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    Electric Charges and Field GLIMPSES Electrostatics. It is the study of electric charges at rest Frictional electricity. The property of rubbed substances due to which they attract light objects is called electricity. The electricity developed by rubbing or friction is called frictional or static electricity. The rubbed substances. which show this property of attraction are said to be electrified or electrically charged substances. Electric charge. It is an intrinsic property of elementary particles of matter which gives rise to electric force between various objects. It is a scalar quantity and its SI unit is coulomb (C). Positive and negative charges. Benzamin Franklin introduced the present day convention that (i) The charge developed on a glass rod when rubbed with silk is called positive charge. (ii) The charge developed on a plastic/ebonite rod when rubbed with fur is called negative charge. Fundamental law of electrostatics. Like charges repel and unlike charges attract each other. Electronic theory of frictional electricity. During rubbing, electrons are transferred from one object to another. The object with excess of electrons develops a negative charge, while the object with deficit of electrons develops a positive charge. Electrostatic induction. It is the phenomenon of temporary electrification of a conductor in % 10. ll. 12. charges appear ati closet en I similar charges appear at IIS farther end in ime presence of a nearby charged body. a inaulated conductor can be post ly charged by induction. ; vice used for detecting an identifying its polarity is which opposite negatively Electroscope. A de electric charge and called electroscope- Three basic properties ‘These are (i) quantization, of electric charges. (ii) additivity and (iii) conservation. ‘Additivity of electric charge. This means that the total charge of a system is the algebraic sum of all the individual charges located at different points inside the system. ‘Quantization of electric charge. This means that the total charge (q) of a body is always an integral multiple of a basic quantum of charge (e) i, gene n=0,+1,£2,£3, Faraday’s laws of electrolysis and Millikan’s oil drop experiment established the quantum nature of electric charge. For where macroscopically large charges, _ the quantization of charge can be ignored. Basic quantum of charge. The smallest amount of charge or the basic quantum of charge is the charge on an electron or proton, Its exact magnitude is = 1602182 x 10°C 1.96 Me 16. Law of conservation of charge, 1g total charge of a system remains tn with time. This means that when twa charged through friction, the of charge from one body to creation or de: les that the hanged ies are is only transfer another but no net Tuction of charye tak " 8 place, Coulomb's law. The force of altraction or repulsion between two st tionary point charyes 4g, and 9 is directly proportional to the produc guns anal inversely proportional to the square of the distance r between them, Mathematical The proportionality constant k depends on the nature of the medium between the two charges and the system of units chosen to meastine Fy, he a and r. For free space and in SI units, 1 k=—— =9x 10" Nm2c-2 ancy £, is called permittivity of free space and its value is 8.854 x 107? C2N-Im? Hence Coulomb's law in SI units may be expressed as Fat th | 4ncy” 7? SI unit of charge is coulomb (C). It is that amount of charge that repels an equal and similar charge with a force of 9x 10° N when placed in vacuum at a distance of one metre from it. Permittivity (c). It is the property of a medium which determines the electric force between two charges situated in that medium. Dielectric constant or relative permittivity. The ratio (z / ¢y) of the permittivity of the given medium to that of free space is known as relative permittivity (c, ) or dielectic constant (x) of the given medium, &, or The dielectric constant of a medium may be defined as the ratio of the force between two charges placed some distance apart in free space {o the force between the same two charges when they are placed the same distance apart in the given medium, 19. 20. HARGES AND FIELD 1.97 Coulomb's law for any medium other thar Vacutn can be written as rw th dnc ~ 1 MM Fone Antgk Po” Electrostatic force vs, gravitational force. Electrostatic forces are much stronger than Bravitatio The ratio of the electric force and gravitational force between a proton and an electron is Fo ke? i Gym, al forces, =227%10” Principle of superposition of electrostatic When a number of charges interacting, the total force on a given charge is the vector sum of the forces exerted on it due to all other charges. The force between two charges is not affected by the presence of other charges. The total force on charge 4, due to the charges gp, fg, mer dy Will be forces, are =a unit vector pointing from q, to 4, Electric field. An electric field is said to exist at a point, if a force of electrical origin is exerted on a stationary charge placed at that point. Quantitatively, it is defined as the electrostatic force per unit test charge acting on a vanishingly small positive test charge placed at the given point. Mathematically, F = lim — 18 Mg Electric field is a vector quantity whose direction is same as that of the force exerted on a positive test charg 2. 22, 23. 24. 25. Units and dimensions of electric field. The SI unit of electric field is newton per coulomb (NC ') or volt per metre (Vm>') The dimensions of electric field are [ey-Poree__ MLT 2 Charge c MET" IMLT A] AT Electric field due to a point charge. The electric field of a point charge q at distance r from given by &o Ifqis positive, E points radially outwards and if is negative, E points radially inwards. This field is spherically symmetric. Electric field due to a system of point charges: Superposition principle for electric fields. The Principle states that the electric field at any Point due toa group of point charges is equal to the vector sum of the electric field produced by each charge individually at that point, when all other charges are assumed to be absent. \P-BP Continuous charge distribution. When the charge involved is much greater than the charge on an electron, we can ignore its quantum nature and assume that the charge is distributed in a continuous manner. This is known. asa continuous charge distribution. Volume charge density, p Surface charge density, o Linear charge density, Electrostatic force and field due to a continuous charge distribution. The total force on a charge 4% due to a continuous charge distribution is given by Foy = Fot Bet 26. 27, 28, 29. | Biase Sra| Electric field due toa general charge distribution, It is given by Electric dipole and dipole moment. An electric dipole is a pair of equal and opposite charges +qand~q separated by some distance 22. [is dipole moment is given by ‘P= Either chargex vector drawn from -qto+q =qx2a Magnitude of dipole moment, p= qx2a Dipole moment is a vector quantity having direction along the dipole axis from - gto a.lts Sl unit is coulomb metre (Cm) Electric field at an axial point of a dipole. The dipole field on the axis at distance r from the centre is for r>>a Atany axial point, the direction of dipole fields along the direction of dipole moment 7° Flectric field at an equatorial point of a dipole. The electric field at a point on the perpendicular bisector of the dipole at distance © from its centre is 1 P —— Pp se dey (Pe ap Feo torre Arey “r At any equatorial point, the field is antiparallel to the ‘moment 7, direction, of dipole direction of dipole a 30. 31. 32. 33, In contrast to 1/77 dependence of the electric field of a point charge, the dipole field has 1 IP dependence. Moreover, the electric field due to ‘hort dipole at a certain distance along the axis it twice the electric field at the same distance ‘along the equatorial axis. Torque on a dipole in a uniform electric field. The torque on a dipole of moment p when placed ina uniform electric field at an angle 0 with it is given by E sin ® Invector rotation, ?=7'xE When the dipole is released, the torque 7 tends to align the dipole along the field E. If E=1 unit and 0 =90%, then t= p. So dipole moment may also be defined as the torque acting on an electric dipole placed perpendi- cular toa uniform electric field of unit strength. Electric lines of force. An electric line of force may be defined as the curve along which a small positive charge would tend to move when free to do so in an electric field and the tangent to which at any point gives the direction of electric field at that point. Important properties of electric lines of force. ‘These are : ( Lines of force are continuous curves without any breaks. (i) No two lines of force can cross each other. (ii) They start at positive charges and end at negative charges—they cannot form closed loops. (iv) The relative closeness of the lines of force indicates the strength of electric field at different points. (®) They are always normal to the surface of a conductor. (vi) They have a tendency to contract length- wise and expand laterally. bhi flux, The electric flux through a given ca Tepresents the total number of electric lines \ force passing normally through that area. If the ane field E makes an angle 6 with the normal ‘othe area elements AS, then the electric flux is 49, = EAS cos o=E.45 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. The electric flux through any surface S, open or closed, is equal to the surface integral of E over the surface S gen [Ea ; Electric flux is a scalar quantity. SI unit of electric flux =Nm? C~! Gaussian surface. Any hypothetical closed surface enclosing a charge is called the Gaussian surface of that charge. Gauss’s theorem. The total flux of electric field F through a closed surface is equal to 1/¢, times the charge q enclosed by the surface 3: a2 4 =f E.d5 fPen, Electric field of a line charge. The electric field of a long straight wire of uniform linear charge density 2, ie, Exh 2neyr r where r is the perpendicular distance of the wire from the observation point. Electric field of an infinite plane sheet of charge. It does not depend on the distance of the observation point from the plane sheet. pea 26 where ¢= uniform surface charge density. Electric field of two positively charged parallel! plates. If the two plates have surface charge densities , and G, such that 6, >, >0, then £=41 (6, +6) (Outside the plates) 2ey a 1 ea De Electric field of two equally and oppositely charged parallel plates. If the two plates have surface charge densities + 6, then (Inside the plates) E=0 (For outside points) (For inside points) 4.400 PHYSICS-xIl 40. Flectsic field of a thin spherical shell. If is the radius and o, the surface charge density of the shell, then E-_.4 — Forr>R (Outside points) 4ney 7 E=0 ForrR_ (Outside points) Forr

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