UNIT – 1

Introduction to AI:
Foundation of AI,
Philosophy and History;
AI problems,
AI technique;
The Turing Test.

Intelligent Agents:
Agents and Environments,
The concept of Rationality,
The Nature of Environments and the Structure of Agents.

Problem solving and State Space Search:

General problem solving:
Defining problems as State Space Search,
Problem Characteristics;
Production system and their characteristics.
Q1. Define artificial intelligence. Mca2022 2no.
Q2. What is state space search.
Q1. What is the common use of ai.
Q2. Define ‘intelligent Agent’
Q1. How many different kinds of agent exist in ai?6no

Q1. What is ai. Mca 2021 2no.

Q2. What is agent function in ai.
Q1. What problem can ai solve?
Q2. Explain the concept of rationality.
Q1. What is turing test ? write its advantages and disadvantages. 6no.

Q1. Write a precise definition of ai. Mca 2021 5th 2no.

Q2.
Q1. Give any three application areas of ai. 3no.
Q2. Explain state space search.
Q1. Explain turing test and problem solving. 6no.

Q1. Define ai. Give example of areas in which ai is used. Msc 2022. 2no.
Q2. What is turing test.
Q1. Explain ai problems. 3no.
Q2. What is production system ? write its characteristics.
Q1. Explain the problem characteristics with appropriate example. 6no.
Q1. Write 4 major component of ai system. Mca 5th 2020. 2no.
Q2. Define turing test.
Q1. What is rationality? Explain ideal rational agent. 3no.
Q2. What is production system? Write its characteristics.
Q1. Give the list of application area of ai. 6no.

Q1. What is ai technique? Msc 2nd 2021. 2no.

Q2. What is an agent?
Q1. Explain the various types of agent program.
Q2. Explain the concept of rationality.
Q1. Explain the following: 6no.
1. Define problems as state space search.
2. Production system and their characteristics.
3. Agent and environments.

Q1. What is ai? Msc 2nd atkt 2019.

Q2.
Q1. List of some of the applications of ai. 3no.
Q2. Explain production system.
Q1.

Q1. Define turing test. Mca 2nd 2021(special).

Q2. Explain different characteristics of ai applications?
Q1. Discuss the algorithm for BFS and DFS? Compare the complexities of both
algorithm on basis of space and time ?
Q1. Define state space representation? Discuss the various states for water jug
problem.
Introduction to AI:
KEY TAKEAWAYS

 Artificial intelligence (AI) refers to the simulation or approximation of

human intelligence in machines.

 The goals of artificial intelligence include computer-enhanced

learning, reasoning, and perception.

 AI is being used today across different industries from finance to

healthcare.

 Weak AI tends to be simple and single-task oriented, while strong AI

carries on tasks that are more complex and human-like.

 Some critics fear that the extensive use of advanced AI can have a
negative effect on society.

Foundation of AI :-
Philosophy and History:-
AI problems:-
1. Bias in AI : AI systems may exhibit bias based on the data used for training, leading to
discriminatory outcomes.
2. Job Displacement : Automation through AI may lead to job displacement in certain industries.

3. Privacy Concerns : AI can collect and process vast amounts of personal data, leading to
privacy concerns and the potential for abuse.

4. Security Risks : AI systems can be vulnerable to cyber attacks, making it important to

ensure the security of AI systems.

5. Ethical Concerns : AI applications in sensitive areas (e.g., criminal justice, healthcare) raise
ethical questions about privacy, consent, and fairness.
AI technique :-
Artificial Intelligence (AI) encompasses a variety of techniques and approaches aimed at simulating
human-like intelligence in machines. Some key AI techniques include:

1. Machine Learning :- Machine Learning (ML) is one of AI's foundational pillars. This technique
empowers computers to learn from data and improve their performance with time without explicit
programming.

2. Deep Learning :- A subset of ML that involves neural networks with multiple layers (deep neural
networks). It excels in tasks such as image and speech recognition.

3. Natural Language Processing(NPL) :- NLP enables machines to understand, interpret, and

generate human-like text, facilitating communication between humans and computers.

4. Computer Vision :- Computer vision enables machines to interpret and make decisions based
on visual data, such as images and videos.
The Turing Test :-
 The Turing Test is a concept in AI introduced by the Alan Turing in 1950.
He proposed that the “Turing test is used to determine whether or not a
computer(machine) can think intelligently like humans”?

 The Turing Test is widely used measure of a machine’s ability to demonstrate

human like intelligence.

 The Turing Test is widely used as a benchmark for evaluating the progress of ai
research.

 The Turing Test is not a measure of a machine’s ability to perform specific tasks
or solve particular problems. It focuses on the machine’s ability to emulate
human – like conversation.

The Turing test is based on a party game "Imitation game," with some modifications. This
game involves three players in which one player is Computer, another player is human
responder, and the third player is a human Interrogator,
Intelligent Agents:
 An intelligent agent is a computer program or system that is designed to
perceive its environment, make decisions, and take actions to achieve a specific
goal or set of goals.

 In addition, intelligent agents may learn from the environment to achieve those
goals.

 The agent operates autonomously, meaning it is not directly controlled by a

operator.

 Driverless cars and the Siri virtual assistant are examples of intelligent agents in
AI.
Agents and Environments :-
 An AI system is composed of an agent and its environment. The
agents act in their environment. The environment may contain
other agents.
 The agents sense the environment through sensors and act on their environment through
actuators.

 An AI agent can have mental properties such as knowledge, belief, intention, etc.

 An Agent runs in the cycle of perceiving, thinking, and acting. An agent can be:

 Human-Agent: A human agent has eyes, ears, and other organs which work for
sensors and hand, legs, vocal tract work for actuators.
 Robotic Agent: A robotic agent can have cameras, infrared range finder, NLP for
sensors and various motors for actuators.
 Software Agent: Software agent can have keystrokes, file contents as sensory input
and act on those inputs and display output on the screen.

The concept of Rationality :-

The rationality of an agent is measured by its performance measure. Rationality can

be judged on the basis of following points:

o Performance measure which defines the success criterion.

o Agent prior knowledge of its environment.
o Best possible actions that an agent can perform.
o The sequence of percepts.
The Nature of Environments and the Structure of Agents :-
The Nature of Environments :-
 The environmentt in Artificial Intelligence refers to the outside
circumstances in which an agent functions to accomplish a particular task.

 It is the environmentartificialical intelligence in which the agent operates

and from which it receives feedback.

 A physical or virtual environment can be created to simulate actual events

or to represent abstract ideas.

 The nature of environments influences how agents perceive information,

make decision , and take actions.
 Types of Environment :-
Several types of environments in AI are commonly used.

1. Fully Observable vs Partially Observable environment: The agent can either observe the entire
state of the environment or only a portion of it.

2. Static vs Dynamic environment: The environment can either remain constant or change over
time.

3. Known vs Unknown environment: The agent can either have complete knowledge about the
environment or have limited or no knowledge about the environment's rules and outcomes.

4. Competitive vs Collaborative environment: The agent interacts with other agents that may be
competing or collaborating.
the Structure of Agents :-
The structure of an intelligent agent is a combination of architecture and agent
program.

It can be view as:

These are the terms most associated with agent structure :

 Architecture : this is the machinery or platform that executes the agent.

 Agent Function : Agent function is used to map a percept to an action.

 Agent program : Agent program is an implementation of agent function.

An agent program executes on the physical architecture to produce
function f.

Utility- based agent

Types of AI Agents :-

o Simple Reflex Agent

o Model-based reflex agent
o Goal-based agents
o Utility-based agent
o Learning agent

1. Simple Reflex agent : The Simple reflex agents are the simplest agents. These
agents take decisions on the basis of the current percepts and ignore the rest
of the percept history.

2. Model – Based Reflex Agents : Consider the history of percepts to make

decisions.

3. Goal – Based Agents : act to achieve specific goals based on their internal
representation.

4. Utility-Based Agents : Consider both goals and the utility of actions to make
decisions.

5. Learning Agents : A learning agent is the type of agent which can learn from
its past experience , or it has learning capabilities.
Problem solving and State Space Search:
General problem solving:
 Problem solving in AI involves finding sequence of action or a strategy to
reach a goal from an initial state.

 It’s a process of transforming the current state of a system into a desired or

goal state.

 Problem -solving in AI includes various techniques like efficient algorithm,

heuristics, and performing root case analysis to obtain desirable solutions.

The steps involved in problem-solving typically include:

1. Define the Problem:
 Clearly specify the initial state, goal state, and the set of actions that
can be performed.
2. Formulate a Solution:
 Identify a sequence of actions or operations that transform the initial
state into the goal state.
3. Implement the Solution:
 Execute the sequence of actions in the real-world or simulated
environment.
State Space Search:
 State space search is a problem-solving technique used in ai to find the solution
path from the initial state to the goal state by exploring the various states.

 The state space search approach through all possible states of a problem to find
solution.

 It is an essential part of ai and is used in various applications, from game -playing

algorithms to natural language processing.

 One of the most well-known state space search algorithms is the A algorithm.

 Other commonly used state space search algorithms include breadth-first

search(BFS), depth-first search(DFS), hill climbing, and genetic algorithms.
Defining problems as State Space Search :-
 The state space search representation forms the basis of most of the AI
method.

 Its structure corresponds to the structure problem solving in two important

ways:

 It allows for a formal definition of a problem as the need to convert some given
situation into some desired situation using a set of permissible operation.

 It permits us to define the process of solving a particular problem as a

combination of known techniques and search. The general technique of
exploring the space to try to find some path from the current state to a good
state.

 Search is very important process in the solution of hard problem for which no
more direct technique are available.

Problem Characteristics :-
Some of the key features of a problem are listed below.
 Can the problem decompose into subproblems?
The question of whether a problem is decomposable refers to
whether it can be broken down into smaller, independent
subproblems.

 Can any of the solution steps be ignored?

The reversibility of solution steps refers to whether they can be
ignored or undone if they prove to be unwise or lead to a dead end.

 Is the given problem universally predictable?

The predictability of a problem’s universe refers to whether the
outcomes or states of the problem can be determined with
certainty or if they involve uncertainty.

 Is a good solution absolute or relative?

The nature of a good solution can be either absolute or relative.
 Is the solution a static or a path?
The solution to a problem can be either a state or a path,
depending on the nature of the problem.

 Did the problem require a large amount of knowledge to solve?

 Does it require any interaction with computers and humans?

Production system and their characteristics.

 A production system (popularly known as a production rule system) is a kind of
cognitive architecture that is used to implement search algorithms and replicate
human problem-solving skills.

 This problem-solving knowledge is encoded in the system in the form of little quanta
popularly known as productions.

 It consists of two components: rule and action.

 Rules recognize the condition, and the actions part has the knowledge of how to deal
with the condition.

 In simpler words, the production system in AI contains a set of rules which are defined
by the left side and right side of the system.

 The left side contains a set of things to watch for (condition), and the right side
contains the things to do (action).

What are the Features of a Production System?

A production system has the following features:

1. Simplicity:
 Due to the use of the IF-THEN structure, each sentence is unique in the production
system.
 This uniqueness makes the knowledge representation simple to enhance the
readability of the production rules.

2. Modularity:
 The knowledge available is coded in discrete pieces by the production system, which
makes it easy to add, modify, or delete the information without any side effects.

3. Modifiability:
 This feature allows for the modification of the production rules.
 The rules are first defined in the skeletal form and then modified to suit an
application.

4. Knowledge-intensive:
 As the name suggests, the system only stores knowledge. All the rules are written in
the English language.
 This type of representation solves the semantics problem.