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CHAPTER 7—TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT
TRUE/FALSE
1. Training plays a central role in strengthening the competencies that give organizations their
competitive advantage.
ANS: T PTS: 1 REF: p. 306 OBJ: 7-1 TYPE: K
2. Training is oriented towards broadening employees' individual skills for future responsibility.
ANS: F PTS: 1 REF: p. 306 OBJ: 7-1 TYPE: K
3. By far the greatest proportion of training is spent on rank and file employees and their supervisors.
4. The systems approach to training involves (1) needs assessment, (2) program design, (3)
implementation, and (4) evaluation.
5. The goal of training is to contribute to the organization's overall objectives.
6. Training dollars are often wasted because training is often not done in a systematic manner linked to
strategy and the goals of the training.
7. The three different types of training needs assessment are organizational analysis, job knowledge
analysis, and person analysis.
8. Although important in determining training program success, organizations conduct a needs

assessment less than half the time before initiating a training program.
9. Organization analysis includes broad forces than impact the effectiveness of employees, such as
mergers and acquisitions, technological change, and reengineering.
ANS: T PTS: 1 REF: p. 309 OBJ: 7-2 TYPE: U
10. Data such as direct and indirect labor costs, turnover, and unemployment rate provide clues to
organizations about training needs.
© 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. This edition is intended for use outside of the U.S. only, with content that may be different
from the U.S. Edition. May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
11. The task analysis portion of organization analysis is shifting from emphasis on a fixed schedule of
tasks to a flexible set of competencies needed for performance.
12. Person analysis involves determining what the content of the training program should be, based on a
study of the tasks or duties involved in the job.
13. Instructional objectives are a key component in the design of a training program.
14. The performance-centered objective is not widely used because it lends itself to a biased evaluation of
results.
ANS: F PTS: 1 REF: p. 315 OBJ: 7-2 TYPE: U
15. Performance-centered objectives might include terms such as "to calculate waste rate" and "to
appreciate diversity in the workforce."
ANS: F PTS: 1 REF: p. 315 OBJ: 7-2 TYPE: A
16. Trainee readiness refers to both maturity and experience factors in a trainee's background.
17. The two preconditions for learning are employee readiness and motivation.
18. Psychological principles of learning refer to the characteristics of training programs that help
employees grasp new material, make sense of it in their own lives, and transfer it back to the job.
19. Explaining the goals and objectives of the training program to trainees has little impact on the interest,
understanding, and effort they direct toward the training.
20. Employees learn much more easily by trying to do something themselves than by watching someone
else do it.
21. Trainees should not practice their job tasks until after the training program is complete.
22. Practicing job tasks enables the trainee to forget about distinct behaviors and become proficient on the
subtleties of how they are used.
23. Feedback to trainees is important for motivational purposes as well as knowledge of results.
ANS: T PTS: 1 REF: p. 318 OBJ: 7-3 TYPE: K | 7-3 TYPE: U
24. Effective training programs eliminate plateaus in the learning curves.
25. Behavior modification seeks to gradually shape trainee behavior using reinforcement.
26. The success of any training effort depends more upon the content of the program than on the teaching
skills and personal characteristics of those conducting the training.
27. Effective trainers are often enthusiastic, humorous, have interest in the training itself, and demonstrate
knowledge of the subject.
ANS: T PTS: 1 REF: pp. 319-320 OBJ: 7-3 TYPE: K
28. Offering and providing individual assistance is an important aspect for successful trainers.
29. Although on-the-job training (OJT) is generally regarded as the most effective means of facilitating
learning at the workplace, it is often the most poorly implemented.
30. Although on-the-job training (OJT) is generally regarded as the most effective means of facilitating
learning at the workplace, it is the least common method used for training.
31. One of the common drawbacks of on-the-job training (OJT) is the poor training skills of managers.
32. If one were using the on-the-job training method of training, the first step would be to present the
operations and knowledge to the learner.
33. Apprenticeship programs are an extension of OJT that provide on and off the job instruction.
34. Internship programs that are done well benefit students, schools, and employers.
35. Classroom instruction is cost-effective because it allows the maximum number of trainees to be
handled by the minimum number of instructors.
36. A major advantage of programmed instruction is that it incorporates a number of established learning
principles.
37. A major disadvantage of programmed instruction is that aspects of it are not consistent with the
generally accepted principles of learning.
38. The primary drawback of teleconferencing and videoconferencing training programs is that the
participants are limited to interacting solely with the instructor.
39. E-learning encompasses two techniques: computer-assisted instruction, and computer-based program
design.
40. E-learning is interactive and allows the training to come to the employee.
41. The distinction between simulation and simple computer-based training is blurring due to advances in
information technology.
42. On-the-job experiences are used most commonly by organizations to develop managers.
43. Case studies are a useful method of giving participants experience at analyzing and synthesizing facts.
44. When analytic, problem-solving, and critical thinking skills are the most important skills in a training
program, the case study method would prove appropriate.
ANS: T PTS: 1 REF: p. 330 OBJ: 7-4 TYPE: A
45. A disadvantage of management games is that it requires a computer, and often several of them.
46. Role playing consists of assuming the attitudes and behavior of others, often a supervisor and a
subordinate.
47. Behavior modeling is based on the principle that behavior which is rewarded will be exhibited more
frequently in the future, whereas behavior which is unrewarded will decrease in frequency.
48. Behavior modeling appears to work in helping managers with interacting with employees, introducing
change, and handling discipline.
49. Most organizations go to great lengths to accurately evaluate training programs.
50. Two criteria to evaluate training programs are costs and training materials.
51. Reaction measures to evaluate training typically focus on the entertainment value of the training
program.
ANS: F PTS: 1 REF: pp. 333-334 OBJ: 7-5 TYPE: K
52. When a training program is successfully implemented in several departments within an organization,
the training program has a high degree of transfer of training.
53. Utility refers to measuring one's own training services against the leaders in your industry.
54. Return on investment (ROI) is the amount of money a company saves by avoiding training programs.
55. Benchmarking is concerned with measuring employee retention of training materials at specific points
in time.
56. Orientation is the formal process of familiarizing new employees with the organization, their job, and
their work unit.
57. The benefits of an orientation program include lower turnover, improved morale, and facilitation of
learning.
58. An effective orientation program has been shown to help retain and motivate employees.
59. The term "orientation" is often used to describe almost any effort initiated by an organization to foster
learning among its members.
60. Orientation programs stress the "why" rather than the what, including the philosophy behind the
organization's rules.
61. Supervisors play the most important role in the orientation of new employees.
62. The use of orientation checklists compels a supervisor to be more attentive to each employee.
63. Basic skills include speaking, listening, managing oneself, and knowing how to learn.
64. While the largest companies agree in principle with remedial training in basic skills, they are generally
reluctant to allot funds to provide for that type of training.
65. To function effectively in a team, members should receive training in both process and behavioral
dynamics.
66. While cross training can increase productivity, it can also increase employee turnover.
67. A skill-building diversity program would teach managers how to conduct performance appraisals with
employees from different cultures.
68. Awareness building in diversity training provides the KSAs necessary for working with people who
are different.
69. Off-the-shelf diversity programs are suitable for most organizations.
MULTIPLE CHOICE
1. The primary reason organizations train new employees is to:

a. increase their knowledge, skill, and ability level.
b. help trainees achieve personal career goals.
c. comply with federal regulations.
d. improve the work environment.
ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: p. 306 OBJ: 7-1 TYPE: K
2. The terms "training" and "development":

a. mean the same thing
b. both refer to short term skill development efforts
c. refer to a short term performance orientation vs. a longer term skill development,
respectively
d. refer to skills development in low level vs. managerial employees, respectively
ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: p. 306 OBJ: 7-1 TYPE: K | 7-1 TYPE: U
3. From the broadest perspective, the goal of training is to contribute to:

a. social improvement.
b. personal growth.
c. organizational goals.
d. departmental challenges.
ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: p. 307 OBJ: 7-1 TYPE: U
4. Many organizations never make the connection between their _____ and their training programs.
a. technology
b. competition
c. strategic objectives
d. functional requirements
ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: p. 307 OBJ: 7-1 TYPE: K
5. A systems approach to training:

a. is the most cost-effective approach
b. ensures that training investments have maximum impact on performance
c. is called development
d. includes the process of job analysis
ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: p. 307 OBJ: 7-1 TYPE: K
6. The four phases of a systems approach to training are:

a. needs assessment, program design, program implementation, and evaluation.
b. organization analysis, task analysis, person analysis, and performance analysis.
c. needs assessment, person assessment, program implementation, and evaluation.
d. organization assessment, KSA assessment, person assessment, and evaluation.
7. A study by the American Society for Training and Development found that organizations conduct need
assessment less than _____ percent of the time.
a. 50
b. 40
c. 30
d. 20
8. Determining what the content of a training program should be, based on a study of the job duties, is
known as:
a. organization analysis.
b. individual analysis.
c. job analysis.
d. task analysis.
ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: p. 311 OBJ: 7-2 TYPE: K
9. An analysis of the sets of skills and knowledge needed for decision-oriented and knowledge-intensive
jobs is referred to as:
a. task analysis
b. needs assessment
c. competency assessment
d. job analysis
10. Organization analysis, task analysis, and person analysis are all part of what phase of the system
model?
a. training and development phase
b. analysis phase
c. needs assessment phase
d. evaluation phase
11. Determining whether or not performance is acceptable and studying the characteristics of individuals
and groups that will be placed in the training environment are known as:
a. person analysis.
b. demographic analysis.
c. individual analysis.
d. group and individual analysis.
12. Person analysis:

a. has shifted from a fixed sequence of tasks to a set of competencies
b. helps organizations avoid the mistake of putting all employees through training when
some do not need it
c. involves self-improvement and self-directed training
d. examines the external labor market for needed skills
13. If you were responsible for developing a training program, your first step should be to:
a. create a suitable training environment.
b. select the proper training method.
c. determine the knowledge in the group.
d. determine the specific instructional objectives.
ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: p. 314 OBJ: 7-2 TYPE: A
14. The desired outcomes of training programs are formally stated as:
a. training goals.
b. learning objectives.
c. instructional objectives.
d. learning goals.
15. Performance-centered objectives might include all of the following phrases except:
a. "to repair leaking valves"
b. "to appreciate diversity in the workplace"
c. "to assemble components in the proper order"
d. "to calculate the percentage of waste"
ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: p. 315 OBJ: 7-2 TYPE: A
16. Which of the following is not a fundamental issue related to training design?
a. instructional objectives
b. trainee readiness and motivation
c. principles of learning
d. trainee ethnic characteristics
ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: pp. 315-316 OBJ: 7-2 TYPE: K | 7-2 TYPE: U
17. Training programs are more likely to be effective if they incorporate all of the following except:
a. goal setting.
b. modeling.
c. standardization.
d. active practice.
ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: pp. 316-317 OBJ: 7-3 TYPE: A
18. Principles of learning are characteristics that help employees with all of the following except:
a. grasping new material
b. making sense of new material
c. transfer new material to the job
d. retain new learning
19. Goal setting:

a. builds a bridge between employees and the organization
b. provides learning through repetition
c. sets a road map for the training course, objectives, and learning points
d. breaks down tasks to facilitate learning
20. Modeling:
b. demonstrates the desired behavior or method to be learnt
21. When we learn by watching others perform a task, this is known as:
a. modeling
b. active repetition
c. reinforcing behavior
d. individual style difference
ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: p. 317 OBJ: 7-3 TYPE: U
22. The principle of learning that is being emphasized by performing the same task over and over is:
a. whole learning.
b. meaningfulness of presentation.
c. practice and repetition.
d. transfer of training.
23. Whole-vs-Part Learning:

b. provides learning through repetition
ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: pp. 317-318 OBJ: 7-3 TYPE: U
24. When a trainee spends a minimal amount of time learning material over multiple training sessions, this
is known as:
a. part learning.
b. distributed learning.
c. mass learning.
d. active learning.
25. Training given for one ten hour period instead of five two hour periods is an example of:
a. part learning.
b. distributed learning.
c. mass learning.
d. active learning.
26. Spacing out the training will result in faster learning and longer retention. This is known as the
principle of:
a. plateauing.
b. retention.
c. transfer of training.
d. distributed learning.
27. Periods in learning situations when progress does not occur because of either reduced motivation or
ineffective methods of task performance are called:
a. learning blocks.
b. lapses.
c. plateaus.
d. learning gaps.
28. Learning curves show:

a. that plateaus in performance are regular and predictable
b. that effective training programs eliminate plateaus
c. that performance plateaus are natural and are usually overcome with behavior
modification
d. that performance plateaus are natural and are usually followed by spontaneous recovery
ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: p. 318 OBJ: 7-3 TYPE: U
29. The objective of behavior modification is:

a. to gradually shape behavior toward a desired profile
b. to reward all task behavior
c. to apply principles learned in the classroom to the job
d. to bridge the needs of the employee with the needs of the organization
ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: pp. 318-319 OBJ: 7-3 TYPE: U
30. All of the following are characteristics of successful trainers except:

a. possessing knowledge of the subject.
b. being experimental.
c. having enthusiasm.
d. being adaptable.
ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: pp. 319-320 OBJ: 7-3 TYPE: U
31. The appropriate training method for factual materials is:

a. lecture
b. simulation
c. on-the-job training
d. apprenticeships
32. If the training involves a large behavioral component, the appropriate training method is:
a. lecture
b. classroom
d. programmed instructions
33. The most common method used for training nonmanagerial employees is:
a. vestibule training
b. computer-based instruction
d. apprenticeships
34. Common drawbacks to on-the-job training include all of the following except:
a. lower motivation of trainees.
b. lack of a well-structured training environment.
c. poor training skills of supervisors.
d. the absence of well-defined job performance criteria.
35. All of the following are suggested to overcome common drawbacks of on-the-job training except:
a. developing realistic goals and/or measures for each OJT area.
b. tying employees' pay to their training progress.
c. helping supervisors to establish a nonthreatening atmosphere that is conducive
to learning.
d. conducting periodic evaluations, after training is completed, to prevent
regression.
36. Apprenticeship training provides information in both the _____ and _____ aspects of the job.
a. organizational and global
b. appraisal and technical
c. practical and theoretical
d. differences and similarities
37. Apprenticeship programs originated in:

a. United States
b. Europe
c. Japan
d. India
38. Generally, to start with, an apprentice is paid _____ percent of a skilled journey worker’s wage.
a. 30
b. 40
c. 50
d. 60
39. One stop career centers are funded by the:

a. Federal Job Training Partnership Act
b. Workforce Investment Act
c. Fair Labor Standards Act
d. Civil Rights Act
40. _____ training allows for the maximum number of employees to be handled by the minimum number
of instructors
a. on the job training (OJT)
b. apprenticeship
c. classroom instruction
d. internship programs
41. This method of instruction allows employees to search through a virtual sea of information in order to
customize their own learning in their own time and space.
a. vestibule instruction.
b. computer-assisted instruction.
c. videodisc instruction.
d. e-learning
42. E-learning provide all the following benefits except:

a. they customize learning
b. they replace conventional learning experiences
c. they facilitate just-in-time skill development
d. they can be more cost effective
ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: pp. 327-328 OBJ: 7-4 TYPE: K
43. The method of training used to train personnel to operate aircraft, spacecraft, and other highly
technical and expensive equipment is the:
a. simulation method.
b. classroom method.
c. vestibule method.
d. apprenticeship method.
ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: p. 326 OBJ: 7-4 TYPE: A
44. A manager who provides a continuing flow of instructions, comments, and suggestions to the
subordinate is engaging in what type of on-the-job training?
a. case study
b. coaching
c. individual development
d. role modeling
45. When an employee is groomed to take over the supervisor's job by gaining experience in handling
important functions of the job, this is known as:
a. grooming.
b. coaching.
c. understudy assignment.
d. role modeling.
46. The method of providing a variety of work experiences to broaden the knowledge and understanding
required to manage more effectively is known as:
a. job rotation.
b. lateral transfer.
c. individual development.
d. role modeling.
47. Of the following, the method that is not used to provide on-the-job experience to managerial
employees is:
a. understudy assignments.
b. outplacement.
c. lateral transfer.
d. coaching.
ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: pp. 328-329 OBJ: 7-4 TYPE: K
48. This training method consists of having the trainee assume the attitudes and behavior of others.
a. job rotation
b. case study
c. simulation study
d. role playing
49. Behavior modeling involves all of the following components except:
a. learning points
b. practice and role play
c. job rotation
d. feedback and reinforcement
ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: p. 332 OBJ: 7-4 TYPE: K | 7-4 TYPE: U
50. Each of the following is one of the four basic criteria for evaluating training except:
a. results
b. reactions
c. cost-benefit analysis
d. learning
51. The most common method of training evaluation is assessing participant:

a. results
b. reactions
c. behavior
d. learning
52. Potential questions asked to gauge participant reactions to training might include all of the following
except:
a. What were you learning goals for this program?
b. What suggestions do you have for improving the program?
c. Why were course objectives provided at the first meeting?
d. Would you recommend the program to others?
ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: pp. 333-334 OBJ: 7-5 TYPE: U
53. A control group:

a. Determines what types of training to deliver and which employees will receive it
b. helps determine whether improvements were made as the result of training or some other
factor
c. should have more experience and prior training, and higher job levels than the group being
trained
d. establish the baseline standard against which training effectiveness can be measured
54. _____ refers to the effective application of principles learned to what is required on the job.
a. transfer of training
b. learning
c. training effectiveness index
d. compensatory modeling
55. _____ teaches individuals how to anticipate and cope with inevitable setbacks they will encounter
back on the job.
a. transfer of training
b. relapse prevention
c. training effectiveness index
d. compensatory modeling
56. Utility refers to:

a. the usefulness of a training program
b. the costs incurred for a training program
c. training effectiveness in terms of increased outcomes
d. the benefits derived from training relative to the costs incurred
57. The benefits of the training exceeds the cost of the program when:
a. ROI=1
b. ROI<1
c. ROI>1
d. anytime ROI is not equal to 1
58. The process of measuring one's own services and practices against the recognized leaders in order to
identify areas for improvement is _____.
a. industry analysis
b. trend analysis
c. benchmarking
d. environmental analysis
59. The four step process advocated in benchmarking includes:

a. plan, train, perform, evaluate
b. plan, do, check, act
c. plan, design, implement, evaluate
d. assess, design, implement, evaluate
60. Benefits of orientation programs frequently reported by employers include all of the following except:
a. higher employee's anxiety.
b. facilitation of learning.
c. improved employee morale.
d. increased productivity.
61. Which of the following is not a benefit of orientation programs?

a. increased productivity
b. lower turnover and improved morale
c. more comprehensive task analysis
d. reduction of new employee anxiety
62. An orientation packet is likely to include all of the following except:
a. a current organizational chart.
b. a salary schedule of all organization jobs.
c. a policy manual or handbook.
d. maps and calendars.
63. Basic skills training includes all of the following except:

a. computing.
b. problem solving.
c. speaking.
d. attitude attainment.
64. Which of the following should a manager not do to implement a successful program in basic and
remedial training?
a. explain to employees why training will help them in their jobs.
b. use a classroom-oriented approach so employees learn by lectures.
c. provide feedback on employee progress.
d. relate the training to the employees' goals.
65. Diversity training comes in two different forms:

a. equal employment and affirmative action
b. process and behavior
c. awareness building and skill building
d. minority and non-minority
66. To implement a successful diversity training program, managers should do all of the following except:
a. establish a clear link between diversity and business goals.
b. rely upon existing training programs that have worked for other companies.
c. choose the training routine carefully.
d. document individual and organizational benefits.
67. A study by the American Society for Training and Development found that organizations conduct
needs assessment less than _____ percent of the time.
a. 50
b. 40
c. 30
d. 20
68. U.S. businesses spend about $_____ billion annually on employee training.
a. 13
b. 35
c. 58
d. 72
69. The first step in task analysis is to:

a. define descriptive terms
b. reference other similar jobs
c. identify the skills required
d. list all the tasks or duties
70. New college graduates often have a high desire for:

a. structured jobs
b. close supervision
c. advancement
d. reassurance from supervisors
71. Most learning curves are:

a. straight lines
b. mostly flat
c. irregularly shaped
d. nearly vertical
ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: pp. 318-319 OBJ: 7-3 TYPE: U
72. Technological advances have_____ traditional training methods.

a. had little impact on
b. totally replaced
c. raised the cost of
d. proved to be more effective and economical than
ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: p. 320 OBJ: 7-4 TYPE: U
73. Programmed instruction is increasingly being referred to as:

a. mentoring
b. self-directed learning
c. simulation
d. observational learning
74. Blogs and wikis are examples of tools used to facilitate learning via the _____ method.
a. communities of practice
b. simulation
c. programmed learning
d. mentoring
ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: pp. 325-326 OBJ: 7-4 TYPE: K
75. A wide variety of applications such as web and computer-based training and virtual classroom training
is covered by:
a. autonomic learning
b. e-learning
c. OJT
d. independent study
ESSAY
1. Explain the systems approach to training.
ANS:
The systems approach to training makes the critical connection between strategic objectives and
training programs. The systems approach involves four phases: needs assessment, program design,
implementation, and evaluation.
Needs assessment involves 1) organization analysis, by which managers decide where training is
needed, how it connects with goals, and what resources will be used, 2) task analysis, by which
managers identify the KSAs that are needed, and 3) person analysis, which is identifying who needs
training and who does not.
Program design involves determining program objectives, preparing the readiness and motivation of
trainees, and choosing instructors.
Implementation involves delivery of the training and can be done in a number of ways, or a
combination of them. Possible delivery methods include: OJT, apprenticeships, internships,
programmed instruction, e-learning, simulations, seminars, case studies, management games, and
behavior modeling.
Evaluation consists of reactions, learning, behavior change, and results. Reactions involve assessing
the trainees comments and feedback about the program. Learning involves assessing whether
participants actually learned anything from the program. Behavior refers to application of principles
from the training onto the job. Results or ROI refer to bottom line utility and productivity
improvements achieved by conducting the program.
PTS: 1 REF: pp. 307 - 314 OBJ: 7-1
2. Identify and discuss some of the desirable traits of a trainer.
ANS:
Often a good trainer is one who shows a little more effort or demonstrates more instructional
preparation. Training is also influenced by the trainer’s personal manner and characteristics. There are
many desirable traits of a trainer. First, employees expect the trainer to know their job or subject
thoroughly. Second, some individuals learn faster or slower than others. Therefore, the instruction
should match to the trainee’s learning ability. Third, trainees appreciate sincerity in trainers. Trainers
also need to be patient and tactful with trainees. Fourth, trainers should make learning fun by using a
story or anecdotes to make points. Fifth, good trainers have a keen interest in the subject they are
teaching and this interest is readily conveyed to trainees. Sixth, effective trainers give clear
instructions. Seventh, good trainers provide always try to provide individual assistance. Finally,
excellent trainers have a vibrant personality and give dynamic presentations.
PTS: 1 REF: pp. 319-320 OBJ: 7-3
3. On-the-job training (OJT) has three drawbacks. Briefly discuss these and the possible solutions
suggested by experts in the field.
ANS:
Although all types of organizations use it, OJT is often one of the most poorly implemented training
methods. Three common drawbacks are the lack of a well-structured training environment, poor
training skills of managers, and the absence of well-defined job performance criteria. To overcome
these problems, training experts suggest the following: develop realistic goals and/or measures for
each OJT area; plan a specific training schedule for each trainee, including setting periods for
evaluation and feedback; help supervisors to establish a nonthreatening atmosphere that is conducive
to learning; conduct periodic evaluations, after training is completed, to prevent regression.
PTS: 1 REF: p. 321 OBJ: 7-4
4. Explain the P.R.O.P.E.R. method of on-the-job training.
ANS:
P.R.O.P.E.R. stands for prepare, reassure, orient, perform, evaluate, and reinforce and review.
• Prepare. Decide what the employee needs to be taught. Identify the best sequence or steps of the
training. Decide how best to demonstrate these steps. Have materials, resources, and equipment ready.
• Reassure. Put the employee at ease. Learn about his/her prior experience, and adjust accordingly. Try
to get the employee interested, relaxed and motivated to learn.
• Orient. Show the employee the correct way to do the job. Explain why it is done this way. Discuss
how it relates to other jobs. Let him or her ask lots of questions.
• Perform. When the employee is ready, let them try the job themselves. Give them an opportunity to
practice the job and guide them through rough spots. Provide help and assistance at first, then less as
they continue.
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Fearful lest their misery should soften popular hatred (and even
Bernaldez admits that none saw them leave their homes without
pity), Torquemada had forbidden the Christians to hold any
intercourse with Jews after August 1, 1492, or to allow them food or
shelter as they started on their exodus. He also took care that all the
old calumnies of devilish rites and of insults to Christian relics and
objects of veneration should be published abroad to impress the
credulous. The theft of the consecrated wafer for use in a sacrilegious
plot, the murder of a Christian child as a necessary portion of the
Jewish rites, the revival of these and many other such tales helped to
keep fanaticism at white heat.
In defiance of the law, many of the exiles hid money about their
clothes and persons; but those, who were not discovered and
despoiled before they left the country, spent most of it in attempts to
buy the food and protection they could not obtain from friendliness
and compassion. The rulers of the synagogues, who made
arrangements for the future of the community, were forced also to
accept asylums where they could at the owner’s price; and the weary
masses, who crossed the Portuguese border, paid to its king a
cruzado a head, for permission to spend six months within his
boundaries on their way to some permanent refuge. From there
many of them crossed to the north coast of Africa to join those of
their race, who had sailed direct from Spain to the kingdom of Fez;
but so frightful were the sufferings they endured that numbers in
despair returned home seeking baptism. Robbed and maltreated by
the native guards, whom they had paid to protect them, their wives
and daughters violated before their eyes, the unhappy exiles, in their
feebleness and poverty, found no favour in the sight of the Moorish
King and were driven from his capital.
A like inhumanity was shown to those who had made Navarre or
Italy their destination; and thus by the sword, pestilence, slavery, or
starvation, Christian vengeance on pride of race, wealth, and unbelief
was exacted to the uttermost farthing. Here is the witness of a son of
one of the exiles:
For some the Turks killed to take out the gold which they had swallowed to hide
it; some of them the hunger and plague consumed, and some of them were cast
naked by the captains on the isles of the sea; and some of them were sold for men-
servants and maid-servants in Genoa and its villages, and some of them were cast
into the sea.... For there were, among those who were cast into the isles of the sea
upon Provence, a Jew and his old father fainting from hunger, begging bread, for
there was no one to break unto him in a strange country. And the man went and
sold his son for bread to restore the soul of the old man. And it came to pass, when
he returned to his old father, that he found him fallen down dead, and he rent his
clothes. And he returned unto the baker to take his son, and the baker would not
give him back, and he cried out with a loud and bitter cry for his son, and there was
none to deliver.[5]
5. Lea, History of the Spanish Inquisition, i., Ch. III.
The statistics of the expulsion have been variously estimated; but
the latest and most trustworthy investigation reckons the number of
those baptized at 50,000, and of those who emigrated or died at
185,000, though this may err on the side of exaggeration.
“Do you call this king a statesman, who impoverishes his land and
enriches mine?” asked the Sultan of Turkey, who, alone of European
sovereigns, held out a welcoming hand to the refugees.
It is probable Ferdinand and Isabel realized their political folly in
driving from their shores that most valuable of all national wealth,
talent, and industry. Fanaticism not policy had dictated their edict;
and to their determination that one faith alone should be held within
their dominions they were prepared to sacrifice even the economic
welfare that they had next at heart.
It seemed at first as if the “Mudejares,” or subject Moors, would
escape the general persecution. They had neither the strong racial
characteristics of the Jew, nor, though industrious and able workers,
the same capacity for fleecing their Christian neighbours; and thus
their conquerors came to regard them with contemptuous toleration
rather than antipathy. For eight years after the fall of Granada peace
reigned in that city, in spite of the difficulties attending the terms of
capitulation, to which Ferdinand and Isabel had been forced to agree
in their eagerness for a speedy surrender.
Such a treaty [says Prescott] depending for its observance on the good faith and
forbearance of the stronger party would not hold together a year in any country of
Christendom even at the present day, before some flaw or pretext would be devised
to evade it.
That it had been possible so long was chiefly due to the
conciliatory policy adopted by the military governor, the Count of
Tendilla, and by the Archbishop, Fra Fernando de Talavera. The
latter had entered on his office in a spirit of humility that was to
serve him far better than any self-assurance. Convinced of the inborn
righteousness and appeal of the Christian Faith, he believed that it
had only to be understood to be accepted; and, in order to bring
himself mentally in touch with the “Alfaquis,” or Doctors of the
Mahometan law, he proceeded to learn Arabic himself and to exhort
his subordinate priests to do the same. By his orders an Arabic
vocabulary and grammar were written, while the catechism and
liturgy, with portions from the Gospels, were translated into the
same language.
The Moors of Granada had been subject to tyranny all their days,
whether under a Boabdil or an Abdallah “El Zagal,” and, though at
first suspicious of their conquerors, they soon began to respond to
the justice and sympathy that they encountered. Numbers, after
discussions and talks with “El Santo Alfaki,” “The Holy Priest” as
they called Fra Fernando, accepted baptism; while those who held to
their old religion learned to revere and trust him. Granada was in
fact adapting herself fast to the new conditions of life; and, when in
1499 Ferdinand and Isabel visited the city, they expressed their
appreciation of the peace and order that they found there. So little
wrath did they feel against the Mahometans that, when two years
before King Emmanuel of Portugal had offered to his Moorish
subjects a choice of baptism or expulsion, they had welcomed the
exiles as a valuable addition to their population, taking them under
their special protection.
Ximenes de Cisneros had accompanied the sovereigns to Granada;
and by misfortune when they left he remained to assist his fellow-
Archbishop in the task of conversion. Impatient of the slow process
of religious absorption that he found in progress, he mistook the
friendliness of the Mudejar for weakness and declared that only a
little firmness was now needed to induce the whole population to
accept Christianity. As a preliminary he summoned the leading
“Alfaquis” to various conferences in which he harangued them on the
truths of Catholicism, endeavouring to gain their agreement with his
views, not only by eloquence but by liberal gifts of rich stuffs and
clothing that he guessed would appeal to Oriental taste.
The result was so successful that Cisneros was confirmed in the
conviction that he was indeed on the right track, and the humble Fra
Fernando was deeply impressed. The majority of the “Alfaquis,”
whether intimidated by a consciousness of approaching storms, or
moved by the Primate’s arguments and gifts, accepted conversion,
bringing with them to the font those who looked to them for spiritual
guidance. On a single day three thousand candidates were said to
have presented themselves for baptism, a number so great that the
ordinary individual ablution proved impossible and the kneeling
crowd had to be sprinkled with holy water from a brush.
The stricter Mahometans protested angrily that the Archbishop’s
methods were a violation of the terms of surrender that had
guaranteed them the free exercise of their religion without any undue
influence; whereupon Cisneros, equally irritated at this opposition,
seized and imprisoned its ringleader, a certain Zegri Azaator. Strict
confinement in fetters, under the charge of a Castilian official called
Leon, soon led the prisoner to repent of his temerity and to express a
desire for baptism, with the rueful admission that if “this lion,” as he
referred to his gaoler, were let loose in Granada few would be able to
resist his arguments.
Such a remark could only add fuel to the Archbishop of Toledo’s
already ardent belief in the efficacy of strong measures; and from
this time the old toleration and confidence vanished for ever. The
new spirit may be seen in Cisneros’s scornful criticism of Fra
Fernando’s scheme for translating the scriptures completely into
Arabic, as he had done with the liturgy and catechism. “Will you,” he
asked, “cast pearls before swine? or can they in their ignorance fail to
interpret the Word of God to their own destruction?”
Determined that at any rate the Moors should not continue their
heretical studies, he began to make inquiries as to Arabic literature;
and, as a result of this inquisition, instituted autos-de-fé of
illuminated manuscripts, priceless because they were often unique.
Out of the many thousand treasures of eastern lore that perished in
the flames, a few hundred treatises on medicine were alone saved to
grace the shelves of the Toledan library at Alcalá de Henares.
It was a sight to make cultured Moors weep with rage, but Cisneros
was soon no less unpopular with the poorer and more ignorant
citizens. These numbered in their ranks a fair proportion of Christian
renegades, men who for various causes had passed into the service of
the Moors, and with their allegiance changed their faith. It had been
necessary to insert special clauses for their protection in the terms of
capitulation; for the Christians regarded them with special loathing,
as guilty of treachery in its vilest form; and Cisneros, quibbling
between the spirit and the letter of the law, now asserted that the
treaty did not hold good where their children were concerned. As
descendants of persons who had once been baptized, these should be
baptized also, and for the same reason come under the jurisdiction of
the Holy Office.
One day he sent two of his officials to arrest the daughter of a
renegade who lived in the Albaycin, a quarter of the city whose
turbulence we have already noticed. The girl, screaming as they
dragged her from the house, that she would be compelled to become
a Christian against her will, attracted a large crowd from the
surrounding streets; and in the scuffle that followed one of the
officials was killed by a heavy stone thrown from a window above,
while the other barely escaped with his life.
Having thus drawn blood, the mob, in a dangerous mood,
clamoured for the death of the unpopular Archbishop, and seizing
arms rushed to the fortress of the Alcazaba where he resided. The
Count of Tendilla, who was in the Alhambra, came to his assistance
and managed to disperse the rioters; but the disaffection increased,
and the situation grew every hour more strained.
At this crisis, Fra Fernando de Talavera, unarmed and
accompanied solely by a cross-bearer, made his way where the
throng of rioters was densest. The effect was magical; for, almost in a
moment, the prevailing anger and suspicion vanished, and many of
the ring-leaders crowding round the old Archbishop humbly knelt to
kiss his robe. The Count of Tendilla, seeing a hope of reconciliation,
came forward also with a few of his men-at-arms, and throwing his
scarlet cap upon the ground in sign of peace, induced them, by the
surrender of his wife and children as hostages for his good faith, to
lay down their arms and return to their homes.
Accounts of the riot and its causes were hastily dispatched to the
King and Queen at Seville; and, Cisneros’s particular messenger
being delayed, their anger was at first directed against him; and
Isabel wrote, demanding an explanation of his provocative action. In
response Cisneros himself soon appeared at Court, and, undaunted
by the failure of his last efforts or the coldness with which he was
received, justified his conduct with much the same reasoning that
Torquemada upheld the righteousness of the Inquisition. The people
of Granada, he declared in conclusion, had forfeited the terms of
capitulation by their outburst of rebellion; and he urged that the
sovereigns should not let them go unpunished, and that they should
push forward the Faith with unswerving devotion by every means in
their power.
His arguments, with their obvious flaw that he himself by an
evasion of the terms was mainly responsible for the rebellion in
question, yet carried conviction in an atmosphere, whose natural
intolerance of heretics and infidels had been considerably stimulated
by the persecution of the last twenty years—for it is a commonplace
that fanaticism breeds fanatics. The milder counsels of Fra Fernando
de Talavera and the Count of Tendilla were rejected; and a certain
patriotic sanction seemed given to the rigorous proceedings taken
against the rioters, when threatening letters were received from the
Sultan of Egypt, showing that the Mahometans of Granada had dared
to appeal to him for assistance.
Cisneros’s triumphant return to the southern capital was marked
by the baptism of from fifty to seventy thousand Moors within the
city and its environs. Outward peace reigned; but trouble was
brewing in the mountains of the Alpujarras to the south-east, where
many of those who were determined not to accept conversion had
taken refuge to plan and plot.
The sovereigns, alarmed at this news, dictated a letter of
conciliation to their secretary, and sent it to the disaffected area:
“Be it known unto you [they said] that, a report having reached our ears that
some declare it is our will that you should be compelled by force to embrace
Christianity, and, since it never was, nor is it our will that any Moor should turn
Christian under compulsion, we therefore assure and promise you, on our royal
word, that we have not consented nor allowed this; and that we wish that the
Moors, our vassals, should remain secure and meet with all justice as our vassals
and servants.
Given in the City of Seville, in the twenty and sixth day of the month of
January.... I the King. I the Queen.”
The matter of the writing was fair enough, but the Moors might be
forgiven if they considered the royal word a somewhat dubious
safeguard. Ferdinand, despite his pacific protestations, was
collecting an army; and the rebels hastened to seize the nearest
fortresses and to make raids in the Vega beyond.
The Count of Tendilla, and Gonsalvo de Cordova, who happened at
this time to be in Granada, marched against them; and, although the
enemy flooded the deep furrows of the ploughland across which the
troops must ride until they floundered up to their horses’ girths, yet
the Christians succeeded in storming the important stronghold of
Guejar. The arrival of Ferdinand and his army led to the reduction of
other fortresses, conquests stained by sanguinary deeds of
vengeance, as when the Count of Lerin blew up with gunpowder a
mosque, in which a number of Moors had taken refuge with their
wives and children.
The rebels, realizing at length the futility of resistance, sued for
peace; and by the mediation of Gonsalvo de Cordova conditions were
arranged, and Ferdinand departed to Seville. He and the Queen were
now convinced that Southern Spain would never be quiet or secure
so long as its inhabitants remained Mahometans, and were thus
more closely allied in sympathy with the tribes of Africa than with
Castilians or Aragonese. They therefore sent Franciscan missionaries
to Baeza, Guadix, Almeria, and the Alpujarras, arming them with the
alternative weapons of concessions or threats; a provision so
efficacious that by the close of the year the friars could boast of a
wholesale conversion of their flock.
In the meantime the disaffection that had died down or been
smothered in the south-east broke out with greater violence in
Western Granada, where the Berber race that inhabited Ronda and
its mountainous environs suddenly raised the standard of revolt.
Washington Irving, in his legend of The Death of Don Alonso de
Aguilar, has left a graphic account of the punitive expedition
commanded by that famous warrior. He took with him Don Pedro
his son; and, as they rode out of Cordova in March, 1504, the people,
punning on the family name so closely resembling the Spanish word
for eagle, cried aloud: “Behold the eagle teaching her young to fly!
Long live the valiant line of Aguilar!”
Many of the rebels, who knew his reputation, came and
surrendered at his approach; while the rest, under the leadership of a
certain El Feri Ben Estepar, retreated before him into the fastnesses
of the Sierra Vermeja. The Christians pursued hot after them, and
coming one evening upon a fortified camp, where the enemy had
placed their women and children and stored their possessions, the
vanguard recklessly rushed to the assault. The fierceness of their
attack, backed up by the speedy reinforcement of Don Alonso and
the rest of his army, carried the position in the teeth of far superior
numbers; whereupon the besiegers, thinking their victory assured,
began to plunder. They were soon punished for their lack of caution,
since, through a spark falling on a keg of gunpowder, the whole scene
was momentarily lit up, and showed the weakness of the scattered
troops to the Moors, still hovering on the mountainside above. With
a shout of triumph these returned to renew the combat, and
descending from peak and ridge, drove their foes before them in
hopeless confusion.
Don Alonso and some few hundred knights alone disdained to
escape. “Never,” cried the leader, “did the banner of the House of
Aguilar retreat one foot in the field of battle.” His young son was
seriously wounded, but would have struggled on still had not his
father ordered some of his men to carry him to a place of safety,
saying: “Let us not put everything to venture upon one hazard.... Live
to comfort and honour thy mother.” He himself remained fighting
valiantly till wounded and already exhausted, he met in personal
combat with El Feri Ben Estepar, and the latter’s dagger ended his
life.
Thus fell Alonso de Aguilar, the mirror of Andalusian chivalry; one of the most
powerful grandees of Spain, for person, blood, estate, and office. For forty years he
had waged successful war upon the Moors; in childhood, by his household and
retainers; in manhood, by the prowess of his arm and the wisdom and valour of his
spirit; he had been general of armies, viceroy of Andalusia, and the author of
glorious enterprises, in which kings were vanquished and mighty alcaydes and
warriors laid low.
TOMB OF FRANCISCO RAMIREZ (“EL ARTILLERO”)
FROM “HISTORIA DE LA VILLA Y CORTE DE MADRID” BY

AMADOR DE LOS RIOS
The anger and sorrow that swept through Spain at the news of this
disaster can be imagined, the more that Don Alonso had found a
fitting companion in death in Francisco Ramirez de Madrid, the
famous artillery-captain of the Moorish war. As they saw these
heroes, lying surrounded by the corpses of unknown Christian
knights and soldiers, the very Moors were appalled at the extent of
their own victory. What direful vengeance would be exacted for lives
so precious? they asked one another; and all felt that only instant
submission could save them from extermination.
Ferdinand was never the man to let passion obscure his ultimate
object; and, in response to the rebels’ petition for mercy, he agreed to
grant an amnesty; but he insisted that they and the rest of their race
must choose between baptism and expulsion. In the latter case, he
offered to provide ships to convey the exiles to the African coast, on
the payment of ten doblas of gold per head,—a sum that, according to
Bleda the chronicler, few of them could hope to raise. The majority
therefore accepted baptism; and, with the conversion of the
“Moriscos,” as these new Christians were called, the Mahometan
Faith vanished from the soil of Granada.
One last crowning work was needed to complete the edifice of
religious unity; and that was the conversion of the “Mudejares,”
descendants of the Moorish villagers and artisans left on Spanish
territory by the receding waves of Islam. In February, 1502, their
knell was also struck; and a royal proclamation determined the
baptism or exile of all males over fourteen years or of females over
twelve; so many restrictions as to the wealth and destination of the
exiles being imposed that the choice was virtually narrowed to
acceptance of the other alternative. Plainly, the sovereigns did not
intend to lose any more of their prosperous and hard-working
subjects.
The proclamation, evaded and even rescinded in Aragon, held
good in Castile; and Isabel, looking round on her dominions, could
pride herself on having attained her spiritual ideal. The Catholic
Faith, and that alone, was acknowledged in Castile.
CHAPTER X
CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS
The name of Christopher Columbus stands already on the roll of

“Heroes of the Nations.” “Hero of two nations” we should perhaps
call him,—by birth a son of Genoa, and by adoption of Castile to
whom, in his own words, “he gave a new world.”
Those who would read of his voyages should turn to the pages of
Washington Irving, of Thacher, and of Filson Young; for it is chiefly
in his immediate connection with Castile and her Queen and not for
his actual work as mariner and discoverer that his life falls within the
scope of this biography.
Here is the man who has made the name of Spain ring with glory
down the centuries. Here, in the background, somewhat dimmed in
the sight of posterity through the radiance of a greater genius, is
Isabel of Castile, she whose tireless patriotism made it possible for
Spain to enter on the newly discovered heritage of wealth and
empire. Between pioneer and Queen there is the link not only of
mere capacity but of that greatness of vision and unfaltering
determination to reach a desired goal, that finds in obstacles an
incentive to renewed efforts rather than a check. It is a fitting
harmony, not often granted in history, that two such spirits should
act in unison. Yet in truth the proposed harmony threatened more
than once to end if not in discord at least in silence; and the
discoverer was to gain the sanction of his patroness to his schemes
only after many vicissitudes and trials of his patience.
The son of a Genoese wool-carder, the history of his youth and
early manhood is obscured by numberless conflicting statements and
traditions, a confusion only increased by the information
volunteered by Columbus himself. From the suburb of a busy
commercial city, unknown and poor, he passed to the seats of the
mighty, and, in the light of his fame, recalled half-effaced memories
of the days he had put so far behind him, an autobiography
sometimes more in accordance with imagination than with truth.
Admirers added their embellishments, detractors their quota of
sneering comments, till the information so combined is almost more
baffling than complete silence.
IMAGINARY PORTRAIT
THE AUTHENTIC PORTRAIT OF

CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS
Even as to the date of his birth there is a divergence of opinion

amongst historians varying as widely as some twenty-six years; while
tradition has connected him with noble families of Italy and France,
has sent him to the University of Pavia, has made him one of an
expedition to place the House of Anjou on the throne of Naples, and
has driven him on his journeyings as far north as Iceland. Here,
some say, he heard of the voyages to Greenland and the Canadian
coast of old Norse heroes of the tenth and eleventh centuries; and
that, when in the island of Porto Santo many years later, the
whispered tale of a shipwrecked mariner on his death-bed gave him
the data, on which he based his belief that land existed beyond the
Atlantic.
Of actual fact this much emerges, that, still a boy, probably about
the age of fourteen, he gave up his father’s trade to which he had
been apprenticed and turned to the sea for a livelihood. His voyages
were not confined to the Mediterranean but took him as far north as
England and to the south along the Guinea coast of Africa, till about
the year 1476 they landed him either by chance or mischance on the
shores of Portugal. In Lisbon he found a wife and home, living in the
house of his mother-in-law, and earning a small income, it is
supposed, by drawing the maps and charts demanded by the most
seafaring nation of the day. It was a task that with such a
temperament would be certain to draw dormant theories of nautical
enterprise from the realm of dreams to that of possibilities; and from
this time Columbus’s ambitions and hopes began to take definite
shape.
Amongst men of science, and indeed amongst the cultured people
of Europe generally, the idea that the earth was a sphere composed
of land and water had been long accepted; though theologians were
still found who declared that such a theory conflicted with the
Gospels and statements of the early Fathers of the Church and must
therefore be false. If an Antipodes existed, how could all the nations
of the world see Christ at His coming?
Another popular argument had been based on the assumption that
the ever-increasing warmth of the atmosphere, experienced by
travellers as they journeyed southwards, culminated in a zone of
unendurable heat. The ship that ventured too far in southern waters
might find itself driven forward by sudden winds or unknown
currents into a belt of perpetual flame and there perish miserably.
That fear at least had been dispelled by the enterprise of the very
nation with whom Columbus had cast in his fortunes.
Always, from the wide extent of their coast, interested in the sea
and its wonders, the Portuguese had received a special stimulus in
the field of discovery during the fifteenth century from the brother of
their King, the famous “Prince Henry the Navigator.” Under his
orders, as he sat in his castle at Sagres overlooking the great Atlantic,
studying charts and records of exploration by day, the course of the
stars by night, his captains had pursued their way, league by league,
along the West African coast. Ever as they went, new lands, rich in
possibilities of trade, were exposed, and old doubts and fears
receded. Madeira and the Canary Islands were added to the
dominions of Portugal; Cape Bojador, once believed the gateway to
unknown horrors, was doubled; the Cape Verde Islands and the
Guinea coast explored.
Prince Henry the Navigator died; and in time his great-nephew,
King John II., son of Alfonso V., “El Africano,” sat on the throne of
Portugal, but the tide of maritime energy never slackened, and the
west coast of Africa began to assume in maps something of its real
shape. Bartholomew Columbus, brother of Christopher, was one of
those who served in the famous expedition of Bartholomew Diaz in
1487, which, tempest-tossed and wholly at the mercy of the elements,
unexpectedly doubled the “stormy cape,” later to be called with
symbolic appropriateness the “Cape of Good Hope.”
This, while Christopher drew maps and charts in Lisbon, was yet
of the future; nor had ever-widening views on African discovery cast
any light across the broad Atlantic, the “sea of darkness” as mariners
named it, when, hugging the Portuguese and French shores, they
journeyed northwards to England and the Baltic. According to a
certain Arabian writer of mediæval times
the ocean encircles the ultimate bounds of the inhabited earth, and all beyond it is
unknown. No one has been able to verify anything concerning it, on account of its
difficult and perilous navigation, its great obscurity, its profound depth and
frequent tempests, through fear of its mighty fishes and its haughty winds.
Yet imagination did not fail to fill in the blank left by lack of
knowledge, and from the days of Plato, tradition had planted the
Western Ocean with mysterious lands. Here, some maintained, the
lost continent of Atlantis had sunk to rest, leaving on the surface of
the water a sluggish mire impassable for ships; here, beyond the
Pillars of Hercules, Ulysses had found his “Isles of the Blest,” the
Irish Saint Brandan discovered an earthly Paradise, and Gothic
bishops, flying before the Moors, built seven cities.
Such tales stood on the ground of conjecture alone; but, where the
mind is set on a project, conjecture will often assume a fictitious
value. Columbus had decided, with that finality of purpose that is the
hall-mark of genius, that he would sail to the west across the “sea of
darkness”; and he gravely accepted all that would make his schemes
less fearful in popular estimation. He himself had an underlying
conviction that, the earth being round, a passage across its surface
must be possible either from west to east or east to west. A study of
the voyages of Marco Polo, the great Venetian traveller of the
thirteenth century, had excited his fancy with its descriptions of the
territories of the Great Khan and the island of Cipango, where gold
and jewels, rich stuffs, spices, and perfumes, were the ordinary
possession and barter of its inhabitants. To open up those lands of
the Orient to easy commerce with Western Europe would be a task to
bring the man who accomplished it not only wealth but that still
more desirable reward, power.
Columbus’s idea of India, or “the Indies” as the territories of the
far East were called in Europe, was distinctly hazy; but his own
desires and his acceptance of the views of an eminent Arabian
cosmographer, whose calculations had greatly reduced the
circumference of the earth, inclined him to the belief that after a
short stretch of ocean he would almost certainly land amid the
wonders of Cathay and Cipango. Such a theory was not without
biblical confirmation; since the Prophet Esdras had plainly stated
that God commanded “that the waters should be gathered into the
seventh part of the earth,” thus limiting the sea within the bounds of
navigable channels.
To pure romance, scripture, and science, were added sailors’ tales
of strange debris cast by the sea on the Azores, the westernmost
point of African discovery: bits of wood carved but not with metal,
canoes made of hollowed barks of trees, corpses even, whose faces
bore no European nor negro semblance. All such evidence was
carefully collected and, we may be sure, lost none of its significance
in the telling, when Columbus rehearsed his project before King John
and his Court, begging that monarch to grant him the necessary
ships, and to promise him, in the event of success, the office of
Admiral over all the lands he might discover, with a viceroy’s share of
the spoils and power.
Perhaps King John considered this demand exorbitant, or else the
scheme too hare-brained; it is more likely that he believed he had
struck a mine of wealth in Western Africa and saw no reason, so long
as that source of profit remained unexhausted, to risk ships and lives
in a problematical voyage elsewhere. According to one tradition, he
and his councillors obtained Columbus’s plans under pledge of
secrecy, and then to test their worth hastily dispatched an
expedition, whose mariners, quailing before their task, soon returned
to pronounce the design impossible. Whether this be true or false, it
is certain that, after long delays, the committee especially appointed
by King John to inquire into the matter, unanimously decided
against Columbus’s schemes.
“I went to take refuge in Portugal,” wrote Christopher himself
some years later, relieving his bitterness by what was probably
exaggeration as to the length of his sojourn, “since the King of that
country was more versed in discovery than any other; but he put to
shame his sight, his hearing, and all his faculties, for in fourteen
years I could not make him understand what I said.”
From Portugal Columbus passed to Spain in 1485. His wife, it is
believed, had died some little time before; and it is likely he was
thankful to leave a country whose associations were by this time
mainly sad. He took with him his son Diego and settled in Seville,
where he succeeded in interesting in his project one of the great
territorial lords of the neighbourhood, the Duke of Medina-Celi.
At a first glance it is perhaps curious that Columbus did not find in
some rich Castilian noble the patron he required, without being
forced to sue the Crown in vain for so many years. It would have
been a small matter for the Cardinal of Spain, the Duke of Medina-
Sidonia, the Duke of Medina-Celi, or the Marquis of Cadiz to equip
him with a squadron twice the size of that with which he finally
achieved his purpose; but it is not too much to say that such an
arrangement would have entirely altered the character of the
expedition.
Columbus was a visionary in that he relied on the eye of faith
rather than of knowledge; but his visions did not put to sleep the
natural shrewdness of an Italian of his class, especially in a matter
where his personal interests were so deeply involved. It was not his
policy to sow a crop whose harvest he could not to some extent
control; and the clue to his object in seeking royal patronage is given
in a letter written in 1500, where he says,
Although I know but little, I do not think that anyone considers me so foolish as
not to realize that even if the Indies were mine, I would not be able to sustain them
without the aid of some Prince.
The discoverer might have succeeded in signing contracts

favourable to himself with cardinal, duke, or marquis; but he could
not guard against later royal encroachments turning his gains to so
much waste paper. It was not only greatness of conception but a
strong business instinct that made him a suppliant of the Castilian
Queen.
In response to the Duke of Medina-Celi’s letter, recommending
Columbus to her attention, Isabel commanded his appearance at the
Court at Cordova; and thither in 1486 came Christopher to lodge in
the house of the Castilian treasurer, Alonso de Quintanilla. We can
picture him at this time from the descriptions of contemporaries,—
an impressive figure, well above the middle height, with his long face
tanned and freckled by exposure to sun and storm, his eyes a vivid
blue, his hair ruddy that was soon to be bleached by cares.
The Queen, we are told, “did not consider the undertaking very
certain.” Here spoke her habitual caution, prompted by a life in
which the demands on her assistance perpetually outran not her
interest but her resources; yet it is evident from the first the project
caught her fancy, while in Ferdinand it merely aroused a cold
distrust. The country was scarcely pacified from the anarchy of civil
war and foreign invasion; national credit and patriotism were
strained to the uttermost in what, it had become evident, must be a
prolonged struggle against the Moors; the French were threatening
his own loved kingdom of Aragon, and he could spare neither time
nor money to regain command of the eastern Pyrenees; insidious
heresy was sapping the Catholic Faith, and wide care and
organization would be required for its suppression. Was this the
moment to take up chimerical schemes for reaching China or
discovering lands that every man of common-sense or culture had
long believed to be fabulous?
His arguments, somewhat to this effect, can be imagined, uttered
with a dry, logical force, not without its appeal to Isabel’s own logical
brain. She could see it all from his point of view, her reason accept
his conclusion; and yet deep in her nature was a power that
differentiated her statesmanship from his, and that in a crisis
prompted her, in the teeth of the logic that ordinarily governed her
actions, to run what has been happily called a “divine risk.”
If Ferdinand lacked the visionary instinct that made Isabel
recognize the Genoese sailor, not as adventurer or fool, but as a
possible genius, it must be confessed that in his case faith would
have made greater demands. Castile and Aragon were united into a
single Spain, but it is reading history from a modern outlook to
suppose the individual sympathies of King and Queen Spanish rather
than distinctively Aragonese and Castilian.
Throughout past centuries, as we have remarked before, the
magnet of Aragonese attraction had been the Mediterranean; and
Ferdinand was no less under its spell than his uncle, Alfonso V., the
conqueror of Naples. It required an effort to turn his mental gaze
westwards; whereas Isabel, heiress of Castilian hopes and ambitions,
was imbued with the spirit of rivalry with Portugal and looked on the
“sea of darkness” not with bored aloofness but with awed
speculation. It might well seem that its secrets held no immediate
prospects for Aragon; they were pregnant with possibilities of empire
and wealth for the sister kingdom with her Galician and Andalusian
seaboard. It is thus that both by character and race Isabel and not
her husband was destined to be Columbus’s true patron, and that
looking back over years of probation he could write later:
In all men there was disbelief; but to the Queen, my lady, God gave the spirit of
understanding and great courage, and made her heiress of all as a dear and much-
loved daughter.
Yet even Isabel did not understand at once; or, if she did, caution
and her intense preoccupation with the Moorish war delayed and
hindered the practical fulfilment of her sympathy. Juntas of learned
men met at her summons, and with academic coldness discussed and
condemned the discoverer’s project. Those who did not make a mock
of it declared that it savoured of heresy; while others, according to
Columbus, to hide their ignorance invented hindrances and
obstacles. A few courtiers, and notably the Marquis of Moya and his
wife Beatriz de Bobadilla, Isabel’s most trusted servants, remained
his staunch friends, but the real friend of Columbus in these years of
anxiety, when he vainly followed the Court from Cordova to the
frontier, and from siege to siege, was, in the words of Thacher,
“Columbus himself.”
This was the one man who insisted and persisted ... the man with a single
thought, a powerful soul committed to one supreme purpose.... Whether he was
inspired, elected, foreordained, it matters not. He thought he was all these things
and the result was due to his own conception of himself.
A CARAVEL UNDER SAIL
FROM COLUMBUS’S FIRST LETTER
In spite of his condemnation by learned men, Isabel had not

forgotten him, and a quarterly salary of 3000 maravedis, small
though it was, and messages, that she would herself examine his
claims when she had time, kept them in touch; but such things could
not satisfy an explorer, fretting to be once more on the broad seas. In
1491 he renewed his application for assistance.
The Court was then at Santa Fé, pressing Boabdil to his last
surrender, and before the conquest of Moslem Granada, the
attraction of unknown islands paled. For the second time a
committee of the learned declared the proposed journey
impracticable and contrary to the opinions of Saint Augustine and
the early Fathers; though Alessandro Geraldino, tutor of the royal
Infantas, ventured to urge in Cardinal Mendoza’s ear, that Saint
Augustine, no doubt a good theologian, might yet prove a bad
geographer.

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5. The goal of training is to contribute to the organization's overall objectives.

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8. Although important in determining training program success, organizations conduct a needs

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24. Effective training programs eliminate plateaus in the learning curves.

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49. Most organizations go to great lengths to accurately evaluate training programs.

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