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 CHAPTER 7
GROUP PROBLEM SOLVING

The purpose of this chapter is to present practical information about group problem
solving, thus enabling the reader to contribute more effectively to group decision-
making. Group problem solving requires considerable interpersonal skill.

CHAPTER OUTLINE AND LECTURE NOTES

Groups solve many key problems in organizations. Part of having high-level

interpersonal skills is the ability to work closely with others in solving problems and
making decisions.

I. RATIONAL VERSUS POLITICAL DECISION MAKING IN GROUPS

Group decision-making is the process of reaching a judgment based on feedback
from more than on individual. Two different approaches to group decision-making
are the rational model and the political model.

The rational decision-making model is the traditional, logical approach to

decision making, based on the scientific method. The search for optimum results is
based on an economic view of decision-making—people hope to maximize gain
and minimize loss. Each alternative is evaluated in terms of how well it contributes
to the goals involved in making the decision.

The political decision-making model assumes that people bring preconceived

notions and biases into the decision-making situation. Self-interest may block
people from making the most rational choice. People who use the political model
may operate on the basis of incomplete information.

Sometimes it is difficult to determine if a decision maker is being rational or

political, such as the example about the lack of a 13th floor in most hotels.

II. GUIDELINES FOR USING GENERAL PROBLEM-SOLVING GROUPS

Group decision making frequently leads to better acceptance of the decision and
stronger commitment to the implications of the decision. A recent study found that
groups featuring the right kind of internal dynamics perform well on a variety of
tasks, suggesting the presence of collective intelligence that surpasses the problem-
solving ability of individual members. Collective intelligence is associated with the
average social sensitivity of group members, members taking turns talking, and a
higher proportion of women in the group.

A. Working through the Group Problem-Solving Steps

When team members get together to solve a problem, they typically hold a
discussion rather than rely on a formal problem-solving technique. A more
systematic approach would be to use the following steps:

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 1. The Problem-Solving Steps. The following guidelines represent a time-
tested way of solving problems and making decisions within a group.

Step One. Identify the problem. (What is the underlying problem?)

Step Two. Clarify the problem. (Group members should see the problem in
the same way.)
Step Three.. Analyze the cause. (The group must understand the cause of
the problem and find ways to overcome the cause.)
Step Four. Search for alternative solutions. (The alternative solutions
chosen will depend on the analysis of the causes.)
Step Five. Select alternatives. (Identify the criteria that solutions should
meet, and then discuss the pros and cons of the proposed alternatives.)
Step Six. Plan for implementation. (Decide what actions are necessary to
carry out the chosen solution to the problem.)
Step Seven. Clarify the contract. (Restate agreements on what to do and
deadlines for accomplishment.)
Step Eight. Develop an action plan. (Who does what and when to carry out
the contract)
Step Nine. Provide for evaluation and accountability. (After the plan is
implemented, reconvene to discuss progress and hold people
accountable for results that have not been achieved.)

2. When to Apply the Problem-Solving Steps. The steps for effective group
problem solving are best applied to complex problems, not straightforward
problems of minor consequence.

3. The Importance of Collective Efficacy. How well a group solves a

problems depends on the characteristics of an effective work group outlined
in Figure 6-1. Also important is collective efficacy, a group’s belief that it
can handle certain tasks. (Note that collective efficacy refers to confidence,
whereas collective intelligence has to do with actual ability.) A group with
high efficacy will apply effort to the task and sustain the effort.

B. Managing Disagreement about Group Decision Making

The idea is to manage disagreement so the decision-making process does not
break down, and dissenters are not squelched. A study of 43 product development
teams found that disagreement about major issues led to positive outcomes for
team performance under two conditions: The dissenters have to feel they have the
freedom to express doubt, and doubts were expressed collaboratively rather than
contentiously.

A study about hiring pilots for long-distance flights found that when groups
disagreed over who to hire, there was more information sharing. Strong
disagreement also led to more intense discussion.

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 C. Aiming for Inquiry versus Advocacy in Group Decision Making
Inquiry involves looking for the best alternative. Advocacy is fighting for one
position. Decision makers who care more about the good of the firm are the most
likely to engage inquiry. An inquiry-focused group carefully considers a variety of
alternatives and collaborates to discover the best solution.

III. GUIDELINES FOR BRAINSTORMING

When the organization is seeking a large number of alternatives to the problem,
brainstorming is often the technique of choice. Brainstorming is a group
problem-solving technique that promotes creativity by encouraging idea
generation through non-critical discussion. Brainstorming is used both as a
method for finding alternatives to real-life problems and for creativity training.
Ten rules for brainstorming are worth considering:

1. Begin with a goal, usually stated in the message inviting people to

participate in the session.
2. Group size should be about five to seven people.
3. Everybody is given the chance to suggest alternative solutions.
4. No criticism is allowed.
5. Freewheeling is encouraged.
6. Quantity and variety are very important.
7. Combinations and improvements are encouraged.
8. Notes must be taken during the session by a person who serves as the
recording secretary.
9. Invite outsiders to the brainstorming session.
10. Do not over-structure by following any of the ideas too rigidly.

A widely-accepted suggestion for brainstorming effectiveness is to have diverse

group members diverse in such ways as age, sex, race, experience, education, and
functional background. The diversity contributes to different perspectives. Physically
stimulating environments, including natural light, also enhance brainstorming. A
useful perspective on brainstorming is that the process really involves establishing
and attaining a series of goals.

Brainstorming by individuals working alone is referred to as brainwriting, and

typically produces more useful ideas than does working in a group.

IV. GUIDELINES FOR THE NOMINAL GROUP TECHNIQUE

A leader sometimes need to know what alternative solutions are available to a
problem and how people would react to them. The nominal group technique
(NGT) has been developed to fit the situation. The NGT is a group
problem-solving technique that calls people together in a structured meeting with
limited interaction. Group discussion, however, does take place at a later stage in
the process. The nominal group technique uses a five-step decision process.

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 1. Generating ideas. Participants write down their ideas, working independently
2. Recording ideas. Ideas are recorded without discussion at this point.
3. Discussing ideas. Each recorded ide is discussed to determine clarity and
importance.
4. Voting on ideas. The votes are tallied to identify the ideas that are rates
highest by the entire group.
5. Selecting the highest ranking alternative. The moderator records and then
adds the scores on the tally sheet, thereby selecting the most favored idea.

V. USING STAND-UP MEETINGS TO FACILITATE PROBLEM SOLVING

Problem solving and decision making can sometimes be improved by conducting
meetings while standing up instead of sitting down. Some people are more alert when
standing, and most people do not want to stand for too long so they reach a decision
quickly. UPS makes frequent use of stand-up meetings of 180 seconds duration.
Google uses standup meetings for dealing with complex, technical problems.

A study with the Lost on the Moon exercise suggested that people make
decisions more quickly when standing up, without sacrificing decision quality.

VI. USING E-MAIL AND COLLABORATIVE SOFTWARE TO FACILITATE

GROUP DECISION MAKING
Appropriate use of e-mail and collaborative software (or groupware) can facilitate
interaction among team members and group decision making, while at the same time
minimize the number of meetings. Such use of e-mail and collaborative software
makes virtual teams possible.

A. Using E-Mail to Facilitate Meetings

By using e-mail, team members can feed important information to all other members
of the team without the old-fashion ritual of entering a meeting and passing around
handouts. An advanced use of e-mail is to distribute word processing documents as
well as spreadsheets and graphics.

Using e-mail, a group can cut down substantially on the amount of time they
would have to spend in a group meeting. They might even be able to eliminate a
group meeting. Much of the nominal group technique can be conducted through
e-mail. For example, team members could send their ratings and explanations to
each other electronically.

A caution is that the use of e-mail too far can inhibit rather than enhance group
decision-making and teamwork. If people communicate with each other almost
exclusively by e-mail, the warmth of human interaction and facial expressions is
lost. Winks, shared laughter, and smiles all facilitate group effort.

B. Using Collaborative Software and Social Platforms to Facilitate Group Problem

Solving

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 E-mail and electronic brainstorming rely on groupware. (collaborative software is
technology designed to facilitate the work of groups.) The various electronic
approaches to group decision making have been labeled social platforms because they
function in the same manner as social networking websites. Social platforms
encourage collaboration. At its best, groupware offers certain advantages over single-
user systems. For example, groupware can make communication faster, clearer, and
more persuasive; enable telecommuting; reduce travel costs; and facilitate group
problem solving.

Another example of groupware is a shared whiteboard that allows two or more

people to view and draw on a shared drawing surface even when they are at a
distance.

Despite all the potential benefits of groupware, the system will break down unless
all parties involved use the software successfully.

VII. SUGGESTIONS FOR BEING AN EFFECTIVE MEETING PARTICIPANT

Except for when using collaborative software, group problem-solving involves
face-to-face meetings. One study showed that the more meetings accomplishment-
oriented workers attended, the worse they felt about their jobs and the lower their
feelings of well-being. When meeting participants conduct themselves in a
professional, task-oriented manner, meetings might be more productive.

A few suggestions for being an effective meeting participant follow:

Arrive prepared; arrive on time and stay for the entire meeting; do not be a hog or
sit silently; use constructive nonverbal communication; avoid sidebar
conversations; offer compromise solutions when needed; and use data to support
your opinion.

VIII. CULTURAL FACTORS AND GROUP DECISION MAKING

Cultural factors can influence the acceptance of group problem solving and
decision making. The stereotype is that three sets of differences in cultural
differences in workplace attitudes and behaviors relate to how well workers are
willing to share decision making.

1. Acceptance of unequal distribution of power in institutions and

organizations. (When workers think managers should have more power,
they are more hesitant about group decision making.)
2. The degree to which a country is aggressive versus nurturing. (Aggressive
societies are less prone to group decision making.)
3. The degree to which a society is individualistic versus collectivistic.
(Collectivistic people take naturally to group decision making.)

ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION AND REVIEW

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1. In this age of advanced communication technology, why bother having face-to-
face problem-solving groups?

Face-to-face problem-solving groups still play an important rule in this age of

advanced communication technology. Among the reasons are that (a) building on
the ideas of each other is easier face-to-face than electronically, (b) arriving at
compromises solutions is easier face-to-face, and (c) nonverbal communication
helps people know how well their ideas are being received. As mentioned in the
text, the ultra high-tech firm Google uses face-to-face problem-solving groups to
work on improving its search results page.

2. Many successful entrepreneurs, including the late Steve Jobs at Apple Inc., made
most the big product decision by themselves. So why should you worry about
developing skills in group decision making?

It may be true that a handful of brilliant entrepreneurs make most product decision
by themselves, but almost every organization, for-profit or not-for profit, makes a
large number of group decisions. Consequently, unless a person founds a business
and is an autocratic leader, he or she will spend considerable time making group
decisions.

3. Which personality characteristics described in Chapter 2 do you think would help

a person be naturally effective in group problem solving?

The person who is agreeable would be more willing to work with others in
solving problems. Being extraverted would gravitate a person toward the type of
interaction necessary for group problem solving. Self-monitoring also makes a
contribution because a person who tells other people what they want to hear would
tend to be willing to accept the different points of view helpful for group problem
solving. Consensus could therefore be more readily achieved. Being conscientious
would facilitate a person making an honest contribution to the group, and doing
whatever homework was required

4. Give an example of how knowledge of the team member roles presented in

Chapter 6 could help you be a better contributor to group problem solving.

Knowledge of team member roles would be directly helpful in being a better

contributor to group problem solving. For example, recognizing the importance of
the creative problem solver role would remind a person of the importance of
contributing imaginative ideas to the problem-solving session. Another example is
awareness of the monitor-evaluator role would prompt a person to offer justified
criticisms of solutions offered to problems.

5. Identify several problems on or off the job for which you think brainstorming
would be effective.

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 Brainstorming is ideally suited to generating alternatives to problems not calling
for complicated solutions, yet such problems should not be excluded. Problem
situations especially suited for brainstorming include, identify new markets for a
product, making product or service improvements, developing a theme for a
party, or identifying new ways of meeting people for dating. Be aware, however,
that even sophisticated technical companies use brainstorming extensively. The
new name chosen for the MSN search engine, Bing, was a product of
brainstorming. In contrast to our favorable comments about brainstorming many
researchers dismiss its relevance.

6. What is your opinion of the importance of the physical setting (such as sunlight
and refreshments) for stimulating creative thinking during brainstorming?

Recent opinion suggests that sunlight, food, and beverages enhance

brainstorming. Considering that brainstorming takes place so often in a
windowless conference room, the observations about sunlight are important.

7. Identify two work-related problems for which the nominal group technique is
particularly well-suited?

Complex problems involving many potential choices are good candidates for the
nominal group technique. Among such scenarios are deciding on which plant or
office to close, where to relocate a company facility, developing a fund raising
campaign, or choosing which piece of capital equipment to purchase.

8. How would you deal with a suggestion made during a brainstorming group that you
thought was outrageously stupid?

According to the rules of brainstorming, one should not react negatively to any idea
perceived to be outrageously stupid. A polite approach would be to wait until the
editing phase of brainstorming begins, and then pose a couple of questions about
the feasibility of the idea. Many students will probably mention that they will give a
nonverbal response to the bad idea, such as rolling the eyes or scratching the head.

9. How can a team leader apply collaborative software to help the group become more
productive?

The team leader can enhance group productivity with collaborative software
through such means as collecting information quickly, and reducing the number of
face-to-face meetings.

10. How might groupthink (described in Chapter 6) interfere with the quality of
decision made in a group?

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 Groupthink is often a major impediment to group decision making because a bad
decision might be accepted for the purpose of attaining consensus. At the same
time, the decision that proves to be ineffective is not subject to critical analysis
during the group decision-making process.

11. What annoys you the most about how some people conduct themselves in
problem-solving meetings of any type? What changes in behavior would you
recommend?

The answer to this questions depends a lot on such factors as what the student
interprets as rudeness, as well as his or propensity for solving problems quickly.
Today many people find it rude that meeting members consult their smartphones,
including texting, and laptop computers during a meeting. Yet in some companies
such electronic distractions are acceptable, and even encouraged. A major source of
annoyance for some people is how some members go off on tangents during a
meeting. In the distant past, people would delay meetings as they fiddled with their
pipes while pondering answers to a question. Most of these meeting behaviors
could be modified by self-discipline.

ANSWERS TO CASE QUESTIONS

Pet Groomers on Wheels Get Into a Huddle

This case illustrates a how group problem solving and decision making might be applied
to a positive problem in business.

1. Does the problem facing the owners of Pet Groomer on Wheels seem suited for
going through the steps for group problem solving? Or, what other problem-solving
technique would you recommend?
Investing business profits is a serious and complex problem, so a systematic
approach is highly recommended. One of the challenges is so many alternatives
exist for investing money, and choosing a good alternative makes a big difference.
2. Take the problem of what to do with Pet Groomer profits through the group
problem-solving steps, even if you have to make assumptions about some of the
data for the steps.
Going through the problem-solving steps, might proceed as follows:
1. Identify the problem. Pet Groomer has $85,000 in cash in a checking account
which is usually a departure from investing the money prudently.
2. Clarify the problem. The group members need to see that Pet Groomers could
be earning more money with the accumulated profits.
3. Analyze the cause. The cause of this positive problem is that the group has
not paid attention to managing its cash surplus. However, if stocks and bonds

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 have been declining in value during the period in question, perhaps no real
problem exists.
4. Search for alternative solutions. Dozens of alternative solutions exist as
described in any investment primer. Among the alternative investments for the
profits are stocks, bonds, CDs, investing in gold, investing in real estate, or
doing nothing to avoid the risk of a decrease in the value of the accumulated
profits.
5. Select alternatives. Among the decision criteria here would be a suitable
return on investment yet avoid the risk of all the hard-earned profits
disappearing. Another criterion might be to earn money on the profits in a
manner that does not require a lot of time, such as managing real estate.
Perhaps the group will choose a standard solution such as investing 60 percent
of the money in stocks, and 40 percent in bonds and cash equivalents.
6. Plan for implementation. The actions necessary might include meeting with
an investment advisor inside or outside the bank. Completing the paperwork
necessary for making the investments might be part of the implementation.
7. Clarify the contract. One or two of the group members might be assigned the
task of meeting with an investor advisor and or sales consultant. Having two
people invest the money through an on-line broker could also be part of
clarifying the contract.
8. Develop an action plan. The action plan in this case is quite close to
clarifying the contract. Two members of Pet Groomers set a date for making
the investments.
9. Provide for evaluation and accountability. The group might meet in six
months to see how well the investment is performing, and specifically if the
profits from the investments are acceptable.
3. Compare the conclusion you reach in response to question 2 with the conclusion
reached by other individuals or groups within the class.
A moderating factor in how close the decisions are to each other might be the
amount of finance knowledge found among the groups. With less financial
knowledge, the alternatives chose are likely to be riskier, such as going to a
gambling casino or investing in start-ups.

Standing Up at Vogue Travel

This case about standup meetings reflects the reality that such meetings elicit a variety of
reactions from participants, ranging from very positive to very negative.

1. Explain why you think Chelsea should continue or discontinue the standup
meetings.

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 The standup meeting is still a potentially good idea for firing up the troops, yet
perhaps Chelsea could incorporate several of the suggestions inherent in the
criticisms in order to make the meetings more acceptable.

2. What evidence do you have that the standup meetings at Vogue Travel are
contributing to (or detracting from) teamwork and problem solving.

It appears that so far, at least one good idea has emerged from the standup
meetings—advising clients about how to decrease the chances of becoming ill on a
trip. Eric’s comment about the group jumping on problems suggests some success
of standup meetings a a method of problem solving.

3. How might Chelsea improve the effectiveness of these standup meetings?

How about having a tall and small, sport-restaurant table in the middle of the
meeting on which people could rest their beverage cups? No chairs would be made
available. Cindy’s suggestions about the common webpage could also be used in a
modified form. The group could exchange suggestions on the webpage, and then
discuss the ideas briefly during the standup meetings.

COMMENTS ABOUT QUIZZES AND EXERCISES

Self-Assessment Quiz 7-1: My Problem-Solving Tendencies

An important feature of this self-quiz is that it sensitizes students to the importance of

group decision making in organizations. At the same time it does not dismiss the
relevance of individual decision making.

Skill-Building Exercise 7-1: A General Problem-Solving Group

Students are likely to enjoy this exercise. Students may need a reminder, however, to pay
attention to all the decision making steps, not simply begin to generate alternative
solutions.

Skill-Building Exercise 7-2: Stretch Your Imagination

A message from this exercise is that brainstorming remains a valuable skill, and that
practicing brainstorming helps develop creativity. One of the winning entries in the actual
contest dealt with creating a holder for netting around a bed which is very important for
health in countries with loads of bugs. My prediction is that students will rise to the
occasion of stretching their imagination to arrive at a creative use for the humble rubber
band.

Skill-Building Exercise 7-3: Brainstorming versus Brainwriting

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The students who participate in this exercise will shed light on one of the most interesting
research issues in brainstorming: the relative effectiveness of groups and individuals in
generating creative alternatives. Several experiments have concluded that individuals are
superior to groups, and the student demonstration can put this conclusion to a test.

Skill-Building Exercise 7-4: The Nominal Group Technique

Well-traveled students will have more content to offer here, but all can enjoy the rigor of
the nominal group technique. As with the other exercises in this chapter, attempting the
nominal group technique is a valuable experience in group decision-making.

Interpersonal Relations Role Play: Group Decision Making at Pet Groomers on Wheels

This role play is yet another opportunity to practice brainstorming. The subject of
investing cash wisely applies to both work and personal life, so the content of the
brainstorming should be inherently interesting to students.

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

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von Franz Schestag. 1876. (Schulbücherverlag.)
Preis 10 K.

Das Wiener Heiligthumbuch. Nach der Ausgabe vom Jahre 1502 samt
den Nachträgen von 1514 mit Unterstützung des k. k.
Handelsministeriums herausgegeben. Mit Einleitung von Franz Ritter.
1882. (Gerold & Comp.)
Preis 8 K.

Möbelformen der französischen Renaissance. Nach den im Österr.

Museum und in andern Sammlungen befindlichen Originalen unter
Leitung von Prof. E. Herdtle aufgenommen und autogr. von Schülern
der Kunstgewerbeschule. 2 Hefte à 6 Tafeln. 1881. (Österr. Museum.)
Preis à 4 K.

Prachtmöbel und Geräte vom Ende des XVIII. und Beginn des XIX.
Jahrhunderts, größtenteils aus dem Besitze Sr. kaiserl. Hoheit
Erzherzogs Albrecht. In Lichtdruck von V. Angerer in Wien,
herausgegeben vom k. k. Österr. Museum. 15 Tafeln. 1884. (Österr.
Museum.)
Preis 24 K.

Falke, J. v., Rahmen. Eine Auswahl aus der Sammlung des k. k. Österr.
Museums auf 50 Lichtdrucktafeln. 1892. (A. Schroll.)
Preis 35 Mk.
— — Holzschnitzereien. Eine Auswahl aus der Sammlung des k. k.
Österr. Museums auf 55 Lichtdrucktafeln. 1893. (A. Schroll.)
Preis 35 Mk.

— — Mittelalterliches Holzmobiliar. 46 Lichtdrucktafeln. 1894. (A. Schroll.)

Preis 40 Mk.

Photographien alter Möbel von der Ausstellung im Österr. Museum 1874.

(Hofphotograph V. Angerer.) Preis der ganzen Kollektion: aufgezogen
84 K, unaufgezogen 56 K, einzelne Blätter:
aufgezogen 1 K 20 h, unaufgezogen 80 h.

Kunstgewerbliche Flugblätter. 55 Bl. in Kart. (R. v. Waldheim.) Preis 6 K.

Einzelne Blätter à 10 h zu beziehen durch das Österr. Museum.
Reproduktionen von Original-Zeichnungen und kunstgewerblichen
Gegenständen. 1883. Bisher 2 Hefte à 12 Bl. (V. Angerer.)
Studien und Entwürfe von Ferdinand Laufberger. Aus seinem Nachlasse
herausgegeben. 1884. 1 Heft mit 12 Bl. (V. Angerer.)
Arbeiten der österreichischen Kunstindustrie aus den Jahren 1868-1893.
Zum 25jährigen Jubiläum der Kunstgewerbeschule des k. k. Österr.
Museums für Kunst und Industrie. Herausgegeben von der Direktion.
Wien, (Gesellschaft f. vervielfält. Kunst.)
Der Wiener Kongreß. Kulturgeschichte, Die bildenden Künste und das
Kunstgewerbe, Theater, Musik in der Zeit von 1800 bis 1825. Mit
Beiträgen von Bruno Bucher, Josef Folnesics, Eugen Guglia, Ludwig
Hevesi, Eduard Leisching, Karl v. Lützow, Hans Macht, Karl Masner,
Alois Riegl, Franz Ritter, Wilhelm Freiherrn v. Weckbecker, Hugo
Wittman unter der Redaktion von Eduard Leisching. 1898. (Artaria &
Co.)
Altorientalische Teppiche. Im Anschluß an das in den Jahren 1892 bis
1896 vom k. k. Handelsmuseum in Wien veröffentlichte Werk
„Orientalische Teppiche“. 4 Lieferungen mit zusammen 25 Tafeln in
farbigem Kombinationsdruck. Mit einem Vorwort von A. v. Scala,
Einleitung von Wilhelm Bode, Text von Friedrich Sarre. 1906-1908.
(Leipzig, Karl V. Hiersemann.)
Preis à Lief. 85 Mk.

Folnesics, Josef und E. W. Braun, Geschichte der k. k. Wiener Porzellan-

Manufaktur. 42 Tafeln und 147 Illustrationen im Text. 1907. (K. k. Hof-
 u. Staatsdruckerei.)
Preis 120 K.

Leisching, Eduard, Zur Geschichte der Wiener Gold- und

Silberschmiedekunst. (Separatabdruck aus „Kunst und
Kunsthandwerk“, VII. Jahrgang.) 1904. (Artaria & Co.)
— — Die Ausstellung von alten Gold- und Silberschmiedearbeiten im k. k.
Österr. Museum. (Separatabdruck aus „Kunst und Kunsthandwerk“,
X. Jahrgang.) 1907. (Artaria & Co.)
Dreger, Moritz, Der Gösser Ornat im k. k. Österr. Museum.
(Separatabdruck aus „Kunst und Kunsthandwerk“, XI. Jahrgang.)
1908. (Artaria & Co.)
Walcher von Molthein, Alfred, Die deutsche Keramik in der Sammlung
Figdor. (Separatabdruck aus „Kunst und Kunsthandwerk“, Jahrg. XII.)
1909. (Artaria & Co.)
Guglia, Eugen, Die Besuchs- und Gelegenheitskarten der Sammlung
Figdor. (Separatabdruck aus „Kunst und Kunsthandwerk“, XIV.
Jahrgang.) 1911. (Artaria & Co.)
Rosenberg, Marc, Studien über Goldschmiedekunst in der Sammlung
Figdor. (Separatabdruck aus „Kunst und Kunsthandwerk,“ XIV.
Jahrgang.) 1911. (Artaria & Co.)
Leisching, Eduard, „Theresianischer und Josefinischer Stil“.
(Separatabdruck aus „Kunst und Kunsthandwerk“, XV. Jahrgang.)
1912.
 *** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FÜHRER
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