Lesson 9 Contemporary Art

This history of art is one of the most difficult tasks to pin down. As what previous
chapters have shown, significant ideas, canons and traditions, preferences, and dominance of
styles, media, and modes of production were the definitive characteristics that segment art
history into identifiable periods and movements; identifiable, but not necessarily precise. It is
important to note that the periods and movements of art are themselves testament to the
connection of art and culture in everyday life. As it is examined and analyzed in context, it
becomes increasingly apparent that art is not detached from the affairs of society but rather
embedded in it, in which it exists. It offers a glimpse into the beliefs of specific eras and how
these beliefs were translated into how people saw themselves and the world and how they
chose to come to terms with it all in flux.
This lesson attempts to provide a glimpse of contemporary art and how it was
understood, defined, and represented, not only within the bounds of the art world but also
beyond it.
Let’s Get Started
Pop Art

Pop art as a movement drew inspiration, sources, and even materials from
commercial culture, making it one of the most identifiable and relatable movements in art
history.
Based on what you know about pop art, select one item from your bag that you think
Let9s Get Down to
will serve as an inspiration or your takeoff point for an artwork? Describe how you will make
Business
use of this item and what your concept is behind the work. Explain the selection in class.

Defining the Contemporary

The term <contemporary= seems simple and straightforward enough to define. There
is this assumption that it needs to be asked, rather it must already be understood. But attempt
to do so and one finds it is a lot harder to grasp. The complexity of defining the term is
attributed to the fact that people have dissenting views on the interpretation of the <present,=
or the <now= means-these are often ideas that follow the word contemporary. Even more
so, is when it is
hinged on the word <art= and suddenly it becomes a bit fuzzy.
An interesting example is that even museums that claim its use in their institution
name seem to include artists, art forms, and artworks that seem to champion those that
arguably fall under the earlier period. For example, the Institute of Contemporary Art in
London which was founded in 1947 includes in its mandate 8the promotion of art that came
to be from that year onward.= Clearly the timeline is a bit skewed if the assumption is that
contemporary art started decades later. For the New Museum of Contemporary Art in New
York, its starting point is dated at 1977, while the TATE framed contemporaneity in a ten-
year rolling basis and was placed under the bounds of their Museum of Contemporary Art.
Another source of confusion is the fact that in the colloquial, <modern= and
<contemporary= are considered synonyms. This however is not the case when these terms are
used in the context of art. Therein, they refer to two different (but consecutive) periods
qualified by different approaches to artmaking and the functions that art served. To better
make sense of contemporary art, perhaps it is best to dial back to its predecessor, modern art.
Modern art saw the digression of artists away from past conventions and traditions
and toward freedom. Roughly between the 1860s to late 1970s, they celebrated the novel
opportunities in art, from the materials to its manipulation and ways of seeing and thinking
about art. The devotion of artists to a strict narrative was often illustrated in their figurative
works; however, these artists gave their nod to abstraction. The tenets of this period was not
only reflected in its art, but it was also evident in the way people live and conducted
themselves, the social issues that were relevant, fashion, music and the wide range of images
and activities they engaged in. This period saw the heavy mass production of goods, along
with the encouraging environment made possible by industrialization, new technology,
urbanization, and rise of commercially driven culture. There was also a palpable
secularization of society, interest in nature, and primacy of the self and individuality. Artists
were committed to developing a language their own-original but representative. What this
means is that artists drew the world but in his own terms. It was no wonder that within this
period grew a vast number of different movements.
This period that ensued was touted contemporary art. In order to move forward, it is
necessary to underscore that this can be better understood after a starting point has been
established. Compared to the dense taxonomy of modern art, contemporary art had fewer-
isms under its wing. Perhaps, this was also due to the fact that it is still unfolding.
Effectively, this period can be traced from the 1970s to the present. There is a reason
behind this cut-off. The cut-off was hinged on two reasons.
1. 1970s saw the emergence of <postmodernism.= The affix was a clue that whatever
followed was segregated from its precursor.
2. the 1970s saw the decline of the clearer-identified artistic movements.

Social Context: In Between Modern and Contemporary Art

Reaping the benefits and drawbacks of the dramatic changes that occurred at the
beginning of the twentieth century, the social, political, and cultural context continued to
provoke the artist to create. There is a potent source of reference for his works so that he may
continue to question the existing and emergent values of society. This multiplicity of
perspectives brought to light a more difficult terrain to map out in terms of clear and distinct
movements because what compelled artists' works was not the prevailing medium, technique,
or style: rather, it was the themes and concerns they addressed.
Contemporary art was also driven by ideas and theories, and even the blurring of
notions of what is and can be considered as <art.= with the involvement of television,
photography, cinema, digital technology, performance, and even objects of the everyday.
Three art movements were caught in the midst of modern and contemporary art:
minimalism, pop art, and postmodernism. Minimalism cropped up in the early 1960s in New
York, where artists tested the boundaries of various media. It was seen as an extreme type of
abstraction that favored geometric shapes, color fields, and the use of objects and materials
that had an <industrial= the sparse.
<The new art favored the cool ever the 8dramatic9 their sculptures were frequently
fabricated from industrial materials and emphasized anonymity over the expressive excess
the Abstract Expressionism. Painters and sculptors avoided overt symbolism and emotional
content, but instead called attention to the materiality of the works.=
Another assumption was that its subtext was deference the truth, as a thing was
presented at itself, without pretensions or embellishment. It also had a very utopic aura about
it. Some of the key figures in this movement were Agnes Martin, Robert Morris, Sol LeWitt,
Dan Flavin, Carl Andre and Donald Judd.
The other movement is pop art. It first emerged in the 1950s but found its footing in
the 1960s. It drew inspiration, sources, and even materials from commercial culture, making
it one of the most identifiable and relatable movements in art history. Artists became
increasingly critical about how what was being exhibited in art spaces had no relationship
with real life. What could be more real than what you saw, used, ate, watched, heard, and
read? Hence, they turned to commodities designed and made for the masses, particularly
drawing inspiration and material from ads, packaging, comic books, movies, movie posters,
and pop music. The aim was to also elevate popular culture as something at par with fine art.
A defining picture was the discussion on the hierarchy (and divide between) of <high culture=;
<fine art= and <low art.=
<Pop art is: popular (designed for a mass audience), transient (short-term solution),
expendable (easily forgotten), low cost, mass-produced, young (aimed at youth), witty, sexy,
gimmicky, glamorous, big business= (Hamilton, 1957).
The above was an excerpt from a letter written by Richard Hamilton, a pop artist,
addressed to his friends Peter and Alison Smithson.
Perhaps, one of the most critical statements against pop art was its use of very banal
and <low= objects and subject matters, lacking the elevate aura that other believed art
required. It was also seen as an absence of critically in that objects appeared as it is,
seemingly no different from how they were used in the daily life. If at all, it ironically seemed
too <cool= aswell that it also became somewhat detached to the life it purportedly talked
about. Some of the artists that are most identified with pop art is Andy Warhol, James
Rosenquist, Claes Oldenburg, Richard Hamilton, Tom Wesselman, Ed Ruscha and Roy
Lichtenstein, with a number of them coming from careers in the commercial art as
illustrators, graphic designers, and even billboard painters. It is because of this that their
works had the seamless quality about it.
But perhaps the most pertinent movement that solidified the move to contemporary art
was postmodernism. It is considered a socio-cultural and intellectual movement.
By the very name, it was a nudge to formalize the critique toward modernism and its
claim over art for the better of the twentieth century. More than anything, it was grounded on
the shifts in the belief systems that were in place in the 1960s. First used in 1970, the term
was difficult to affix to any style or theory and perhaps that was the point. Postmodernism
encroaches on other smaller movements that included conceptual art, neo-expressionism,
feminist art, and the Young British Artists of the 1990s, among others.
Grounded on skepticism about ideals and grand narratives, it was rooted in analytic
philosophy during the mid to late twentieth century, which highlighted the importance of
individual experience and was often steeped in complexity and contradiction. As an upshot,
formerly established rules, barriers, and distinctions were abolished. In a sense, the artist9s
creativity was in its most free with an <anything goes= disposition, artworks fell within the
broad spectrum of humorous to controversial works that challenged not only taste but also
former sensibilities and styles. Their awareness of styles was not for them to copy or be
governed by them, but to borrow, critique, and even to turn on their heads. During this time,
some of the guiding principles were the multiplicity of narratives, relativity, and even
interdisciplinary. It is important to note that there were attempts to overturn the notion that all
progress was positive, the hierarchy of races, and that art has a definitive goal. In relation to
the last one, one emergent aspect was also underscored in the experience and engagement
with art and that was the importance of the viewer. Here, the idea of the sole authorship of the
artist is put to the test.
It is the intention of the artist during the time of creation that it becomes the end-all
and be-all of the appreciation of work because it is where the sole meaning lie, which is
deputed.
Some of the sub-movements under this broad umbrella were minimalism, conceptual
art, video art, performance art, installation art, and even feminist art. Although they were
widely accepted and recognized to be formal movements during the 1970s, they were in fact
already in existence as early as the 1920s.
Contemporary Art
We can observe that there were overlaps with the acceptance and practice of these
movements. They were not only overlapping with each other, but they were embedded in a
social order that was in fact somewhat <disordered.=
One of the main developments during this time is the turn from the traditional notions
of what art is: from paintings and sculptures to the more experimental formats. These
includedfilm, photography, video, performance, installations and site-specific works, and
earth works. Even these formats tended to overlap, leading to interesting and dynamic, and
otherwise unheard of combinations of concepts, subjects, materials, techniques and methods
of creation, experience, and even analysis. Compared to other periods, it can be argued that
contemporary art is the most socially aware and involved form of art. The subject matter of
its works were some of the most pressing, heated, and even controversial issues of
contemporary society.

Other Contemporary Art Movements

Neo-Pop Art
In the 1980s, there was a renewed interest in pop art specifically to Andy Warhol9s
works and his contemporaries. What made it different from pop art, was that it appropriated
some of the first ideas of Dada in which ready-made materials were used for the artwork.
Aside from this, it does not only referenced popular culture, but more importantly, criticized
and evaluated it, often using popular cultural icons such as Marilyn Monroe, Jackie O,
Madonna, and Michael Jackson, among many others. Some of the artists involved in the
revival of pop art was Katharina Fritsch, Daniel Edwards, Jeff Koon, Keith Haring, Mark
Kostabi, and Damien Hirst, to name a few. Compared to their predecessors, they were more
affront about their evaluations about the world through the works.
Photorealism
The resurgence of figurative art, where realistic depictions is a choice, is a proof of
how varied and fragmented postmodernism is. In photorealism, a painstaking attention detail
is aimed, without asserting an artist9s personal style. These drawings and paintings are so
immaculate in their precision that it starts to look like it is a photo without a direct reference
to the artist who created it. Two of the known photorealist artists are Chuck Close and
Gerhard Richter.
Conceptualism
Other movements were informed and shaped by pop art such as conceptualism. As
opposed to celebrating commodities as references to real life, conceptualism fought against
the idea that art is a commodity. This movement also brought to the fore issues brought about
by art institutions such as museums and galleries where works are peddled and circulated.
Some of the major conceptual artists are Jenny Holzer, Damien Hirst, and Ai Wei Wei.
<In conceptual art, the idea or concept is the most important aspect of the work. When
an artist uses a conceptual form of art, it means that all of the planning and decisions are,
made beforehand and the execution is a perfunctory affair= (LeWitt, 1967).
Performance Art
Performance art is related to conceptual art, whose roster of well-known artists
include the likes of Marina Abramovic, Yoko Ono, and Joseph Beuys. As a movement, it
began in the 1960s and instead of being concerned with entertaining its audience, the heart of
the artwork is the idea or message. Here, the audience may even be an accomplice to the
realization of the work. Performance art may be planned or spontaneous and done live or
recorded. Since it is also durational in nature, it is also is not about the medium or the format;
rather , it is how a specific context is made in which through engagement or interaction,
questions, concerns, and conditions will be fleshed out.
Compared to traditional art formats, installation arts is a kind of immersive work
where the environment or the space in which the viewer steps into or interacts with (going
around the installative art) is transformed or altered. Usually large-scale, installation art
makes use of a host of objects, materials, conditions, and even light and aural components.
These works may also be considered site-specific and may be temporary or ephemeral in
nature. Well-known installation artsist are Allan Kaprow, Yayoi Kusama, and Dale Chihuly.
Sometimes considered as a kind or a spin-off of installation art, earth art (or land art)
is when the natural environment or a specific site or space is transformed by artists. It is a
kind of human intervention into a specific landscape or terrain. Earth art is different from
environmental art in a sense that it does not focus on the subject (environmental issues or
concerns) but rather on landscape manipulation and the materials used, taken directly from
the ground or vegetation (rocks or twigs). Artists known for Earth Art are Robert Smithson,
Christo, Richard Long, Andy Goldsworthy and Jeanne-Claude.
Installation Art
Compared to traditional art formats, installation art is a kind of an immersive work
where the environment or the space in which the viewer steps into or interacts with (going
around the installative art), is transformed or altered. Usually large-scale, installation make
use of a host of objects, materials, conditions and even light and aural components. These
works may also be considered site-specific and may be temporary or ephemeral in nature.
Well- known installation artsist are Allan Kaprow, Yayoi Kusama, and Dale Chihuly.
Earth Art
Sometimes considered as a kind or a spin-off of installation art, Earth Art (or Land Art) is
 when the natural environment  a specific site or space  is transformed by artists. It is a kind
of human intervention into a specific landscape or terrain. Earth Art is different from
Environmental in that it is not in the subject (environmental issues or concerns); rather it is
the landscape manipulation and the materials used, taken directly from the ground or
vegetation (rocks or twigs) that makes it such. Artists known for Earth Art are Robert
Smithson, Christo, Richard Long, Andy Goldsworthy and Jeanne-Claude.
Street Art
This art movements is related to graffiti art it is a by-product of the rise of graffiti in
the 1980s. Artworks created are not traditional in format but are informed by the illustrative,
painterly and print techniques and even a variety of media (even video projections). Some of
the examples of this include murals, stencilled images, stickers, and installations or
installative/sculptural objects usually out of common objects and techniques. Since these
works are most commonly found in the public sphere, various people who have access to
them have formed the impression and perception of the artworks themselves.
These works operate under interesting circumstances since they are unsanctioned and
do not enjoy the invigilated environments of museums and galleries. However, these works
also end up in them, as street artists also hold more traditional exhibitionary formats in the
while cube.
If it is in the open space, there are no governing rules in its production and sometimes,
in the interaction. Known street artists include Micahel Basquiat, Keith Haring, Shepard
Fairey, and Bankey9s popularity is evidenced by the creation of a film documentary that
spoke about film and his works. Gordon Matta-Clark, Jenny Holzer, and Barba Kruger are
other street artists.
Let’s Wrap It Up
Some of the artists and movements discussed are but examples of the rich array of
works produced and are still being produced today. The twenty-first century is stepped in
promise and excitement. Although some of the movements discussed may have waned or are
no longer being practiced, new artists with their own creative imagination and ways of
producing art are changing the landscape once again. It would not be surprising if in the
future, art students like you will be confronted with even more diverse movements that
attempt to come into terms with himself, society, and the world in which he lives.

Unit III. Culture and the Arts

Lesson 10
Soulmaking, Appropriation, and Improvisation

Introduction
Throughout history, art has played an integral role to capture, record, and
communicate events, activities, traditions, and even belief systems of various groups of
people. Even Paleolithic societies have found ways to record events despite the unavailability
or limited access to various tools. In essence, art has been an instrument to reflect the things
and events that transpired in the past so that the future generations can have a glimpse of that
past. With the advent of technological advancements, societies have improved the ways and
means through which art can be a communicative tool. If an artwork is an avenue for an artist
to express narratives through symbols, then it follows that the artist is the author of the work.
But during the twentieth century, issues on ownership and authorship have emerged primarily
because of the value ascribed to the viewer of the work.

Soul-Making: Making and Deriving Meaning From Art

In order for humans to make sense of language and derive meanings from words,
semantics and grammatical rules are important elements to be considered. Aside from this,
context and symbolisms are also considered to interpret and analyse either oral or written
works. When it comes to art, in order for people to make sense of the work, it would require
understanding the visual elements where art was grounded on, especially the principles of
design. It is important to note that the audience of the artwork must have a certain level of
awareness to the style, form, and content of the said work. Without such understanding, it
would be difficult to appreciate the visual arts in its fullness and entirety.
Style refers to the distinctive handling elements and media associated with the work
of an individual artist, a school, movement, or a specific culture or time period (Fichner-
Rathus, 2013). Throughout history, there have been developments in art styles that depict
different and varied methods of expression. Artworks also have a certain form. This form is
what the audience sees4a finished product put harmoniously (or not) according to the
different principles of design. In essence, form is the totality of the artwork, which includes
the textures, colors, and shapes utilized by the artist. The content of an artwork includes not
only form but also its subject matter and its underlying meanings or themes (Fichner-Rathus,
2013). The perceiver of the artwork must take into consideration the totality of elements,
underlying themes and motifs, and composition.
Improvisation
Improvisation can be defined as doing something without prior preparation. There is a
decision to act upon something that may not necessarily be planned. Within the present
context, improvisation has become an integral part of the arts. Some would say that it is a
reaction against the stiffness in the arts during the twentieth century. There is a call for
liberation from monotony that aims to rekindle the creative spirits of people in the arts.
For some artists, infusing spontaneity and improvisation adds up to the totality of the
work of art. The unexpectedness of the changes brought about by improvisation makes of the
artwork to have a distinctive quality of the crafts its individuality and identity. Some of the
artists subscribe to the idea of the allowing chances in the process of producing the work. For
example, artists would want to capture the gloom brought about by an approaching storm or
the beauty of meteor shower at night. Since they do not necessarily have absolute control
over natural phenomena, their reliance on chances may not necessarily produce their expected
outcome. Artists allowing their subjects do improvisation may have totally different results as
well.
When the artists makes his work, he has an idea of the elements that will be included
in his work. For example, a painter would know would be included in his painting. But as he
begins to craft his work, he may have deviated from his original plan. So in essence,
improvisation is evident in the process of making the painting. During the 1900s, art
improvisation has taken form in the galleries around New York City. Performance arts,
dance,
and visual arts were combined to create new forms of artworks using a new medium. These
performances were known as the <Happenings= which later on paved the way for modern body art
and performance art. One of central figures in the improvisation movement was Georges Matthieu.
He started the <action painting= wherein the process is seen real-time. In this scenario, the process
is more important that the finished product.

Figure 1 above shows how improvisation allows for a certain extent of freedom for the artist to
improves and allow the subject to perform and embody the artwork itself. To a certain extent, it allows the
artist to explore and think about how the audience can actually be a part of the artwork in itself.

Improvisation may have been a revolutionary concept when it comes to art because it blurs the line of
reality and that of imagination.
Figure 1. Maria Minunjin Performance Art

Figure 2. An example of an action painting

Appropriation

For instance, if an artist created a painting and displayed it in a museum, who owns
the artwork: the artist or his intended audience? During the twentieth century, people started
raising the question whether or not the act of deriving meaning gives the ownership of the
artwork to the viewer rather than the artist himself. This notion paved the way for the
emergence of appreciation artists who seem to promote the idea that the authorship relies on
the viewer. If this is the case, then appropriation artists can take as much as he wants from an
existing artwork.
Appropriation of art has been a common practice throughout history. In the past, if an
apprentice painter needs to hone his skills in his craft, he would be allowed to use his
master9s work to copy. It is as if the apprentice is trying to explore his personal application of
techniques to something he is more familiar with. However, there are some people who go to
the extreme by believing that copying the exact artwork of an artist and attributing it to his
own. This could pose a problem especially with authorship. The problem especially arises
when the appropriation artist would get bits and pieces from other works and incorporate
these elements into his own work. In addition, when appropriation artists eschew the
responsibility for putting up the details of other works and integrating them into their own,
their voices and perspectives of the other artists get lost with that of the appropriation art and
forgery. Traditionally, forgery can be classified into two forms: outright copies of existing
works and pastiches, which are works that bring together elements from a work and infusing
them to a new work. But in contemporary times, forgery can be in the form of creating an
approximate of what an artist would do by prediction. This can be done by observing the
techniques and style the artist employed and even the focal points highlighted in his previous
and existing works.
The intentions of the appropriation artists are often questioned since issues of
plagiarism or forgery sometimes arise. Some would argue that the reason behind the
appropriation is that they want the audience to recognize the images they copied. There is a
hope on the part of the artist for the viewers to see the original work in a new perspective.
That appropriation would bring about a new context to the original work. One of the most
famous works of appropriation would have to be Andy Warhol9s <Campbell Soup Can
Series= (1961). Warhol copied the original labels of the soup can but can but deliberately
filled up the entire picture plane. The idea of putting together of the soup cans is something
new for the audience. Just like any product, the brand is integral to Campbell9s identity. As
an artist, Warhol decided to isolate the image of the product. This attempt could in turn
stimulate product recognition. A common viewer would associate the Campbell soup with the
portraits of the soup cans. This association would bring about a certain kind of craving for the
said product. In a way, it is a subtle form of advertising that would entice the consumer to
buy and patronize the product.

Figure 3 Andy Warhol’s Campbell Soup Can

 Figure 3. Andy Warhol9s Campbell Soup Can

Let’s Wrap It Up
When an artist creates something, there is a desire for him or her to elicit a certain
kind of response from his audience. To a certain extent, the artist is considered as the first and
primary audience of the work. There is this notion that art should be perceived as something
that would engage and enrich the experience of the audience as the artist tries to piece
together all the elements grounded on design rules. However, there have been art movements
throughout history that tried to break away from the norms of visual arts. Improvisations have
led artists to find other medium and avenues to showcase their creative expression. The
certain level of freedom and creativity experienced in art can also lead to appropriations.
When it comes to art appropriation, there seems to be a debate whether or not something is
just an appropriation of an existing work or just plain forgery.

Lesson 11 Art in Asia

Introduction
When ancient civilizations in Asia flourished, trade became a very important activity.
In the process of establishing trading relationships among the Asian countries, they started
sharing their cultures and belief systems. China, being one of the oldest civilizations in Asia,
has a rich history when it comes to culture and the arts. Most of their cultural and even
religious beliefs and practices are represented through different artworks. Japan was initially
influenced by China in terms of the arts. Later on, they opened themselves to the Western
world, allowing for the fusion of East and West. Both Chinese and Japanese artworks are
concrete manifestations of their cultural identity as a people. Philippine art was a product of
several periods in history spanning from the pre-colonial period to the contemporary times.
Depending on a given context, art in the Philippines has served various uses from everyday
living to expression of belief systems and advocacies.

Chinese Art
 In the present context, China is at the forefront of economic development. Its booming
economy has led to its modernization. In addition, history shows that China has been at the
leading edge of development especially in cultural development. Inhabitants of China in the
past were able to produce primitive artisan works. Excavated pieces show bronze vessels with
intricate designs depicting a lot of imagery dating from the second millennium BCE. The
Chinese during the Chou Dynasty was under a feudal kind of social system. It was a parallel
period with that of Greece9s Golden Age: a period when culture particularly art flourished.
During this period, metal works befitting the royal family were produced in abundance. Jade
was also a popular choice of material for artworks.
Confucianism was the dominant way of life subscribed to by the general public.
Those who subscribed to principles espoused by Confucius believed that in order for society
to work, one must learn how to sympathize to others. These principles became evident in
most artworks depicting everyday life and how these social interactions come to play.
The Chinese also had interactions with Western missionaries who came from India
and brought some of the Indian influences to China. Because of this, Indian models inspired a
lot of Chinese artists for a few centuries. By the start of the sixth century, Chinese artists
started making art that highlighted their very own culture. Paintings usually depicted magical
places and realms that were born out of sheer imagination while still infusing the Chinese
characters that define their culture. It was a dominant belief that a great power coming from a
higher spirit is the one moving the artist and his work together.
Most paintings were done in monumental styles wherein rocks and mountains served
as a barrier that made the viewer distracted initially from the main subject of the work.
Rounded forms rise in a way that it flows from the background into the foreground. Artists
also used sharp brushstrokes to provide detail in their works. Western landscapes would
usually had a single vanishing point while Chinese paintings had the opposite since most
paintings aimed to give the audience a multiple perspective on the subject.
Porcelain is one of the commonly used to make decorative ornaments such as vases
and jars. Some artifacts from excavation sites show the intricate work of the Chinese in these
porcelain vases. This can be attributed to the tradition of passing down the artistry from one
generation to the next. Just like most Chinese artworks, the focal point in these vases depicts
a central theme: nature. They believe that man is an integral part of nature ensuring that there
is a certain balance in it. But part of their culture is emphasizing a form of social life, giving
importance to communities and interactions among people. In addition, some of the common
overarching themes of Chinese artworks would include everyday activities, war and violence,
death and nature. It can be noted also that Chinese artworks are infused with a lot of
symbolisms. Art becomes an avenue for the artist to convey his reflection of the things he is
aware of.

Figure 4. A porcelain vase from China

 It is customary for the ancient Chinese people to show respect for their ancestors and
departed relatives. From a Western point of view, this reverence of the Chinese can be
mistaken for as that of worshipping gods. Most of the departed of the ancient Chinese were
placed in either gold or bronze vessels, depending on their social status.
Japanese Art
Art in Japan has undergone a series of transitions and periodization. From being an
isolated nation to that of embracing Western influences and modernization. Japan has
transitioned into a modern cultural mixing pot. It is evident how the Japanese were able to
infuse local and indigenous materials with modern Western subjects and focal points.
Based from artifacts such as ceramic figures and ornaments, it is important take note
that there are Korean and Chinese influences evident in Japanese artworks. One of the
ceramic products created by the Japanese is called Haniwa. These are ceramic figures that are
made up of clay. They are placed beside burial spots for reasons that are unknown.

Figure 5. Haniwa House

The native religion of Japan is Shintoism. Although, this religion subscribes to beliefs
such as being one with nature and embracing the notion of the existence of many gods, it did
not use art to communicate its beliefs. When Japan established trading relations with China,
they did not only trade goods with them but they were also influenced with religious beliefs
and practice. Buddhism became an integral part of Japanese culture. Artworks such as images
and sculptures of Buddha were produced. Buddhist temples also became staples in key
places. Art in essence became an expression of worship for the Japanese.
 As mentioned earlier, Japan and China had a long-standing relationship. In addition to
Buddhism, China also influenced Japan in terms of paintings. After the fourteenth century,
Japan would isolate itself from the rest of the world, which in effect gave them the avenue to
let their culture flourish. The Japanese style of painting leaned toward abstract and
naturalistic handling. In essence, the artist is given the free reign for his work, which had
more room for spontaneity and individuality. A lot of works focused on individual portraits,
elements of nature, and scenes from everyday life. Although the Chinese influenced them, the
Japanese adopted a more minimalist take on their paintings. This is stark contrast with the
extravagant and sometimes over the top designs of the Chinese. The Japanese also developed
a kind of painting called the Ukiyo-e, which was crafted through woodcut prints. The artists
developed a technique that used lines and colors in a very distinctive manner. Some Western
artists were intrigued and influenced by these Ukiyo-e paintings. An example would be like
Vincent Van Gogh and Edouard Manet.

Figure 6. An Ukiyo-e painting entitled Ase  fuku onna (Woman

Wiping Face) Print: Color and Woodcut

Philippine Art
Throughout Philippine history, spanning from the pre-colonial period to the
contemporary periods, different art forms have emerged in the Philippine art scene. Before
the colonizers came to the Philippines, ethnic minorities used art not only for daily activities
but also for religious rituals and practices. Most art forms used by ethnic communities would
include pottery, weaving, carving, and the use of metalwork and jewelry.
Pottery is said to be one of the earliest art forms used by the early Filipino people.
One of the most prominent artifacts is the Manunggal Jar found in Palawan. This jar is a
representation of the early Filipinos' religious beliefs and practices. It serves as a burial jar,
which depicts two men rowing a boat. This reflects their belief of an afterlife, that the
crossing of the body of water is transition from life here on earth to the next. Eventually,
pottery produced items that were of practical value for the early Filipinos such as pots for
cooking and large vases for storing. Weaving was also one of the earliest forms of art
expression in the Philippines. One of the most popular artisans of weaving is the people from
the Cordilleras. They are known for their colorful woven cloth, which also have both
religious and practical value. The T9boli from Mindanao are also known for their woven
abaca cloth called t9nalak. They use this particular cloth to make ornaments, which also
represent their beliefs through symbols. One example is the image of the frog, which is their
representation for fertility. Woodcarvings from Palawan also depict animals like birds, which
are representations of their religious beliefs. According to local stories, the birds serve as the
messengers of the people to the heavens and vice versa. In Mindanao, the Tausug and
Maranao people are known for their okir, which are designs applied to their woodcarvings.
Their common subjects include the sarimanok, naga, and the pako rabong. Each subject is a
representation for a certain theme or motif but generally these symbols depict their beliefs as
a people. The sarimanok is a stylized design of a mythical bird either standing on a fish or
holding a piece of fish on its beak. The story of the sarimanok was a central figure to a
number of legends. One narrative tells the origin of the word sarimanok. A sultan of Lanao
once threw a party for his daughter named Sari who was beautiful but seemed to be unhappy
with her situation. On the day of her party, a rooster crashed and the princess ran off with the
rooster. She was never found. In memory of Sari, the Sultan had carved a rooster. This would
pave the way for the term sarimanok. Initially, jewelry was used as amulets for protection to
drive away evil spirits. Eventually some minority groups from the Cordilleras and Cotabato
utilized jewelry as ornaments integrated in their clothing. The naga forms an S-shape
depicting an elaborate figure of mythical dragon or serpent. The numerous curved lines
serving as detail for the figure depicts the scales. The pako rabong, on the other hand, is like a
growing fern with a broad base. The fern gracefully stems and tapers upward. The sarimanok
and naga are usually used as ornamental designs for the houses of the sultans.
 Figure 7. Maranao Okir in 3D

When the Spaniards discovered the Philippines during the sixteenth century, they
introduced their religion to the local people. Aside from acquiring resources, they had a goal
to replace the existing indigenous cultural practices and beliefs of the early Filipinos. Art was
used by the Spaniards to propagate their Christian faith while at the same time subtly
establishing their foothold in the country. The Church, just like in Western Europe at one
point, became the sole patron of the arts. This can be evidently seen through the construction
of churches, which house various relics and paintings. There is an underlying move to
integrate Western culture and ideals in the Philippine setting. Being under colonial rule, it is
not surprising for Filipinos to express their indignation and desire for liberation. Art became
one of the avenues for Filipino patriots and nationalists. Probably the most famous work that
expressed Filipino nationalism and stand against the colonizers would be Juan Luna9s
<Spoliarium.= This large-scale academic painting garnered a gold medal and signified that
the reformists could come at par with their European counterparts. At the same time, Luna9s
win signalled the start of the Filipino9s call for equality.

Figure 8. Juan Luna9s Spolarium displayed at the National

Museum

When the Philippines was liberated from the Spanish rule, the Americans took over to establish a
colonial government. They also propagated their culture and beliefs through the implementation of public school
systems. Art had a new role in advertising American- controlled markets. After World War II, the Philippines saw
itself as an independent state transitioning into the formation of its national identity. Artists focused on modern takes
when it comes to content, form, and subject matter. In addition, there emerged a debate on whether art should be
done as <proletarian art= or <art for art9s sake.= As modern paintings started to emerge, a triumvirate of artists was
formed-Carlos Francisco, Galo B. Ocampo, and Edades.
The 1960s proved to be a period of modernism and dynamism with a lot of styles,
techniques, and methods emerging. Most artworks were reflections of the political, social,
and economic situation of the Philippines during the Marcos administration. It was period
wherein people embodied and advocated for nationalist ideals. This is the reason why there
was a paradigm shifts of subjects in the artworks. Beautiful and idealistic imagery was
replaced with aggressive undertones. The works were reflections of the general feel of the
people based on the political situation during that time. When former President Ferdinand
Marcos declared Martial Law, social realism became the norm. Most artworks were forms of
protest against the government9s suppression of freedom of speech and expression. In
addition, some of the works reflected issues like economic problems, land reforms, gender
rights, worker9s rights, and cultural minorities plaguing the Filipino people brought about by
the Martial Law. Eventually, photography has evolved into an art form, which highlights
various artistic expressions evident in a variety of events, scenes, and activities.

Let’s Wrap It Up
Asian art, particularly Chinese and Japanese, have helped in the establishment of their
identities as a people. A common thread between the two cultures is the emphasis on religion
and how man is integral part of society. China may have influenced Japan during the early
part but later on, Japan would welcome Western ideas. There is a difference in terms of
allowing Western influences to be integrated in their works: China remained conventional
whereas Japan chose to let Western ideals be embodied in the art scene. From the time of the
early Filipinos to contemporary times, art has been used in a myriad of ways.