took more turns than the students, and that the boys took more turns than the girls.

Also, Alcón discovered significant differences in the students’ same-gender and cross-gender

conversations. The boys interrupted more often than the girls during cross-sex conversations,

whereas the girls provided a more supportive environment for the boys in which to produce

language. However, the girls interrupted more and produced more language during same-

gender conversations. To explain the discrepancy, Alcón referred to the stereotype of women

in society, where they are expected to be polite and supportive when talking to men.

49
 Sunderland (1996) observed a 7th grade German as a Foreign Language classroom in

Britain to examine teacher-to-student and student-to-teacher talk. She noted how the teacher

interacted with the students and looked for any difference in the way that boys and girls

talked to the teacher. In addition, she interviewed the teacher and the students. Her study

showed that most of the time there was no statistically significant indication of ‘differential

teacher treatment’. The teacher gave the boys more attention in terms of ‘number of solicit

words’ and ‘proportion of non-academic solicits’. However, the girls were asked more

‘academic solicits’, to which the teacher expected them to respond in German, the target

language, and they were asked more questions requiring an answer of more than one word.

Her analysis of student-to-teacher talk revealed that the ‘average girl’ produced more solicits,

more academic solicits, more non-academic solicits, more solicit-words, shorter solicits, and

more ‘unsolicited solicits’ than the ‘average boy’.

Sunderland’s findings suggest that teachers and researchers should interpret ‘the more

is better’ approach with caution. It is important to analyze a teacher’s attention and

classroom interaction not only quantitatively but also qualitatively, by distinguishing between

different types of interaction, such as academic or non-academic interaction and negative or

positive interaction.

Another study conducted by Farooq (2000), using an adapted version of Sinclair and

Coulthard’s (1992) model, analysed a male teacher’s attention in a Japanese EFL high school

classroom. Based on the overall findings of the study, Farooq reported that the teacher paid

more attention to boys than to girls. He argued that the differential treatment of girls and boys

resulted from the perception that girls were the more academic, able, and well-behaved

learners, while boys needed more attention because of their more immature and disruptive

nature.

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 Summary

In summary, it can be seen that classroom interaction is based on the classroom

activity that enhances learning in the teaching-learning process. It can also be said to the

interaction that exists between the teacher and the students .Also, classroom interaction is

based on two dimensions, interaction between teacher and students, studentsand

students’.C.A can also be described as a form of communication between a sender and

receiver of a message.

Therefore, in a class, communication is very important and the level of interaction is

also very important to the success of the learning process. The language of communication

and mode are very important to the learning process.

One may then say that in teaching, presentation and dialogue are very essential at this study

tilts towards considering them in classroom learning process using Flanders Interaction

Analysis.

While CA is in no way a theory or methodology of SLA, it is a useful tool to aid

understanding of language use within the language classroom. In this respect, CA may better

our understanding of SLA, in as much as analysis is able to take on an emic perspective of

participants interactional practices, describe them using fine grained transcripts, use such

transcripts to identify evidence of learning and understanding as they occur in conversational

behavior and in doing so, add to our understanding of the social interaction hypothesis

(Markee 2000). It can be deduced that conversation in classroom interaction during learning

is solely a form of dialogue and not monologue if true learning is to take place according to

the related literature reviewed in this chapter.

This study then aims to gain insight into the discourse of Senior Secondary Schools

learning during language lessons to know whether interactions in the language classroom of

teachers and students or students and students do take place.

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 CHAPTER THREE

METHOD

Research Design

The present research work adopted descriptive-qualitative research design.

Theresearch design and method was devoted to the analysis of teacher and students’

interaction conversation via classroom observation. On one hand, itanalyzed the role of

Conversation analysis as a useful tool in teaching EFL and the type of interaction that took

place in the classroom. And on the other hand,it involved classroom observation to find out if

learners utilized the elements of conversation analysis during interaction and subject

teachers’. The classroom interaction wasrecorded and analyzed. This was based on learners’

interaction with their teachers during the lesson, i.e. the type of interaction and conversation

prominent in the classroom discourse and its importance in improving their communication.

This part explains the approaches and methods that were used to teach CA, and which

elements of CA the teacher focused on.

Besides, the communication processwas observed as a helpful technique to encourage

students’ interaction using characteristics of CA. All these generated the researcher’s

recommendations for both teachers and learners or any other agents of education in order to

highlight the role of CA in improving students’ interaction through some classroom activities.

Population

The population for this study comprised all English Language teachers and Senior

Secondary School students in Ondo State.

Sample and Sampling Technique

The sampling technique of the study comprised of six selected secondary schools in

from the three senatorial districts of Ondo State and six English Language teachers were

52
involved (two schools per senatorial district) and one male, one female teacher, to give room

for equal representation.

Instruments for Data Collection

The research instrument for this study wasobservation through audio and video

recording of the classroom interaction and conversations in line with Anita et al (1997) who

statedthat it is better to use a tape and a transcript because much information is lost when

both are not used.

Bogdan and Biklen (1982) stated that the data of descriptive-qualitative research are

in the form of words or pictures rather than in the form of numbers. Since the research

applied qualitative approach, the data were in the forms of lingual units i.e., words, phrases,

clauses, and sentences uttered by the participants involved in the classroom discourse.

Therefore, the data were taken from the utterances of the participants involved in the

classroom discourse. The contexts of the data were taken from the dialogues between the

teacher and the learners during classroom interaction.

Data Collection Procedures& Analysis

In conducting the research, the researcher applied the following procedures:

1. Determining the subjects of the research.

2. Conducting classroom observation using video and audio recording to know

teacher’s and students’ responses in the classroom interaction.

3. Preparing the data: The teacher’s and students’ utterances were transcribed

into written text.

4. Defining the unit of analysis: Messages had to be utilized before they can be

coded. The unit analyses of the research were the teacher’s and students’

interaction and conversation using an aspect of Flanders Interaction Analysis

53
 as identified by Amatari (2015) , speech act (Austin 1962) and Cooperative

Principles (1957)..

5. A template scheme was developed to help apply the entire work and

observations into text. This is where the statistical aspect of Flanders’

Interaction Analysis is not used because codes were not generated because

coding includes making inferences and present reconstructions of meaning

derived from the data.

6. Reporting method and findings: In this case of qualitative content analysis, it

needed to report decisions and practices concerning the coding process, as

well as the methods needed to be established truth worthiness of the study.

7. In addition, the researcher employed note taking as the secondary instrument

to note important information while observing the source of the data.

In line with CA practice, all data used in this study came from the transcriptions of the

audio and video recording . No pre or post testing will take place, as CA does not rely on

what participants, or indeed analysts, think may or may not be relevant, as such evidence is

ultimately likely to prove vague and confusing to the analyst. The aim of relying only on the

evidence provided in the transcripts is “to develop an emic perspective on how the

participants displayed to each other their understanding of the context”.

In the qualitative research, the researcher had several steps in order to make the data

were able to reveal the findings that are suitable with the reality. The checklists for the each

reliability of the instruments are provided in the appendix.

These method and instruments were used to identify which classroom style and

technique interaction is effective in the learning process, identify the most effective

interaction style and technique in classroom teaching of English Language and find out one,

the level of effectiveness of C.A in analyzing classroom interaction process and two, the most

54
effective and frequently used type of classroom interaction. The findings, analysis, summary,

conclusions and recommendationsare stated in chapters four and five.

55
 CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

This chapter is divided into two main sections namely results/observations and

discussion. Research findings present all findings of investigation in the recorded and

analyzed classroom conversation/interactions of the selected secondary schools in Ondo

State. Each of the recorded lessons is summarized on a template containing headings that

indicated the subject taught, the topic for the lesson, the class taught. Furthermore, detail

explanation regarding the research findings is presented in research discussion. In this

chapter, the answer of the research problems is revealed.

Results

Lesson A

Subject: English Language Teacher’s Sex: Female Class: SS2

Topic: Comprehension Passage (Violence)

Description of Lesson Content: This is a passage extracted from a novel. The teacher

introduces the topic amidst noise of the learners. She directed the learners to read the passage

and afterwards had to explain what they read. The class was interactive but too noisy due to

learners’ attitudes.

Teacher Initiates/Talk:

i. The teacher explained to the students that the passage was extracted from a novel.

ii. The teacher asked series of questions on the passage the learners had read. She asked

leading questions so as to elicit answers to the learners (Indirect influence of ask

questions of Flanders Interaction Theory)

iii. She asked them to identify and explain the vocabularies in the passage.

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Learner Reactions/Talk:

i. There was much talking among the learners. The teacher had difficulty hearing when

someone spoke or asked a question .

ii. A few learners provided good answers to most of the questions (Students Talk

response of Flanders Interaction Theory).

iii. Some learners made unpredictable statements in response to teacher’s questions

(Students Talk initiated of Flanders Interaction Theory)

Classroom Interaction Types/Activities:

Types: Teacher-Learner Interaction

Activities: (i) Prediction Method. (ii) Question and Answer Method (iii)Discussion Method..

C.A Classifications:

i. Repairs : i) self-initiated self repair

(ii) Other-initiated self-repair

Rewording: Rewording is a pattern of repair where the repair completer chooses

another wordings to explain an already given utterance. This pattern is used when the

repair completer believes that the new wording that s/he introduces will be better

expressing his thought. However, the meaning is not a subject to change.

Example

Teacher: Somebody cannot have something to eat, while people are throwing

it way, I mean wasting it, wasting it.

The teacher in the above example believes ‘wasting it’ is best to replace the ‘throwing

it always’ to illustrate that rich people are always wasteful while some are living in

hunger.

57
 Exemplification: Sometimes in speaking, people provide examples to give more detail

to a concept they propose.

Teacher: At chicken republic we have a lot of things there, You know, I mean,

we have rice, chicken,

Modification: The modification pattern is done by inserting extra constituent in the

original utterance. The extra constituent may include additional information, adverb

of time or place and adjectives.

Example: Teacher: What do you always eat?

Student: Eat?

Teacher: What do you always see when you go to chicken republic?

The teacher started the statement by referring to Chicken republic but as the time she

asked the above question, the student involved was not paying attention, so he

initiated a repair.

Repetition:

Example

Teacher: How many characters are there in the passage you?

Student: How many characters in this passage.

Teacher: How many characters are there in the passage?

ii. Turn Taking : The learners never bordered about turn-taking as they chorused answers

at will and the teacher never cautioned them for this.

Example: Teacher: I want you to take the issue of Chicken Rep., what are the

things you eat there (pauses)rice, chicken...

Students: (interrupted) moimoi, fish, no eja (loudly)I love chicken rep

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 Another violation of turn-taking occurred when one student chorused the answer

when another student got it wrong without waiting to be called upon by the teacher

(this occurred so many times)

iii. Adjacency Pairs: (Request for Information and Providing Information).

Example A:

Teacher: How many bags of cements Ayo?

Student: Five hundred bags of cements

Example B:

Teacher: How many characters are there in the passage?

Student: Five.

Speech Acts Classifications:

i. Commissives: This include threats

Example A:Teacher: I will send you out of my class.

ii. Verdictives: appraising, condoning: Absence of positive reinforcement from the

teacher during the lesson.

CP Classification

i. Maxim Of Quantity: The teacher violated the maxim of quantity a couple of times

during the lesson in the process of trying to make the learners comprehend better.

The learners too violated this maxims by giving responses beyond the required

information.

Example A: Teacher: (after reading a portion of the passage)...I want you to

take the issue of Chicken Rep., what are the things you eat there (pauses)rice,

chicken...

Students: (interrupt) moimoi, fish, no eja (loudly)I love chicken rep.

59
 Example B: Teacher: I said something about rich people, especially when you

see a boy or a girl of your age eating chicken and she can not finish it. You

begin to cry and ask why your parents gave birth to you.

ii. Maxim Of Quality: The information provided during the lesson were absolutely true

and valid.

iii. Maxim Of Relevance:

Example: Teacher: Femi, can you tell us how many bags of cements were

mentioned in the passage?

Femi: Aunty, eh! Bags of cements? They sell them at Tayo’s shop.

Lesson B

Subject: English Language Sex: Male Class: SS2

Topic: Reported speech

Description of Lesson Content: The teacher started the lesson with a role play, where

participants had to repeat a phrase that had been whispered to one of the participants by the

teacher, to each other. The last participant reported the phrase as he had heard it, which was

entirely different from the original phrase. He explained vividly that one needed to listen

carefully and ensure correct information is passed on. He then asked the learners to explain

the difference between "gossip" and "indirect speech". This was a creative way of introducing

the topic of the lesson. The teacher then explained reported speech and its rules, guiding the

learners in practicing a few sample sentences.

Teacher Initiates/Talk:

i. Teacher credited the participants who were able to pass on the correct
information to other participants (Praises or encourages aspect of Flanders
Interaction Analysis Categories).

60
 ii. Explains the rules that govern reported speech with examples (Lecturing

aspect of Flanders Interaction Analysis Categories).

iii. Asked series of questions to drive home his message. (ask questions aspect of

Flanders Interaction Analysis Categories)

iv. Assertive in dealing with students who lacked concentration or did not get the

answers correctly. (Giving directions and criticizing or justifying authority

aspects of Flanders Interaction Analysis Categories)

v. Assigned roles to erring students as a corrective and reformation measure.

Learner Reactions:

i. Learners responded well and most performed their roles correctly (students talk

response aspect of Flanders Interaction Analysis Categories) .

ii. Learners were well behaved and actively involved in the lesson.

Classroom Interaction Types/Activities:

Types: (i) Teacher learner Interaction. (ii) Learner Learner Interaction

Activities: (i) Role play (ii) Question and Answer (iii)Discussion (iv) Small Group Activity

C.A Classifications:

i. Repairs) self-initiated self repair

(ii) Other-initiated self-repair

Rewording: Rewording is a pattern of repair where the repair completer chooses

another wordings to explain an already given utterance. This pattern is used when the

repair completer believes that the new wording that s/he introduces will be better

expressing his thought. However, the meaning is not a subject to change.

Example A

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 Teacher: Tell the next student what I told you, I mean whisper to him

Example B

Teacher: Reported speech is not about telling someone about others,

I..I..mean gossip about another individual.

The teacher in the above examples believes ‘whisper is best to replace the ‘tell the

next student’ to be sure what he performs the same action as his. While he replaced

the term “telling someone about others” with “gossip”

Exemplification: Sometimes in speaking, people provide examples to give more

details to a concept they propose.

Example A

Teacher: (calls out three students) You see when a speaker reports what was

said by another to another participant,, I mean, we have like three

participants involved in reported speech.

Example B

Teacher: The participant reporting the speech uses reported or past tenses

when reporting, tenses such as has-had, come-came,etc

Abandonment: Abandonment happens when the repair completer abandons an

utterance that s/he utters in the first place and prefers to start a brand new utterance.

Thus, the first utterance that has been abandoned becomes meaningless.

Example: Teacher: You get up and explain what reported speech means?

Student: Reported speech refers to telling someone about someone.

(pauses)Err..When a speech is made by the original speaker is reported to

another speaker by the second speaker?

The student started by answering the question but realizes she was becoming

ambiguous, so she initiated a repair and abandoned the first statement..

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 Repetition:

Example

Teacher: How many speakers are involved in reported speech?

Student: How many speakers.

Teacher: Yes! How many speakers are involved in reported speech?

ii. Turn Taking: The teacher maintained his directives for turn taking in answering

questions and reporting speeches. The learners waited to be called upon by the teacher

before answering any question.

iii. Adjacency Pairs: (Request for Information and Providing Information)

Example A:

Teacher: What tenses are use for reported speeches?

Student: Past.

Example B: (Insertion Sequence of Adjacency pairs)

Teacher: When a speech is reported, it is called?

Student: You mean reported in the past

Teacher: Yes

Student: Reported Speech.

Speech Acts Classifications

i. Verdictives such as condoning, appraising were used

Examples:“very good”, “excellent”, “keep quiet”, “stand up and face the

wall”

ii. Directives such as commands, dares, challenges, requests were used:

Examples:“You can talk if you are bigger than me in the class”, “Can I have

some students come out here please?”, “I want to see who can guess what we

have just done”, “Kemi and Ifeoluwa stand up and tell us what I said last

63
 iii. Commissives such as threat was used

Examples:“If you make a noise again, I will deal with you”, “Next time I get

you, you will be in trouble”

iv. Declaratives such as hiring and firing were used

Examples:“I appoint you as my new subject captain”, “Kemisola from this

moment, you become my PA, whenever I give out assignments, you will the

one to collect them and submit to me”.

CP Classification

i. Maxim Of Quantity was strictly maintained as teacher demanded straightforward

answers to questions asked and those who erred were swiftly corrected.

ii. Maxim Of Quality: The information used during the lesson were correct and true.

iii. Maxim Of Relevance: Every conversation, questions and answers were relevant to the

topic and the lesson as a whole.

iv. Maxim Of Manner: The interaction and instructions were clear and orderly

Lesson C
Subject: English Language Sex: Male Class: SS2

Topic: Argumentative Essay

Description of Lesson Content: Teacher introduces the lesson by reminding the learners of

the previous lessons on types of essay without engaging them actively. He then explains the

topic ‘argumentative essay ‘in comparison to a debate and proceeds to ask the students to

define it. The lesson was typically monologue in style and boring.

Teacher Initiates/Talks:

i. He is dogmatic in his definition of the topic (Direct influence of lecturing of Flanders

Interaction Theory).

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 ii. Speaks hastily.

iii. Uses clapping motivation for any student that gets the answer correctly. (Indirect

influence of Praises and Encourages of Flanders Interaction Theory).

iv. Asking questions with the intent that the students will answer (Indirect influence of

ask questions of Flanders Interaction Theory)

v. No attempt to differentiate between ‘argumentative essay’ and ‘ a debate’

Learner Reactions:

i. The learners are quiet and orderly with a blank stare on most faces.

ii. No enthusiastic reaction from the learners.

iii. Learners only answer questions when called upon (Students talk response of Flanders

Interaction Theory)

iv. Many learners did not speak at all, nor did they participate in the lesson.

Classroom Interaction Types/Activities:

Type : Teacher-Learner Interaction.

Activities : i. Lecture Method ii. Question and Answer Method

C.A Classifications:

i. Adjacency pairs (Request for Information and Providing Information).

Example A:

Teacher: What is argumentative essay?

Student A:Argumentative essay consists of two persons, the mover and the

opposer.

Student B: Argumentative essay is when we argue on a point.

Example B:

65
 Teacher: What is the importance of argumentative essay?

Student: To confuse the audience.

Teacher: Very good. A round of applause for him. To confuse the audience.

For example, Fathers are better than mother.

ii. Turn-Taking: This was done with the use of lowering the pitch of the voice and

sometimes drawling the last syllable of the final word (An example of Turn-Taking

Signal).

The learners raised their hands to signify readiness to take the floor and answer

questions.

Speech Acts Classifications:

i. Directives: The teacher uses commands and requests in the classroom conversation to

get the learners answer his questions.

Example A:

Teacher: Who can define argumentative essay?

Example B:

Teacher: Helen tell us what argumentative essay is?

Example C:

Teacher: Tope get up and give us one importance of argumentative essay?

Example D:

Teacher: Let someone get up and tell us what subject matter mean in

argumentative essay?

ii. Verdictives:The teacher praises, ranks and assess the learners’ answers with

statements such as: “very good”, “a round of applause”, “wow” and non-verbal

gestures such as “nods”, “finger pointing”

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CP Classification:

i. Maxim Of Quantity: The teacher provided just enough information.

ii. Maxim Of Quality : The information provided during the lesson were not absolutely

true.

Example A: Teacher: When you write an argumentative essay, you come out boldly

and observe all protocols before you proceed.

Example B: Teacher: What is the importance of argumentative essay?

Student: To confuse the audience.

Teacher: Very good. A round of applause for him. To confuse the audience.

iii. Maxim Of Relevance :The organization of the interaction were relevant to the topic

and the context

iv. Maxim Of Manner : The classroom instructions and interations were clear and

orderly.

Lesson D
Subject: English Language Sex: Female Class: SS2

Topic: Parts of Speech

Description of Lesson Content: The teacher had no introduction for her lesson. She merely

announced the topic and started by asking questions on the numbers of parts of speech in

English Language. She instructs the learners to take turns in answering her questions by

signifying. She proceeds to give them a formula that will help remember all the parts of

speech before giving examples and explanations.

Teacher Initiates/Talks:

i. The teacher interacted well with the students and engaged them in the lesson process

actively.

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 ii. Motivates the learners with both verbal and non-verbal gestures (Praises and

Encourages aspect of Flanders Interaction Analysis Category)

iii. Accepted and clarified learners’ answers in a non-threatening manner. (Accepts feelings

and uses ideas of students of Flanders Interaction Analysis Category).

Example: Teacher: What is a noun? Adebukun yes?(Points to Adebukun)

Student: A noun is a naming word.

Teacher: God bless you. A noun is names people (pauses) A noun

isa naming word. This means that names of people

animals, things, places

iv. Calls out students who were not paying attention to the lesson (Criticizing or Justifying

Authority of Flanders Interaction Analysis Category).

v. She gave adequate examples and explanations both in writing and verbally.

vi. Evaluated the students well to ascertain level of comprehension.

Learners’ Reactions/Talk:

i. The Learners were well behaved and attentive not without occasional distractions

probably due to the presence of the researcher.

ii. Some of the learners asked questions to clarify statements made by the teacher e.g

‘come again ma’, ‘ma?’, ‘i don’t understand ma’

iii. Learners were enthusiastic about the learning process.

iv. Learners showed eagerness to answer questions even when not called upon but

maintained orderliness after the teacher cautioned them.

Classroom Interaction Types/Activities:

Type Teacher-Learner Interaction

Activities: Question and Answer

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C.A Classifications

i. Repairs) self-initiated self repair

(ii) Other-initiated self-repair

Rewording

Example A: Teacher: What is a noun? Adebukun yes?(Points to Adebukun)

Student: A noun is a naming word.

Teacher: God bless you. A noun is names people (pauses) A noun

isa naming word. This means that names of people

animals, things, places

Example B: Teacher: So if you want to give me the example of noun now

(pauses)I mean, examples of noun..

ii. Turn Taking and Pause: This was done with the use of lowering the pitch of the voice

and sometimes drawling the last syllable of the final word (An example of Turn-

Taking Signal).

Violation of turn-taking occurred when some students chorused the answer when

another student got it wrong without waiting to be called upon by the teacher but the

teacher initiated turn-taking in the classroom so as to allow others get the floor and it

never occurred again through the lesson process.

Example:

Teacher: How many parts of speech do we have in English Language?

Students: Noun, Pronoun

Teacher: No. If you want to talk, raise your hand. You are not barbarians

iii. Adjacency Pair:(Request for Information and Providing Information).

Example A:

Teacher: What is a verb? Ajo?

Student: A verb is an action word.

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 Teacher: Can someone give an example of a preposition?

Student: ‘And’, ‘for’, ‘between’

Speech Acts Classifications

i. Verdictives such as appraising the learner was used frequently by the teacher.

These include words like: “God bless you”, “A round of applause for him/her”,

“You deserve a pat”

The following verdictives were also used by the learners in appraising themselves

or their fellow students who got the right answers

ii. Directives such as commands was used.

Example:

Teacher: Raise your hand before you talk, you are not barbarians.

CP Classifications

i. Maxim Of Quantity: A learner violated the maxim of quantity.

Example:

Teacher: Can someone give an example of a preposition?

Student: ‘And’, ‘for’, ‘between’

Teacher: God bless you. Let someone else try.

ii. Maxim Of Quality: The information provided during the lesson were absolutely true.

iii. Maxim Of Relevance:The organization of the interaction were relevant to the topic

and the context.

iv. Maxim Of Manner: The classroom instructions and interactions were clear and

orderly.

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 Lesson E

Subject: English Language Sex: Female Class: SS2

Topic: Listening Comprehension(Road Safety)

Description of lesson content:

The teacher started the lesson by telling the class a short story to the class about a girl who

dreamed of playing tennis. She would practice in her garden every day. Previously, her

mother had taught her how one should look right, then left, then right again before crossing

the road. On this fateful day, she ran after her tennis ball into the road without looking and

was hit by an oncoming car.

Teacher Initiates/Talks:

i. The teacher asked questions on the story she had read. She asked leading questions

so as to drill the correct procedure when crossing the road.(Indirect Influence of ask

questions of Flanders Interaction Theory)

ii. Allowed the students to interrupt her lesson frequently.

Learner Reactions:

i. Learners retold the story to the teacher in the correct chronological order.

ii. The learners were distressed when they realized that the girl in the story had been

killed. I heard many distressed sounds, e.g. “Why now?”, "Ooh!", "No!", “Jesus”,

“Eh” and sharp intakes of breath.

iii. Learners expressed their views on reckless driving and the girl’s carelessness.

iv. Learners aired their personal experiences even without been called upon by the

teacher. They interrupted one another in doing this.(Students Talk initiated of

Flanders Interaction Theory)

Classroom Interaction Activities:

Types : Teacher-Learner Interaction

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Activities: (i) Discussion Method (ii) Question and Answer Method

C.A Classifications:

Repairs: (i) self-initiated self repair

(ii) Other-initiated self-repair

Rewording: Example A:Teacher: Road safety measures involve taking traffic measures into

consideration, that is, been more careful when using the road.

Example B:Teacher: What was the result of the girl’s attitude to road safety

measures? I mean, what happened to the girl in the passage when she

did not obey the safetymeasures of the road.

Repetition,: Example A:Learner; In road safety officers...

Teacher: In road safety officers?

Learner: Sorry...In road safety measures...

Example B:Learner: Whenever I want to cross on express. I will just ja pa.

Teacher: Ja pa?

Learner: Yes. Oh! I always run across the road like Usain Bolt.

Exemplification: Example A:

Teacher: Road safety measures such as zebra crossing, looking to the right

and left before crossing, etc

Example B:

72
 Teacher: The girl in the story who had the ambition of becoming a tennis

player like some of you who want to become footballers, doctors, lawyers,

bankers ...

Example C:

Learner: Yes. Oh! I always run across the road like Usain Bolt.

Modification Example A:

Teacher: Whenever you see people crossing, what do you notice?

Learner: Whenever I see people crossing, especially at the main express along

Shagari Village or Madam Do Good along Agape, it always funny,

If for instance it is one old person like that...

Turn Taking & Pause: Instances of turn taking waa mostly absent as the students chorused

the answers and when some are stuck in the process, they look around looking for someone to

bail them out.

Adjacency Pairs: (These were used to request and provide information during the lesson

using the questions and answer method. The examples given already are all examples of

adjacency pairs)

Speech Acts Classifications:

Verdictives: such as appraisal, condoning, were used.

Examples: Condoning: “sit up and fold your arms”, “stop the noise”, etc

Appraisal: “very good”, “good”, “yes, that’s correct”, etc

Directives: such as commands, requests, dares, were used

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 Examples: Commands: “Modupeoluwa stand up and tell the whole class what

I just said”, “sit up everyone”, etc

Requests: “I need someone to explain what road safety means?”

“Can I have some peace in the class please?” etc

Dares: “I will give you the marker to teacher if you do not stop

your noise making”,

Commissives: such as threats

Examples: “I will send you out of my class if you do not stop making a noise”,

“Just let me catch you making a noise”, “If I hear any side talk again

you will see what I will do to that person”

CP Classification:

Maxim Of Quantity: Both the teacher and the learners violated the maxim of quantity.

Examples A: Teacher: Whenever you travel on the road, you see road safety officers,

those ones that put on carton colour shirt and ask for driver’s license,

Along Ado-Owo-Ikere express road for instance. They use blue with

white stripped vehicle....

Example B: Learner: One day, me and my daddy and my mummy, my sister and

our last born were travelling to visit my grandparents during one

holiday like that sha....eh..ehn, my father bought meat pie and minerals

for us at chicken rep, then at Ondo road, erm...before military check

point, where those soldiers always stay, we were stopped by the road

safety officers...

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(The learner was only trying to explain that they were stopped by the FRSC officers but she

gave unnecessary description of the whole situation)

Maxim of Quality: The information provided during the lesson were absolutely true and valid.

Maxim of Relevance:

Example A: Learner: One day, me and my daddy and my mummy, my sister and

our last born were travelling to visit my grandparents during one

holiday like that sha....eh..ehn, my father bought meat pie and minerals

for us at chicken rep, then at Ondo road, erm...before military check

point, where those soldiers always stay, we were stopped by the road

safety officers...

(The underlined information were not relevant to the lesson or the question asked by the

teacher)

Example B: Teacher: What do you think road safety is?

Learner: Road safety officers are always standing by the road to arrest

vehicles.

Example C: Teacher: In road safety measures, what are the precautions you take in

crossing the road?

Learner: In crossing the road? Haaaa...(laughs loudly) Mo ja pa...

Maxim of Manner: The classroom discourse was not orderly.

Instance(s) of Misunderstanding or Mishearing:

i. Errors/communicative dissonance:

Examples:

75
 ●The teacher's inaccurate language use was intrusive.

●She made glaring grammatical errors such as tense and concord

errorsandsentence structure and word order errors were also observed, e.g.

"Why Beatricenot lookbefore cross the road?"; "What Beatrice

mother say every day?"

ii. Lack of concentration on the lesson by the learners who were seeing discussing

independently. Example B of maxim of relevance is as a result of lack of

concentration.

Lesson F

Subject: English Language Sex: Male Class: SS2

Topic: Noun Phrase

Description of lesson content:

The teacher started the lesson using question and answer method before explaining the term

noun phrase. He stuck strictly with his lesson note and gave only examples from the text

book. It was clear that he had an average knowledge of the content of the topic as he

tactically avoided some learners’ questions.

Teacher Talk/Initiates:

i. The teacher asked the students what they know about phrases and noun phrases from

their previous class and motivated the students who got it correctly. (testing the

background knowledge of the students using Praises or encourages Aspects of

Flanders Interaction Analysis Categories)

ii. The teacher defined the term noun. (Lecturing Aspects of Flanders Interaction

Analysis Categories).

Example: You were told in SS1 that a noun phrase is a group of words

with a noun or a pronoun as the headword.

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 iii. The teacher asked leading questions relating to noun phrases and phrases in general.

(Ask questions Aspect of Flanders Interaction Analysis Categories)

Example: reading in the night is an example of?

iv. The teacher gave examples of noun phrases(Lecturing Aspects of Flanders

Interaction Analysis Categories).

Example A lady was caught peeping through our window.

v. Assertive and managed the classroom situation well. He disciplined those who were

not concentrating in the class. And made his stand on indiscipline known. (Giving

directions and criticizing or justifying authority aspects of Flanders Interaction

Analysis Categories)

Learner Talk/Reactions:

i. There was active participation from the learners and they promptly answered

questions when called upon.

ii. Their responses to the teacher's questions were correct, but he did not explain when

the students were wrong to correct them.(Students talk response aspect of Flanders

Interaction Analysis Categories)

iii. They learners were well behaved and took turns as called upon by the teacher.

Classroom Interaction Activities:

Types :(i) Teacher Learner Interaction (ii) Learner Learner Interaction

Activities: (i) Question and Answer

(ii)) Practice Methods:

Examples: Make five sentences, using a noun from box A with a suitable

modifier from box B.

BOX “A” BOX “B” A B

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 Lady your

Bottle my

Students the

Doctor a

Boxes an

Potato both

Textbooks many

Shirt good

Bottle Three

(iii) Group Work Method

Example: With your partner, develop each of the following noun phrases.

(a) An eagle _________________________________

(b) My bag _________________________________

(c) Many scholars ______________________________

(d) The bus ____________________________________

(e) Thirty bottles ________________________________

C.A Classifications:

Repairs: (i) Self-Initiated Self-Repair (ii) Other-Initiated Self-Repair.

Rewording

Example A:

Teacher: Write out the noun phrases you underlined (pauses) identified in the passage

on page 21 of your textbook.

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The teacher preferred the word “identified” because some learners might have circled the

noun phrases they discovered in the passage. So underlined would not be appropriate.

Example B:

Teacher: Everyone, that is, the whole world is beginning to realize the importance of

English Language. Here, the noun phrase functions as a subject.

Example C

Learner: (Reporting a partner to the teacher) Sir, the person you asked to sit with me.

My partner is disturbing me.

The teacher used “the whole world” instead of “everyone” to emphasize and drive home his

message that importance of English language is felt all around the world.

Repetition,

Example A:

Learner: A noun phrase is a word with a noun or a pro...

Teacher: (Interrupts) A word? A noun phrase is a word?

Learner: Yes!

Teacher: It is a word? Or a group of words?

Learner: Ha! A group of words. (Other-initiated self-repair).

The teacher repeated the learner’s statements to allow the learner make necessary correction.

Exemplification:

Example A:

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 Teacher: Anywhere you find yourself, be it Kotangora, Abuja, USA, Germany, and

so on. Noun phrase is noun phrase.

Example B:

Teacher: Use the following noun phrases in your own sentences, identifying the

functions they perform. One “An old music box” (calls a learner’s name)..yes

Learner: An old music box, like the one bought ten years ago or not usable again....

Turn Taking: The teacher maintained his directives for turn taking in answering questions

and reporting speeches. The learners waited to be called upon by the teacher before

answering any question.

Adjacency Pairs: These were used to request and provide information during the lesson using

the questions and answer method. The examples given already are all examples of adjacency

pairs)

Speech Acts Classifications:

i. Verdictives such as appraising, condoning were used

Examples: “a round of applause for him/her”, “correct”, “very good”

ii. Directives such as commands, requests, were used

Examples: “I do not want to hear any noise in my class”, “Sit up and fold your

arms”, “Can someone tell us the answer?”

iii. Commissivessuch as threat was used

Examples: “If I catch you talking? I will deal with you and you will forget

your name”, “If you repeat that I will not take it lightly with you”

iv. Declaratives such as

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CP Classification:

i. Maxim Of Quantity was strictly maintained as teacher demanded straightforward

answers to questions asked and those who erred were swiftly corrected.

ii. Maxim Of Quality: The information used during the lesson were correct and true.

iii. Maxim Of Relevance: Every conversation, questions and answers were relevant to the

topic and the lesson as a whole.

iv. Maxim Of Manner: The interaction and instructions were clear and orderly

Observations

Lesson A

The following were observed during lesson A:

i. The teacher lacked the complete grasp and control of the lesson as learners were seen

engaging in various activities such as fighting, chatting, etc which made gave rise to a

lot of learners violating the maxims of cooperative principles.

ii. The one above could also be associated to the gender of the teacher.

iii. The prediction, discussion and question and answer methods would have adequately

helped the students if the teacher had provided more explanations to the learners’

responses.

iv. Frequent pauses and shorts periods of silence from the teacher led to communication

breakdown. While in the students it showed confusion. (Silence or Confusion aspect

of Flanders Interaction Analysis Categories)

v. Misunderstandings were in this lesson incidents of non-understanding, because the

teacher failed to explain concepts to the learners.

vi. The teacher used the divergent question type to engage the students.

vii. There were situations of misunderstanding of concepts and mishearing of questions

which the students gave incorrect answers due to lack of concentration.

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viii. The teacher never encouraged turn taking in the classroom process.

ix. The turn taking procedure was obviously absent as learners chorused answers without

promptings from the teacher.

x. The Commissives used were passive as learners took them for granted while

Verdictives such as use of appraisals for motivation and positive reinforcements were

absent.

xi. The maxims of quality, relevance and manner were violated during the lesson.

Lesson B

The following were observed in lesson B by the researcher:

i. Role play was employed by the teacher in introducing the lesson for a better

understanding of the subject matter.

ii. Strict rules to the maxim of quantity. Although this never disrupted the adequate

provision of information and the level of comprehension.

iii. The teacher understood what interaction activity to apply at every given point which

showed his adequate knowledge of classroom management.

iv. The lesson was so interesting and the students enjoyed it. Moreover, the students

would have loved tocontribute more but the teacher’s assertive attitude and tone

hindered them. With the use of threats to caution the students.

v. The teacher had a good command of the second language. He pronounced words

correctly and used correct grammar in most instances. He motivated learners to

participate in the question and answer sessions and seemed knowledgeable and

enthusiastic. Overall, this was a successful lesson.

vi. The teacher displayed adequate knowledge of the topic.

vii. Turn taking procedures were strictly followed and used by the teacher.

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viii. Verdictives were used mostly for reinforcement while directives and commissives

were employed to maintain order during the classroom discourse. Declaratives were

also used to motivate the learners.

ix. The teacher used the teacher-learner interaction type which showed that the classroom

discourse was solely controlled by the teacher. While the learners waited to be called

upon before contributing.

Lesson C

The researcher observed the following in lesson C:

i. Error in the use of “plural” especially the addition and removal of ‘s’:

Example: Fathers are better than mother.

This was repeated more than twice and it showedthat this was actually an error on the

part of the teacher.

ii. Error in the use of terms: The teacher used the word “convinced” for “confused”

repeatedly. This leaves the learners with wrong information.

iii. In obeying the maxim of quantity, the teacher became uncommunicative. This leaves

the learners with inadequate information of the topic. It could also be inferred that the

teacher lacked adequate content knowledge.

iv. Hasty delivery of the subject matter which was done under twenty minutes before

writing notes on the board and this left most of the learners in blank stares and visible

confusion.

v. Group work, discussion and practice methods would have worked effectively to make

the learners participate actively in the lesson but the teacher employed question and

answer and lecturing methods which limited better comprehension of the lesson..

vi. Teacher employed the use of positive reinforcement to encourage learners who

answered questions correctly.

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vii. There were a lot of misunderstandings in the lesson process as teacher never

explained terms and concepts that were not used correctly by the learners.Frowning

and negative facial signals from the learners were observed by the researcher.

viii. The maxim of quality was grossly violated as the teacher’s definition and explanation

of some terms were not correct.

Lesson D

The following were observed by the researcher during lesson D:

i. There was no proper introduction of the topic to the students but her approach showed

that the learners had background knowledge of the subject matter which gave

credence to her assumption.

ii. The teacher’s call for turn-taking shows her understanding of classroom management.

iii. Positive reinforcement was given to encourage others via constant pronouncement of

blessings on the learners that got the answers correctly while those who did not were

made to listen to the right answers and repeat them.

iv. Directives were given to establish and uphold discipline.

v. The teacher violated the maxim of quantity to say more than required in order to drive

home her points on several occasions and this helped in better communication and

comprehension of the topic.

vi. Although the teacher's language proficiency was average, the lesson was effective and

presented in an interesting way.

Lesson E

The following were observed by the researcher during lesson E:

i. Narrative technique was employed by the teacher to introduce the lesson.

ii. The teacher could not manage the class as the same situation in lesson A were

observed by the researcher.

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 iii. The one above as in lesson A might not be unconnected with the gender of the

teacher.

iv. Discussion and question and answer methods were used by the teacher to enhance

learning process as learners were seen nodding in affirmative, signaling to one

another to the teacher’s statements at intervals and the learners were willing to make

their points known.

v. Turn taking amongst the learners was absent since the teacher never encouraged turn

taking in the classroom discourse.

vi. Commissives used by the teacher were mostly passive because the teacher never

really meant the threats issued out.

vii. Other-initiated Self-repair was used by the teacher more frequently than other types of

repair.

viii. Violation of the maxims of quantity, relevance and manner were noticed.

ix. The teacher used divergent questions to engage the learners in the learning process.

x. Instances of misunderstanding were due to incorrect pronunciation of words by the

teacher and lack of concentration by the learners.

Lesson F

The following were observed by the researcher during lesson F:

i. The use of background knowledge for the lesson was employed by the teacher

through questions and answer methods to test the learners’ residual knowledge.

ii. Strict adherence to the maxim of quantity, quality, relevance and manner were

observed.

iii. The teacher applied both teacher-learner interaction and learner-learner interaction to

cover-up for his average knowledge of the content of the topic.

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 iv. The teacher used various activities such as question and answer, practice and group

pair methods as the needs arise as the lesson progresses to enhance learning.

v. The teacher’s assertive attitude and threatening tone was an hindrance to the learners

in answering questions as the use of threats were used to caution them. But this help

in maintaining order in the classroom discourse.

vi. The teacher had an average command of the second language. He pronounced some

words incorrectly and used tenses wrongly.

vii. The teacher was glued to his lesson note and textbook examples.

viii. Other-initiated self-repair was frequently used by the teacher.

ix. Turn taking procedure was adequately and strictly maintained.

x. Commissives and directives were mostly used to maintain order while Verdictives

were used to appraise learners.

Discussion

What are the underlying norms of interaction used by the teachers?

In the area of classroom interaction, the findings showed that there is predominantly low

engagement of learner-learner type of interaction during lesson process. This could be one

reason for misunderstanding of the subject matter in some cases and inactive participation of

learning during the teaching process. Meanwhile Peng (2006) findings revealed that, group

work/activities is a technique that makes it possible for learners with needs and challenges

who could not be reached by the language teacher to be helped by able learners in the groups.

He explained further that when we take into consideration the fact that learners are coming

from different backgrounds and experiences, the use of group work/activities makes it

possible for them to share their experiences with others and bring their rich varied

background to the tasks which turn large classes to a resource rather than a

problem.Boarcas(2011) on his own findings explained that group activities are efficient ways

86
to help students develop communication skills. Through listening-speaking and collaborative

in small groups, students become more motivated and their time and energy in class is well

spent. This is according to Barnes & Todd (1995) where learners have the opportunity to

engage in the zones of proximal development and consequently learning is facilitated. Usman

Kasim (2004) findings and results which also supports the findings of this research work

suggested that teacher’s excessive comment be minimized to give the students more chance

to talk in the target language. This validates the findings of the study that teachers talk more

in classroom interaction than the learner to learner talk.

Palincsar and Brown (1984) remark that in social interaction among teachers and

learners in a small-group task, reciprocal teaching is based on four different strategies which

are associated with text comprehension; questioning, clarifying, summarizing and predicting.

In the ongoing interaction, the teacher and students share the expertise and responsibility of

leading the discussion on the contents of the sections of text that they jointly attempt to

understand. This is in sharp contrast with the stance of the social constructivism activists

which states that learning is enhanced and comprehensive with the availability of materials to

the learners but the research pitches its tent with the interactionist who advocates that

practical experiences in the retention of a language and encouraging student’s interaction.

Kalu (...)that one of the objectives of secondary education in Nigeria as enshrined in the

National Policy on Education (Federal Republic of Nigeria, 2004) is the inculcation of the

attitude of reflective thinking in the students. The essence is to enable the students to

participate actively in the solution of societal problems both at the individual and group

levels, and hence become functional members of the Nigerian Society. To do this students are

expected to apply the knowledge acquired in school in the solution of problems. Such

application of school knowledge requires a thorough analysis and synthesis of the problem in

order to identify its various ramifications. It helps the learners become aware of their thinking

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capacity and problem solving ability. Finally, this confirms the position of Walsh (2006) who

stated that the features of second language classroom discourse […..] present a very clear

structure, where teachers control both the topic of conversation and turn-taking. Students take

their cues from the teacher through whom they direct most of their responses. Allwright

(1984), stated that interaction is a ‘co-production’ and that teachers and learners are jointly

responsible for managing classroom interaction. This is also supported by the findings of

Okebukola, (2002) and Danmole (2011) who both concluded that when students learn on

their on own, they learn better.

The speech acts tools used also influenced the interaction between the teacher and the

learners.Findings in the study showed that commissives, expressives, verdictives and

directives were the speech acts tools dominantly used to maintain order, give warnings, for

reinforcements/motivations, maintain decorum amongst others. This agrees with Searl (1965)

that speakers and hearers are usually able to understand one another, not only in terms of the

form and meaning of utterances, but also in terms of the functions of the utterances. This is

buttressed by the findings of Conchita (2018) that a careful analysis of the conversations of

teacher-students classroom discourse shows that ESL learners’ performative utterances in the

classroom are those for purposes of explaining, asking questions, confirming, giving

emphasis, citing examples, suggesting, scolding, and advising, requesting and commanding.

These speech acts tools were used to show or describe an action at each point of the lesson

(threaten, caution, motivate, etc). This is intended by the teacher to have the learner cooperate

with the lesson and communicate effectively. And Gorjian and Habibi (2015) posit that

communicating requires speaker to encourage people to listen, engage, take on board what is

being said and process that information with a view to doing something. Speech act theory

and the results of this research work in line with the findings of Zhao & Throssell (2011) has

had a huge influence on language comprehension of learners while its significance for

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communicative language teaching as a tool to generate appropriate linguistic choices cannot

be disputed. And that not enough, it helps to enhance and attain a meaningful communication

process. Cook (2011) explained that “successful language learning involves much more than

acquiring a static formal knowledge of the new language, but must also entail an ability to

achieve meaning in communication”. And the same stand with Cook, Conchita (2018)

expressed that for the issue of language learning, the consequence is that speech act analysis

can and actually should be utilized when it is assumed that communicative competence is a

meaningful goal. Mainly these speech acts tools were used positively to provide feedbacks

and correct learners. Victoria (2014) stated that when it is used positively make the students

feel free in giving their answer if it was right or wrong. And this according to this research is

absolutely predominant as students are guided by the communication goal of the teacher’s

speech. Even though most of the speech acts during classroom discourse are used by the

teacher and not by learners. Learners used expressives to clarify answers they were not sure

of from the teacher or to express dissatisfaction with the answers of their fellow learners.

Will female teachers differ from male teachers in the norms of interaction?

On gender and classroom interaction the research showed that the female teachers tend to

involve the learners more in their lesson than the male teachers. Discussion method was used

predominantly in the female lessons than the male. The female teachers were more polite

than male teachers. It was also observed that both male and female teachers were more stern

with the boys and asked them more questions than the girls. This agrees with the findings of

Sinclair and Coulthard (1992)and Farooq (2000)which states that girls are believed to be

more academic, able, and well-behaved learners while boys needed more attention because of

their immature and disruptive nature. Although this is done unconsciously by the teacher

during the researcher’s observations. This is what Sadker and Sadker (1990) term "gender

bias blindness."Where teachers have little insights of their own interaction pattern. Although

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the male teachers’ lessons were more orderly and within the teachers’ control, female

teachers’ lessons were mostly disrupted by the learners. The female teachers seemed to be

more narrative in nature than the male teachers.

In the area of repair, it was discovered that there is no disparity between the male and

the female genders in the use of repairs. This is supported by the findings of Azizeh and

Mahzad (2017)and consistent with the study by Fotovatnia (2013) who found that there was

no meaningful difference between gender and repair strategies.

Does turn taking occur in the classroom interaction without prompting?

It was observed among the learners that male learners tend to observe turn taking

procedures than the female learners. This finding is in line with Francis (2004) that believed

that males’ turn taking was much more than females’. Moreover, the findings of the study are

consistent with Rashidi and Rafiee Rad (2010) who claimed that male students were more

likely to have self-selections and interaction even though they were not sure about their

answers. However, it is contrary to a study conducted by De Francisco (1991) who found that

women have more curiosity to take turn in conversation. However, turn-taking according to

findings shows that the learners cannot use the turn-taking skill adequately without guidance.

Most of the time except where the students violated the order, the teacher initiated the turn-

taking process either by drawling of the last syllable of the word, or a brief pause.

Mey (1994) explained that it is a moment when the current speaker of a conversation

takes a breath, has nothing to else to say, or declares that his or her contribution has all done.

Probably if group pair method had been used by the teachers the learners would have used

turn taking more. This Flora and Emzir (2015) result shows that students made turn-taking

during the group work discussion and it can be classified into two categories, namely: 1) by

choosing himself, and 2) by choosing others which did not reflect in the findings of this work

did to the fact that teachers used instructional talks where teachers select who will take the

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floor. McHoul (1978) ( in Azizeh and Mahzad 2017) compared L1 classroom interaction to

the systematic turn taking principles. He found some deviations from the rules employed in

every day conversations. For instance, if the teacher is the current speaker, s/he can nominate

the next speaker. The student who is selected by the teacher is obliged to take the next turn. If

the teacher has not dominated the next student, no one will take the turn. So, there is no

opportunity for self-selection. Paoletti and Fele (2004) find out that some rules of turn taking

are not followed in the setting of classrooms. They claimed that teachers try to control the

turn taking and avoid overlapping. However, this pattern may not be observed in an everyday

conversation. Another observation is that female teachers tend to be guiltierin violating turn

taking than the male teachers. It must also be noted that turn taking during classroom

discourse helps the learners take initiative but in a teacher-fronted interaction, turn-taking is

constrained as turns are allocated by the teacher whereas, by taking the initiative, learners can

direct the interaction in such a way that it responds more closely to their needs, and at the

same time

Where reinforcements were used, the researcher discovered that the students

engaged actively in the lesson process. On motivation/reinforcement, Sternberg (1995)

explained that is also can lead to either to pursue the interaction or stop it and it may lead the

teacher to carry on performing his/her job. While Mahmoud (2012) described motivation has

some characteristics which make it essential in learning as well as teaching because it directs

and initiates the interaction in order to get into the group. Nwoke (2004) suggested teachers

should always motivate the learners by rewarding them on the work/assignment they do to

encourage them work hard for good performance because when a child associates the

learning of subjects with success, he will develop favourable attitude towards the study of

that subject and will work hard at it.

Do instances of misunderstanding or mishearing occur during classroom?

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 Misunderstanding according to the research is due to first, the inadequate knowledge

of the teacher on the topic. Second on the inability of the teacher to explain terms/concepts

and also differentiate them. Poor planning and preparation, the inability to formulate clear

questions, to explain new concepts, to give instructions about activities, or to give feedback

could possibly be the reason for misunderstandings while cases of mishearing were absent in

the research process. This goes in line with the position of Blakemore (1989) gave the

responsibility of the occurrence of misunderstandingon the communicator suggesting that the

choice of the message on the part of the communicator has a role in the occurrence of

misunderstanding.Lizette (2012) identified three reasons for misunderstanding in classroom

interaction, namely; inadequate content knowledge, underdeveloped teaching strategies

(especially the ability to provide clear instructions)and inability to explain content well. To

give credence to the fact that misunderstanding in classroom discourse is largely shouldered

by the teacher.

The instance of mishearing in the research was due to the learner’s lack of

concentration during the lesson. This although happened more in the female teacher’s lesson.

What are the strategies of repair used by the teacher or the students?

Repair is also a very key factor in conversational analysis of classroom interaction.

Moreover, in conducting a repair, the participants must employ one out of several patterns to

correct it. This is in line with Liddicoat (2007). In fact, according to the findings in this study,

there are some patterns of repair which frequently showed up in certain type of repair, and the

most common ones are self-initiated self-repair in line with Schegloff et al., (1977) and other

–initiated self-repair supported by Svennevig (2004) who claimed that other-initiated repair

strategy occurs more frequently. These were done with much orderliness and accurately by

both the teachers and the learners. Although, Self-initiated repair was used when the speakers

encountered problems with retrieving the target language item. It was also noticed that self-

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initiated repair was not always successful; that is, the speakers tried to correct what they

thought to be a mistake, but they did not do that successfully. The patterns of repair used in

the lesson process include: “rewording”, “other(repetition)”, “exemplification”,

“abandonment”, etc.

The major repair patterns observed in the study were used for better understanding of

the message the teacher was trying to pass across to the learners. This is in line with Ghaleb

(2013) who described this in is findings that “It is evident in second language acquisition

research that both native and non-native speakers of English use repair strategies while

negotiating meaning in order to understand or make themselves understood.” He further cited

(Schegloff et al., 1977, Watterson, 2008,Leftheriadou and Badger, 1999, Schegloff et al.,

2000, 2007) who all agreed and claimed that research has also shown that repair, which is a

language phenomenon, is necessary for keeping communication smooth and accurate. The

repair patterns were also used for correction of self or the other. This agrees with the findings

of Mey (1994) who stipulated that repair is a device for correcting oneself. For instance,

rewording was used by the teacher more often than other patterns to express thoughts and

give more insight into what the teacher meant by choosing another word(s) to explain the

meaning of the utterances made. While repetition which was next most frequently used was

employed by the teacher to allow the learner gain more time in answering questions asked by

the teacher and in understanding the question better so as to give a suitable answer. This is

thus a verification of the view by Schegloff et al. (1977) and Rieger(2000)that self-initiated

repair is a well-organized, orderly, and rule-governed phenomenon and not a chaotic aspect

of spoken discourse

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What is the relevance of the background knowledge used by the teacher at the beginning of

the lesson?

In general, the introduction of the lesson is also very important to the topic as the

relevance of background knowledge cannot be over emphasized. The findings of the study

revealed that no topic is abstract in nature, that is, learners have a little information about the

topic. This agrees with Piaget (1968) disagreed with the tabula rasa notion of the child’s

mind. Campbell (2008) explained that if preconceptions (background knowledge) are not

engaged, children may fail to correctly grasp new concepts or give up on a subject altogether.

For instance where the teacher started the lesson with role play, or with a narrative technique,

the students got the subject matter right from the beginning and the look on their faces

showed satisfaction. It would thus be a mistake to think that prior knowledge’s only influence

on learning is negative. According to him this is not the case. Learning ultimately begins with

the known and proceeds to the unknown. Connecting everyday experiences with classroom

topics and intentionally engaging preexisting knowledge with new classroom content can

promote meaningful and lasting learning. This the researcher agrees with. (Marzano, 2004;

Stevens, 1980) explained that prior knowledgeAswhat a person already knows about the

content while others have more complex definitions. For example, Biemans and Simons

(1996) conceive of prior knowledge as “all knowledge learners have when entering a learning

environment that is potentially relevant for acquiring

new knowledge (p. 6). Dochy and Alexander (1995) go further by claiming that prior

knowledge is the whole of a person’s knowledge, including explicit and tacit knowledge,

metacognitive and conceptual knowledge.

Furthermore, the research also revealed that introduction to the lesson was mostly

done via asking of questions and waiting for learners to respond. In the findings of Walsh

(2006) it revealed that teachers control the structure of classroom interaction and initiate

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discussion by posing questions. After students respond to the question, teachers finish the

interaction sequence by giving feedback or follow up on the students’ response. This explains

the type of classroom discourse teacher’s initiation prevalent. He further explained that

teachers control both the topic of conversation and turn-taking, and orchestrate the whole

interaction process to facilitate learning. Eliciting the information through referential

questions which have natural and communicative responses is one of the teacher’s duties.

Repair depends on the teacher’s goal, whether he is focusing on fluency or accuracy.

It was also noticed that female teachers uses exemplification more than the male

teachers

Are the ideas generated in the classroom interaction coherent?

The ideas used during the classroom learning process were interwoven and coherent

except for few instances. These ideas can be categorized under the maxims of the cooperative

principles and adjacency pairs. The cooperative principles maxims were well utilized and

predominantly violated in students’ responses toward teachers' questions. This is also

revealed by Kurnianingtya (2016). The findings revealed that the male teachers tend to abide

the rules of the maxim of quantity while their female counterparts violated this maxim. Also

the maxims of relevance and manner were strictly adhered to by the males unlike the females.

The findings revealed that giving strict instructions and set of rules to be followed during the

lesson will probably aid learning. But the violation maxim of quantity is predominantly

dominant in learners’’ responses. This general agree with Safitri Seken, and Putra’s (2016)

findings that students produced the high percentage of violating the maxims and infringing

Grice’s maximsdevelops their skills in managing interaction (Allwright, 1984; van Lier,

1988).

The findings of this conversational analysis and classroom interaction investigation

shows that all the participants in the classroom lessons frequently use the adjacency pairs

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because the most used classroom activity according to findings were “question and answer”

and “Lecture method”. This showed the principles of conversational analysis (Seedhouse

2005).This could also be the reason for misunderstanding in the aspects of students because

teachers produce about 90 percent of the ideas in the lesson. But this also allowed the ideas of

the lessons coherent as it could be deduced that the teachers never wanted the learners to

stray from the topic at hand.

CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

This chapter consists of three parts; summary, conclusion and recommendations. The

summary section is concerned with the focus and dimension of the study. The conclusions

concerned with the summary of the research findings and implications of the study.

Meanwhile, suggestions section is presented to offer some suggestions for students, teachers

and other researchers.

Summary

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 The section is informed by the focus of the study in chapters one through four. In

chapter one the researcher’s intention was to investigate the conversation analysis during

classroom interaction to determine the level of understanding and relationship between the

teacher and the learner. In chapter two, a comprehensive literature review of theoretical and

conceptual framework which the researcher used in the study was done with previous related

studies revealed.

In chapter three, the work adopted a descriptive-qualitative method to carry out the

analysis of the research. Here, various tools of conversation analysis were employed for the

analysis especially in the area of Speech Acts and Cooperative Principles while Partial

Flanders’ Interaction Analysis Categories was used. Also, the population for the study was

among senior secondary schools in Ondo State, which two were picked from each of the three

senatorial districts of the state, to make a total of six schools while also gender was put into

consideration. The chapter four of the study contained the analysis of the research which

comprises of the findings, observations and discussions of the results while in chapter five of

the study revealed the summary, conclusion and recommendations of the research work.

Conclusion

After completing the research findings and discussions in the previous chapter, the

researcher concludes that:

i. The main type of interaction predominantly used during the lessons was teacher-

learner interaction. This could be the reason for the activities predominantly used

during the findings which are lecturing method and question and answer method. It

was discovered that the question and answer method was used to help know the level

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 of comprehension during and after the lesson and also to test the background

knowledge of the learners.

ii. The conversational analysis tools predominant in the findings include, Adjacency

pairs, turn-taking and Repairs. Adjacency pairs and turn-taking dominantly occurred

in students’ responses to teacher’s questions. They are mainly learners’ answers. This

could also be traced to the aspect of adjacency pairs involved, that is, request for

information and providing information.

iii. The aspect of turn-taking was violated so many times. And when not violated, it was

due to teacher’s guidance and insistence.

iv. There are types and patterns of repairs used in the cause of the lessons. The type used

predominantly is other-initiated self-repair. This was used to help the learner

understands the point where repair was needed and what repair should be applied by

the learner with the help of the teacher. The patterns of repair used are rewording,

exemplification, abandonment, modification, repetition, were all used to help explain

points or redirect questions for better comprehension of the statements. These

statements were reframed to help the students understand what the teachers meant.

v. Commissives, verdictives and directives were the speech acts tools dominantly used

to maintain order, give warnings, for reinforcements/motivations, assess the learners

and maintain classroom management (because the relation between the teacher and

the students was asymmetrical in nature).

vi. There are three types of maxim that were largely violated on students’ maxim of

quantity, maxim of quality, and maxim of manner. First, maxim of quantity was

largely violated from the learners’ answers and statements. Maxim of quantity

dominantly occurred on students’ responses toward teacher questions. They are

utterances of students’ answers. Second, maxim of quality was violated during one of

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 the lessons when the teacher refused to correct the mistake made by a learner when

answering a question. This is believed that the teacher lacked the correct information

about the issue at that point This led to misunderstanding on the part of the students.

And lastly, maxim of manner was violated mainly during lessons of the female

teachers in which one was quickly managed.

vii. Students tend to want to take advantage of the female teachers lessons. The male

figure gave a calmer learning environment and vice versa. It was also discovered that

students tend to be able to express their minds during the female teacher’s lesson.

Motivation and positive reinforcement when used helped to get the students to interact

well in class.

viii. Background to the study is an integral part of the learning process. Students get more

understanding about the new topic when they can relate it to an outside the classroom

experience prior to the lesson. The researcher believes that background to the study

should be done using role play, group pair, etc.

Limitation of the Study

The research work was limited to conversation analysis of classroom interaction of

senior secondary school two students of six government owned schools in the three senatorial

districts of Ondo State and six English teachers’ lessons.

Recommendations

Based on the result of this research, the researcher recommends as follows

i. For Teachers: The Teachers, especially English language teachers are suggested to

use communicative language in delivering lessons and have more in depth of the topic

to teach.Merdana, Seken, and Putra, (2013:6 ) cited in Dhona (2016) reveals that

teacher has responsibility to educate the students and has powerful communicative

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 privilege due to expertise in the subject and the teacher’s responsibility for attaining

the aims of a given subject.

Moreover, to make the students more active in speaking up their opinion, the

teacher should give them more appreciation and good feedback to them. So, that it is

not only the students above average confidently speak up their mind, but also the

students below average feel invited in speaking up. On the other hand, giving the

students more appreciation and good feedback can motivate the students and make the

interaction between the teacher and the student become more cordial. The students

will feel more open, actively and confidently in giving their contribution in the

classroom.

On the issue of gender in the classroom, teachers must eschew stereotyped

views about females and males that limit the potential of women and men at schools

and in society. Also, background knowledge should always be employed as no topic

is abstract in nature.

ii. For Students: The students should be enlightened that in a formal context of the

classroom discourse does not tolerate communication dissonance. This will give

credence to the obeying turn-taking and maxim of manner.

iii. For Other Researchers: It is also valuable to recommend the further research to

conduct the similar topic of research (classroom conversational maxims) with bases

on various subjects’ aspect namely: gender, age and school environment. The further

researcher also may conduct a research deeply on flouting or violating the maxims

such as the creation of humors in the language teaching context to build the teacher-

students relationship and enhance the students’ participation in the classroom.

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 APPENDICES

APPENDIX A

Template for summaries of recorded lessons

Subject: Sex Class:

Topic:

Description of Lesson Content:

Teacher Initiates/Talk:

Learner Reactions/Talk:

Classroom Interaction Activities:

C.A Classifications (Repairs, Turn Taking, Pause, Adjacency Pairs,Etc):

Speech Acts Classifications (Verdictives, Directives, Etc):

CP Classification (Maxim Of Quantity, Quality, Relevance,Manner):

Instance(s) of Misunderstanding or Mishearing

Level of Coherence in the Lesson

Cohesive Devices in the Lesson Process

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 APPENDIX B
(Transcribed recordings of lesson A)
Topic taught: Reading Comprehension (Violence)
Sex of the Teacher: Female
Duration: 40minutes

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 APPENDIX C
(Transcribed recordings of lesson B)
Topic taught: Reported Speech
Sex of the Teacher: Male
Duration: 40 minutes
Chorus: All stand and greet. (They all stand). Good morning Sir!
T: Good morning class. How was your night?
Chorus: Fine sir! ^ Good! ^ Oh I slept well^ awesome^
T: Alright! Sit. (They all sit). This Monday morning, we will begin with a topic called
reported speech. (writes on the white marker board). Reported speech. Can you echo
that class?
Chorus: Reported speech.
T: Again (turns to the students).
Chorus: Reported speech.
T: Okay! Before I define reported speech. I will need some students to come out here
first. Just about five or six. (Some students responded promptly). Thank you. (He
arranges the students and gives inaudible instruction to the student closest to him. He
then proceeds to whisper into his ears.) Tell the next student what I told you, I mean
whisper to him. (The student does that while the teacher signals to him also to whisper
to the next person till it got to the last student). Alright! You (pointing to the last
student who was received the last whisper). Tell us what you were told?
R5: I will be going to for a party tonight.
T: (Smiles and turns to the first recipient). Is that what I told you?
R1: No! (Shakes his head)
T: (Turns to the second recipient). Is that what you were told?
R2: No!
T: (Turns to the third recipient). Is that what you heard?
R3: Yes!.
T: Are you sure?
R3: Yes! (Nods in affirmation ad turns to R2 to show her bewilderment but R2 gestured
that was not what he told R3).
T: (Turns to the whole class). I do not need to ask any further. I want you to know that
the information received by the third recipient is not what she passed across to the
fourth recipient. She did not pass the correct information she received. (Turns to the
first recipient). What did I tell you?
R1: I might be going for the party.
T: Very good. It is very important to listen well to information been passed across and
pass it on correctly to the next person.When an information is not properly taken in,
then it will be distorted at the point of dissemination.I made a statement on that ‘I
might attend the party’. A probability and also that there is definitely a party
somewhere but to attend is a probability. That is ‘I may’ and ‘I may not’. But the third
recipient made a statement of certainty ‘will’ and ‘a party’ to show any party that is
available. That has already affected the message I passed across to the firstrecipient.
Thank you. You can have your sit. (Motions to the students standing). I want to see
who can guess what we have just done?
S1: Reported speech.
T: Reported speech or gossip?
S1: Reported speech!
T: Are you sure?
S1: (A little bit confused). Yes sir! Reported speech.

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T: So who can differentiate between gossip and reported speech?
S2: Reported speech is telling someone something about someone else while gossip is
(hesitates seems to be looking for the right word) erm…erm…amebo 1 (sits while the
whole class burst into laughter).
T: (CHUCKLES) That’s alright. Let’s proceed. What is reported speech? (Points to a
student). You.
S3: Reported speech refers to telling someone another person’s statement.
T: Hmmm. Telling someone another person’s statement. (Points to another student). You
get up and explain what reported speech means?
S4: Reported speech means reporting a statement made by the first speaker to the third
speaker by the second speaker.
T: Thank you. You have all tried. Now explaining between gossip and reported speech,
you have to pay a rapt attention to whatsoever I have to say. Like you know, decorum
is very essential in my class. You can only talk if you are bigger than me in this class.
(There was dead silence in the classroom). Gossip is a conversation or reports about
other people’s private lives that might be unkind or disapproving. (pauses and looks
round to allow the students assimilate). Do you get it? (They nod in affirmation), like
the amebo mentioned earlier. Reported speech means reporting the statement
someone made either by directly quoting them or not. But either way, the owner of
the statement is still acknowledged. Do you understand it? Let me define this, (writes
on the board). Let me define it and also differentiate between direct and indirect
reported speech. Direct or quoted speech is that reported speech or thoughts o in its
original form phrased b y the original speaker. It is used in quotation marks or
inverted commas. Indirect speech on the other hand is a means of expressing the
content of statements, questions or utterances, without quoting them explicitly as is
done in direct speech. Please do you get it? Let me say it this way again, direct
speech describes when something is being repeated exactly as it was and usually in
between quotations while indirect speech will still share the same information but
instead of expressing someone’s comments or speech directly, it just describesit in
past tense. Let’s see some examples:
Direct Speech: Mary said ‘She is going to travel next month’
Indirect Speech: Mary said that she was going to travel next month.
Direct Speech: The sports teacher said, ‘Run fast, boys’
Indirect Speech: The sports teacher asked the boys to run fast.

Note that the second speaker in indirect speech used his/her words and the absence
of quotation marks was noticeable. Let someone stand up and tell me the direct
speech of this statement. ‘I feel great’. ( ) stand up and tell us.
S5: He said, ‘I feel great.’
T: Excellent. A round of applause for him (Class claps) Now in indirect speech ( ) you.
S3: He said that feel great.
T: He said that he feel great?
S3: Yes!
T: Feel great? Past tense? Feel great?
S3: (Paused for a moment and recollect). Oh! He said that he felt great.
T: Very good! Now listen, while you use simple present tense in direct speech, you used
simple past tense in indirect speech. Examples have been shown on the board. Two,
present perfect tense changes to past perfect tense e.g The teacher said, ‘I have
written the example on the board.’ In direct speech will change to ‘The teacher said
that she had written the example on the board.’ Also, present continuous tense will

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 change to past continuous tense. For example, ‘She said; ‘I am going to the party’ will
change to ‘She said that she was going to the party’ (Notices a student who was not
concentrating). You! Stand up! How many speakers are involved in reported speech?
S5: How many speakers?
T: Yes! How many speakers are involved in reported speech?
S5: (Silent).
T: When you were not concentrating. See yourself now. Please keep standing. Like I was
saying, we use past tense for indirect speech. And there are three speakers involved.
Now, you (points to a student). What tenses are used for indirect reported speech?
S6: Past.
T: Correct! You (points to another student). When a speech is reported, it is called?
S7: You mean reports? It is called…erm..reported speech.
T: Very good. (notices two students laughing unnecessarily). You two stand up and face
the wall. Now tell me the main difference between direct and indirect speech.(points
to S5 standing).
S5: Direct speech is said directly while indirect speech is said indirectly. (looks around for
approval of his classmates)
T: Again? (S5 kept silent). Come out here and kneel. You! (Points to one of those facing
the wall). Tell me one of the differences between direct and indirect speech?
S8: Direct speech has quotation mark and indirect speech does not have.
T: Better. Sit down. Next time I get you, you will be in trouble. You, (points to the
second student facing the wall). Another difference?
S9: Direct speech uses present tense while indirect uses past tense.
T: Excellent! If you make a noise again, I will deal with you. Sit down. Now can I have
some students come out here please? Like three students. (positions and instructs
them). You are the first speaker, you second speaker and you third person. So first
speaker, tell the second speaker what you want to do.
SPK1: I am going to watch Man. Utd.
T: You second speaker, tell the third speaker what the first speaker said using direct
speech.
SPK2: He said, ;I am going to watch Man. Utd.’
T: Very good! Now say it again using indirect speech.
SPK2: He aid he was going to watch Man. Utd.
T: Excellent. A round of applause for them. (class claps). Very good. Please sit. Now
listen to this important notice, speakers can also be in plural, for instance, ‘They said,’
they are coming.’ Or ‘ They said, they were coming.’ Now pair yourselves in twos,
let the fist speaker think of a statement and report it using direct and indirect reported
speeches and vice versa. (students were seen pairing themselves excitedly) You stand
up and go to your sit but form today I appoint you as my PA. Whenever I give out
assignments, you will be the one to collect them and submit to me. That means you
are now my new subject captain. Okay? (The teacher nods intermittently too approve
some conversations).

105
 APPENDIX D
(Transcribed recordings of lesson C)
Topic taught: Argumentative Essay.
Sex of the Teacher: Male
Duration: 40 minutes
T: Good morning class.
Chorus:Good morning Sir!
T: Today we want to focus on what we call argumentative essay. Before now I taught
you some essays, like descriptive essayand other forms of essay. But today we want
to focus on what we call argumentative essay. But now what do we call the word
argumentative essay? (Pauses)From the word argument, for example, say Tope and
Hannah are arguing on a point. That is where we pick argumentative essay.
Sometimes, we fight on a point and Hannah will beargue, at the same time Tope will
be argue. Now, what do we call argumentative essay, (***). You have
argumentative essay where you can be given a topic in a school. For example,
mothers are better than father, that is argumentative essay. You can be given a topic
like that to argue. Now I want to ask you a question. What do we call argumentative
essay? I mean to ask you a argumentative? Okay ( ) (points to a student) What is
argumentative essay?
S1: Argumentative essay is an essay which constitutes of two or more people, the
supporter and the opposer.
T: Okay. (Nods) Clap for him. (The class claps). Another person, what is
argumentative essay? What do you understand with the word argumentative
essay/ Okay! (Points to another student).
S2: Argumentative essay can be referred to as to where two or three people goes
against and for a point.
T: Okay. Thank you. Clap for him. Now, a female! A female! What is argumentative
essay? A female? Okay! Okay! (Points to a female). What is argumentative
essay?
S3: Argumentative essay is where two or more people argue… (Silent)
T: (Cuts in)..argue on a point (student 3 is seen mumbling the same statement
made by the teacher) for or against the point. Thank you. Now! Why
argumentative essay? Now haven defined argumentative essay as an essay we
use to persuade or convince our audience. Now what is essence of this
argumentative essay? What is the essence of this argumentative essay? Okay?
(Points to another student)
S4: To confuse the audience.
T: To confuse the audience. That’s okay. Clap for him. (Class claps). We use it to
confuse the audience. (some students were seen squeezing their faces in confusion to
query the word “confuse” instead of “convince’). For example, fathers are better than
mother, and on this topic, there is need for you to define the subject involved. And
the subject involved (writes on the white marker board). The subject matter (turns
back to the students . now what is the subject matter.Ehn? What is the subject
matter.
S1: (Stands) Better
T: Better! (Disagrees)Okay! Moreover, after that, fathers and mothers is the subject
matter. Who is a father? (turns to write on the board again). You need to tell the
audience. Who ia mother?And who is father? Now most people who want to hear
from you for the first time, they may find it difficult to understand what father or

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 mother is. Now they are expecting you to tell them. And what are the importants of
mother? What are the importants of father? Now apart fromthis, if you still want to
write a very good argumentative essay, now what are the points that you must take
note while writing argumentative essay? That is, a good argumentative essay. What
are the points you must (lowers voice to allow another student take the floor). Alright
you!
S5: Expression
T: What do you understand by that?
S5: How the audience will understanding what you are saying better.
T: Thank you! Clap for him. Yes you! (Points to another student)
S6: Organization.
T: Another point organization. What do you understand by organization?
S6: The way you gather your points together.
T: Aha aaaaa, erm, when you gather your points, be sure that your points is in order.
Your points must be in order. Okay. (points to another student). Yes another point?
S1: Expression. When you write sentence so that your audience will be following you
throughout. And we should not use slangs or other language.
T: Alright! Thank you. Now we are talking of ( ) it is ideal for you to use simple
sentences that audience will understand. Apart from that, be in command of your
grammar. It is good for you to command your grammar. And know what we call
subject of the verb, I mean all the verbs you have been taught. There is need for you
to observe all these, and when you want to argue, you will come out with boldness.
You will come out with boldness. Not that when you want to say Mr.
Chairman…(demonstrates boldness) and you just begin to say (demonstrates timidity
and lowering his voice) Mr. Chairman. The topic will be boring for them but when
you come out with boldness and tell them the state of your mind. Even before you
speak, they will be confused (convinced). And you need to confuse (convince) them
becausethere is need for you to confuse (convince) your audience. As a result of this,
there is need for you to take note of all these points while you want to go for
argumentative essay and that you must have a good command of your (raises his
voice to allow students respond). What?
Chorus: Language!
T: What?
Chorus: Language.
T: Your grammar. Grammar. Apart from that’s, in times of brevity, you must be very
brief because of the time. For example, if am Ojo, and I want to argue for five
minutes, say under five minutes what you will have to say. There is need for you to
take note of that. At this juncture, any question on the topic/ do you understand the
topic? (few students nod). Okay let me ask you some questions

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 APPENDIX E
(Transcribed recordings of lesson D)
Topic taught: Parts of Speech
Sex of the Teacher: Female
Duration: 40 minutes
T: Good morning class!
Chorus: Good morning ma!
T: Today we are looking at parts of speech. How many parts of speech do we have in
English language?
Chorus: Eight!
T: No! if you want to talk you raise your hand. You are not barbarians. ( )
S1: Eight
T: We have eight. ( ) tell us one of them.
S2: Adverb
T: Adverb. Another?
Chorus: Noun^ Pronoun^ Adjective^
T: Thank you. I once gave you a formula, remember, I told you, you can use this formula
(writes on the board). So that you can remember easily. VINCAPPA. What did I call
it?
Chorus: VINCAPPA
T: Again?
Chorus: VINCAPPA
T: V stands for what?
Chorus: Verb.
T: I stands for?
Chorus: Interjection.
T: N stands for?
Chorus: Noun
T: C stands for?
Chorus: Conjunction.
T: A stands for?
Chorus: Adverb
T: P stands for?
Chorus: Pronoun.
T: The other P stands for?
Chorus: Preposition.
T:: And the last A stands for?
Chorus: Adjective.
T: Clap for yourselves. (Students clap). So we are starting from the first one there, which
is verb. What is a verb ( )?
S1: A verb ia an action word.
T: A verb is an action word. That is, the word that the action in a sentence focuses on.
Without the verb in a sentence, the sentence will be meaningless. ‘The girl ate
yesterday.’ The ‘ate; there is a verb. Isn’t it/
Chorus; Yes!
T: If you remove ‘ate’ from that sentence and you say, ‘The girl yesterday’, does it have
any meaning?
Chorus: No

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T: It doesn’t have any meaning. So the verb is the pillar of that sentence. It is what the
sentence is focusing on. It is what tells us what happens in a sentence. That is why we
call it an action word. The next one there is interjection. Interjection are words that
express erm.. Surprise, emotion, express strong feelings. E.g, Oh! Ah! Wonderful!
Whao! And so on. The moment you see an interjection it must have an exclamation
mark. (writes on the board). You all know what an exclamation mark is? Don’t you?
This is an exclamation mark! If you are writing an interjection, there must be an
exclamation mark in front of it. Then the next one is a noun. What is a noun?
S2: A noun is the name of any person, place or thing.
S3: A noun is a naming word.
T: A noun is a naming word. God bless you! That is, the word that names people, the
name of people, the name of things, the name of places and so on. So who wants to
give me the examples of noun, ( ) give us an example. Yes ( ) an example of now?
S4: ****
T: We said that nouns are naming words, the names of people, the names of places, the
names of things, the name of ideas and so on. Give us an example and you are looking
at me S4? You ( ) give us an example?
S5: Goat.
T: Goat. That one is an animal. Person ( )?
S6: Ben.
T: Good Ben. ( )?
S1: Iju Odo.
S7: Okitipupa.
T: Okitipupa. Thank you. The next one is conjunction. Conjunctions are words that join
words that join phrases or sentences together. Examples are ‘or’, ‘until’, and so on.
(writes on the board). Look at the two examples we have on the board. ‘Sade and
and Tope are friends’. ‘I will not go until I eat my food.’ “And” joins Sade and Tope
and that is the conjunction that joins those words. This one “until” joins two phrases
together. Do you understand it? Then the next one is adverb. What is an adverb? An
adverb is a word that modifies a verb, an adjective, then another adverb. That is, it
gives us additional information. It tells us more about a verb, it tells us more about an
adjective and equally tells us more about an adverb. ‘Sade is very fat’. Fat there is an
adjective while the ‘very’ is an adverb. The extent of Sade’s fatness. ‘The girl is very
beautiful’. ‘Beautiful’ too is an adjective, while ‘very’ the adverb is telling us of her
beauty. Do you understand it?
Chorus: Yes!
T: ‘The boy walks fast’. ‘Walks’ there is an adverb while ‘fast’ is modifying the word
‘walks’. That is, telling us how the boy walks. And so on. Then, the next one is a
Pronoun. What is a pronoun? What is a pronoun ( )?
Chorus: ^^^^
T: ( ) what is a pronoun?
S8: Pronouns are words used instead of a noun.
T: Pronoun are words used in place of a noun. They are used instead of a noun. Either to
avoid repetition. Look at this example (writes on the board). Read the example on the
board. All read!
Chorus: ‘Ayo is a boy, Ayo comes to school daily and Ayo takes Ayo’s sister along.’
T: Now sit. You will discover that in the example, we keep repeating a word there,that is
we keep saying continuously. What is that word? Ayo! You know Ayo there is a
noun. In other to avoid the repetition there. You know in order to avoid repeating
Ayo, we can always use another word to replace Ayo. And the another word you can

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 use to replace Ayo is a pronoun. Let’s go now class! ‘Ayo is a boy.’ The second
statement you change it to ‘he’ which is a pronoun. ‘He comes to school daily’ and
‘he takes his sister along’. So instead of repeating Ayo! Ayo!! Ayo!!! We use pronoun
to replace or we use pronoun instead of Ayo. Then, examples of pronouns. Who can
give me of the examples of pronouns? ( ).
S9: ‘he’
T: ( ) give as one example. Stand up!
S10: ‘she’
T: ( ) give us one example.
S11: ‘I’
T: ( ) give us one example
S4: ‘You’
T: ( ) give us one example
S11: ‘himself’
T: Thank you! We have ‘he, she, they, themselves, himself, herself, and so on.’ The next
one is preposition. ( ) what is a preposition? Stand up!
S12: ^^^^^^^^
T: ( ) What is a preposition?
S13: Prepositions are words ….(silent).
T: Okay! Because of our time let me tell you. Prepositions are words that show
relationships. They are words that show relationships in a sentence. Examples are;
‘over, under, on, inside, outside, by, and so on’. Look at this example (writes on the
board). In the first example there, ‘The man is standing by the car’. ‘by’ there is
telling the relationship between the man and the car. Where is the man standing?
Chorus: By the car!
T: The next one, ‘The book is under the table.’. Where is the book?
Chorus: Under the table.
T: That under is showing us the relationship between the book and the table. We are
moving to the last one now. What is the last one?
Chorus: Adjective.
T: What is the last one?
Chorus: Adjective!
T: ( ) what is an adjective?
S2: Adjectives are words that qualify a noun and a verb.
T: Do we have another person? ( ) what is an adjective?
S14: An adjective is when a noun….
T: (Interrupts)Someone is telling her there. S15 what is an adjective?
S15: An adjective describes a noun. A word that qualifies a noun.
T: Thank you. God bless you. Give us an example?
S7: Sade is a fat girl.
T: What is an adjective in that sentence?
S7: Fat!
T: Fat. Clap for him. (The students clap). An adjective is a word that qualifies a noun.
S2 adjectives qualifies only a noun and not a verb. Not a noun and a verb. An
adjective is word that describes a noun. That is, it gives additional information about
the noun. The sentence that S7 gave us, ‘Sade is a fat girl’. That girl is a noun while
fat is the adjective that is telling us more about the girl. More about that noun which is
the girl. Examples of adjectives aere short, long, beautiful, attractive, tall, handsome,
near, far’. For instance (writes on the board). ‘The tall man is my father’. What is the
adjective?

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Chorus: Tall.
T: Tall! Tall!! Telling us who my father is. You know it is possible in that place you have a
short man, we have a fat man, we have a tall ma. But I am saying that the tall man is
my father. It is that ‘tall’ that ells us who is my father and so on. Do you have any
question?
Chorus: No!
T: Anyquestion?
Chorus: No!!!!!!!
T: Okay! Let me ask you my question. ( ) what is a verb?
S15: Ma?
T: What is a verb? Or you are not in the class?
S15: A verb is ^^^^^^
T: Will you open your mouth an talk?
S15: A verb is an action word.
T: ( ) give me an example of verb. Where is S15? (notices he is no longer in his seat).
You are there again? Give us an example?
S7: Walk, eat, run, sleep,…
T: It’s okay. Thank you ( ) what is a conjunction? No noise.
S11: A conjunction is …
T: (Interrupts0 Stand up properly.
S11: They are the words that join two words or phrases together.
T: Thank you! They are the words that join two words or phrase together. I believe we
are clear? That is the end of the class today. So see you next time. God bless you.
Chorus: Thank you ma!!!!!

111
 APPENDIX F
(Transcribed recordings of lesson E)
Topic taught: Listening Comprehension (Road Safety)
Sex of the Teacher: Female
Duration: 40 minutes

The teacher entered amidst noise in the entire classroom.

SU: All stand and greet.
Chorus: Good morning ma! ^Ma we are happy to see you. ^ God bless you^ Amen^ And
your family^.
T: Good morning. Please sit down. I want to believe you are all okay this morning?
Chorus: Yes ma.^ Mummy I did not sleep well. ^ Ma I saw you at the market on Saturday.^
T: Settle down class. (Pauses). I want to believe you all can see the visitor we have here
this morning. So behave yourselves. (Writes on the board while students murmur
inaudibly). Our topic today is safety precaution. Repeat that class.
Chorus: Safety precaution (some screaming at the top of their voices).
T: And the aspect of safety precaution we are to consider is road safety. We have
personal safety, home safety, etc but road safety is our consideration today. I will be
telling you a short story of a young girl who had a dream of becoming a lawn tennis
star. She loves to practice in the family garden every evening, especially after school
hours. Her mother had warned her in the past about caution on high way crossing and
obeying traffic rules such as looking to the right, then left, then right again before
crossing the road. On this fateful day, she was practicing when her tennis ball
bounced off and she ran after it after into the road without looking and she was hit by
an oncoming car.
S1: Mummy did the girl die?
T: Yes she died.
Chorus: Aw!^ Why now!^Oh!^ NO!^ Jesus!^ Eh^! (Some took sharp breaths).
T: That is all about the story. So can someone retell the story to the whole class the way I
said it?
Chorus: {}
T: Thank you. That’s alright. So having heard the story and retold it. What was the girl’s
dream? To be a police officer? Doctor? Lawyer? Tennis star?
Chorus: Tennis^ Yes tennis star!
T: Where should we look before crossing the road? Left or right?
S1: Right, left, then right. (demonstrates to the interest of others).
S2: (cuts in) But that girl should not have been more careful.
Chorus: ^Abi! ^ Those drivers do over speed^ Some of them take drugs, cocaine. ^Or Indian
hemp Olodo1 ^Just because of a tennis ball^ Ordinary tennis ball^I trust myself^
Howwill her mother feel now?^
T: Please let’s continue. Road safety measures involve taking traffic measures into
consideration that is, being more careful when using the road. The girl in that story
did not take into consideration the safety measures needed. Especially the rules her
mother gave her concerning road usage. She was too engrossed in chasing after her
tennis ball that she never knew a car was coming. We should always consider traffic
lights, zebra crossing, looking to the right, left and then right before crossing the road
are all very important in safety measures of the road usage.(she notices some students
talking). I will send you out of my class if you will not stop making a noise. (frowns).
Just let me catch you making a noise. You see, the girl in the story who had the

112
 ambition of becoming a tennis player like some of you who want to become
footballers, doctors, lawyers, bankers, etc but did not live to fulfill her dreams because
of carelessness on the road. It is important to note that road measures preserve our
lives. Some of you want to cross the road, you do not bother looking at the other side,
once some of you look at a side, you just run across.
S3: (Cuts in). whenever I want to cross on express. I will just ‘ja pa2’
T: Ja pa? (Queries)
S3: Yes o! I always run across the road like Usain Bolt. (The whole class laugh).
T: Can I have some peace in the class please?
S4: Mummy ask him if he can run?
T: (Ignores S4). Talking about crossing the road properly.
S3: Do you think I am like you? Putu3
T: If I hear any side talk again you will see what I will do to that person.(Notices some
students still talking) ( ) stand up and tell the whole class what I just said.
S5: I am sorry mummy.
T: Sit up and fold your arms everyone. Don’t let me deal with you. Has anyone ever seen
people when they want to cross the road? Especially on expressway?
Chorus: Express?^ mummy please repeat the question^
T: Whenever you see people crossing the road, what do you notice?
S6: Whenever I see people crossing, especially at the main express along Shagari4 village
or Madam Do Good5 along Agape church, it is always funny, you there was this old
person like that, he just entered the road without looking and could not even run, all
cars, okada6 had to stop for him that day to cross.
Chorus: Sit down^ Mummy I can answer the question well.
S5: People I used to see especially on express always make sure the road is clear before
crossing or make sure that they would have crossed the road before the arrival of the
oncoming vehicle.
Chorus: Mummy that’s not all^ Let me talk ^ Mummy I raised my hand first
T: I will give you the marker to teach, if you do not stop your noise making. Alright.
You must always make sure the road is very clear before crossing. Now we have road
safety officers who help in monitoring obedience to road safety rules like using of seat
belt, helmet, speed limit especially for drivers so as not to endanger the lives of other
road users. Whenever you travel on the road, you see road safety officers, those ones
that put on carton colour uniform ask for driver’s license. Along Ado-Owo-Ikere
express way for instance. They use white and blue stripped vehicle and charge
offender. Have you seen them before?
Chorus: Yes^ Mummy yes.
S2: One day, me and my daddy and my mummy, my sister and our last born were
travelling to visit my grandparents during one holiday like that sha… ehn…ehn..my
father bought meat pie and minerals for us at chicken rep
Chorus: (interrupt) Yee!^ { } Lie^ Lie^ chicken rep^ uhn.
S2: (Continues) Then at Ondo road, erm..before military check point, where those soldiers
do stay, we were stopped by the road safety officers, they asked my daddy to slow
down and pack. My daddy greeted him and he responded. My daddy said, ‘how was
your day’ and he answered fine. My mum also greeted him, he looked at us very well
and asked us to go. (some students hissed and S2 reacted). Say your own and let’s
hear.
T: Good! Correct! Another person?

113
S8: It was a bike man, who was stopped and they removed his key. We begged and the
bike man even prostrated but they took his bike away. I just crossed to the other side
and went my way.
S9: Smart nigga.
T: Why did they stop him?
S8: They said he was not wearing his helmet and he also took one way.
S4 O wo gau7.
T: In observing safety measures, what are you expected to do? ( )
S9: (not concentrating) In road safety officers?
T: In road safety officers?
S9: Sorry ma….In road safety measures, you are expected to obey traffic rules.
T: (Points to another student). You what do you think road safety is?
S10: Road safety officers are standing by the road to arrest vehicles.
T: I sad road safety measures not road safety officers. (some students mocked S10). I
don’t want to hear any noise again. Now, can someone tell me in safety measures,
what are the precautions you take in crossing the road?
S11: In crossing the road? (looks at her classmates). Haaa… (loudly) I will take off like a
thief been chased (the whole class laugh)
T: Good, why Beatrice not look before crossing the road?
S2: Because of an ordinary tennis ball (demonstrates with the tip of her finger) ordinary.
T: Correct! Alright! I will give you an assignment. Write (writes on the board) a story to
illustrate road safety precaution. I want it tomorrow morning. Is that understood? Any
question? Good day class.
Chorus: Thank you ma^ Mummy God bless you^ Mummy I love you.

* The term means not intelligent or not brilliant. It can also be used when one gets an
answer wrong. Especially playfully1
* Meaning to escape or run away. A slang used nowadays2
* A slang to meant to describe a lazy being3
* Name of a Street4
* The name of a company and sole distributor5
*Commercial Motocyclist6
*He is in trouble7

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 APPENDIX G
(Transcribed recordings of lesson F)
Topic taught: Noun Phrase
Sex of the Teacher: Male
Duration: 80 minutes
Chorus:All stand and greet! Good morning sir!
T: Good morning students! Ho was your weekend?
Chorus: Fine sir!!!
T: Very good! Please settle down and bring out your English textbooks. Open to page20
of your English textbook.. We will be looking at noun phrase. What did I call it?
Chorus: Noun phrase!!!
T: (Writes on the board). Noun phrase. You had been taught before on what phrases are
and what a noun phrase is. So some one should tell us what phrase is?
S1: A phrase is defined as not having finite verb.
T: Hmmm (hesitates). Alright! Good try! Another person? You! (points to another ).
S2: Phrases are group of words without a finite verb.
T: Better. A round of applause for her! (Students clap). Example, ‘reading in the night’.
Now waht is noun phrase? You!
S3: A noun phrase is a group of words without a finite verb.
T: A niun phrase? (Queries)
S3: Yes sir!
T: It is too early for you to lack concentration. Come out and kneel there. Another person
S4: A noun phrase is a group of words with a noun as the headword.
T: Very good! Correct! A round of applause. (Students clap). Can you see yourself
(referring to S3). I know so many of you are like him. Let me just catch you. Now,
you were toldin SS1 that a noun phrase is a group of words with a noun or a pronoun
as the headword. That is, the noun or the pronoun as the main word. (A student raises
his hand). Yes, what is it?
S5: Sir! We were also taught that a person does not make a complete sense of meaning.
T: Sit down! I am no longer teaching phrase. And don’t drag us back. Now, let’s look at
some examples: ‘A lady was caught peeping through the window’ and ‘The man in
white agbada is my father.’ Now open to page 21 of your textbooks. Read the passage
and identify the noun phrase there. (Students were seen writing in their notes while
some were murmuring). If I catch you talking, I will deal with you and you will forget
your name. I do not know maybe your books can talk. (After some minutes). Now
having identified the noun phrase, write out the noun phrases you underlined (paused)
identified in the passage on page 21. (studnets write as the teacher motions to the
student kneeling to go back to his seat). Go and sit. (Goes round to check what what
they have written, commended some and corrected some. After some minutes). Sit up
everyone and fold your arms. Most of you got it right while only a few got it wrong.
Now we move on to the functions of noun phrase. Noun phrase can function as
the subject or object of the phrase presented to you. For instnace; Everyone, that
is,the entire world is beginning to realize the importance of English Language. Here,
the noun phrase functions as the subject of the sentence. Although our focus is not
on the functions today but to first identify noun phrases and then move to its functions
In your texbook, we have some noun phrases there with their modifiers,that box there,
make sentences using a noun phrase from box A with a suitable modifier from box B.
(Students settle down to do this within some minutes). I want to believe you are
writing something tangible? (walks round and after about 10 minutes). Okay! Sit

115
 up everyone and fold your arms. Exchange your books with someone close to you
(Students were seen exchanging books with one another with particular preference to
whom each wanted until the teacher cautioned them. Later the students were
instructed to mark the answers while ther showed the teacher what they marked for
correction). Very good! Now return the book to the owner. Someone should give us a
sentence using Lady in box A with a suitable modifier from box B.
S2: The lady in pink is my sister.
T: Correct! A round of applause (Students clap). Another person using students in box
A.
S6: Three students were caught sneaking out of the school.
T: Very good. But I hope you are not one of them? Now having done that, I want you to
also answer the exercise on page 22. It reads, with your partner, develop each of the
following noun phrasess. So pair yourselves in twos and give us a sentence from those
noun phrases. (Students obey until a student raises her head). Yes! What is it?
S7: Sir, the person you asked to sit with me. ( ), my partner is disturbing me.
T: ( ) stand up! Why are you disturbing her?
S8: Sir ...
T: (Interrupts). Shut up! If you repeat that I will not take it lightly with you. Sit down
and do waht I asked you to do. (After students were done). Let me see what each
group has done. (They all present to the teacher their answers, one after the other).
Okay! You have all done well. In our next class we will talk about the functions of
noun phrase but now we will write some notes on noun phrase. But before that, let me
ask some questions. One, what is a noun phrase? You! (Points to S3)
S3: A noun phrase is a word with a noun or a pro...
T: (Interrupts) A word? A noun phrase is a word?
S3: Yes!
T: It is a word? Or a group of word?
S3: Ha! A group of words. (smiles). A noun phrase is a group of words with a noun or
pronoun as the head word.
T: I pity you. Let some one use this noun phrase in a sentence, An old music box. ( ) yes.
S9: An old music box, like the one bought ten years ago or not usuable again,...
T: (Interrupts). We all know but use it in a sentence.
S9: An old music box was found in the store.
T: Very good. Alright, let’s copy the note for today.

116
 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS/APENDIX CONVENTIONS
CA CONVERSATIONAL ANALYSIS
CP COOPERATIVE PRINCIPLES
FIAC FLANDERS INTERACTION ANALYSIS CATEGORIES
MOQNT MAXIM OF QUANTITIY
MOQUL MAXIM OF QUALITY
MOR MAXIM OF RELEVANCE
MOM MAXIM OF MANNER
Q&A QUESTION AND ANSWER
T TEACHER
S STUDENT (Numbering used to identify the students)
R RECIPIENT
*** INAUDIBLE STATEMENTS.
() WHERE NAMES OF STUDENTS WERE MENTIONED.
(A deliberate omission by the researcher)\
CHORUS WHEN THE ENTIRE STUDENTS RESPOND.
^ WHEN STATEMENTS OVERLAP
{} WHEN ALL THE STUDENTS ARE TALKING AT THE
SAME TIME

117
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