Logistics and Supply Chain

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Praise for Logistics and Supply
Chain Management
‘Major world events in recent years – ranging from the Covid-19 pandemic, blockage of
the Suez Canal and war in Ukraine – have highlighted the critical role played by logistics
and supply chain management in the global economy and have brought these subjects
to the forefront of public interest. This important book by one of the leading thinkers in
the field is essential reading, not just for practitioners and students of these subjects,
but for everyone with a keen interest in how logistics activities and supply chain designs
shape our everyday lives. The clear text and logical flow of chapters, augmented by a
range of interesting and diverse case examples, take the reader on a journey of discov-
ery into how today’s supply chains should be structured and managed.’
Professor John Mangan, Chair in Marine Transport and Logistics,
School of Engineering, Newcastle University, UK

‘It should not have needed a global pandemic and a war in Europe to raise the
importance of building and managing resilient supply chains. The techniques to achieve
this are not new; achieving value has always been the goal, and the latest edition of
this excellent book lays these out in a clear and compelling manner. It is updated to
embrace digitisation, and to address the sustainability imperative, and is set in today’s
context of volatility and disruption. Procurement and supply chain professionals can
learn from this book as part of their continuing professional development.’
Malcolm Harrison, CEO, Chartered Institute of Procurement and Supply

‘Since the first edition was published thirty years ago, this book has become one
of the leading texts on logistics and supply chain management, providing guidance
both to students and practitioners. The author provides valuable insights into how
performance in these vital business processes can be improved and sustained.’
Yossi Sheffi, Eliza Gray II Professor of Engineering Systems, MIT, USA

‘Martin Christopher’s latest book captures the entire evolution of logistics and
supply chain thinking and associated concepts through to current times, including
digitisation, new business models, sustainability, and perspectives on what we can
expect to see in the years ahead. It is comprehensive and beautifully illustrated with
examples and short case studies. A must-read for students and managers alike.’
Dr John Gattorna, global supply chain ‘thought leader’ and author

‘Excellence in supply chain management is imperative in today’s commercial

environment. It is the heartbeat of the enterprise, significantly influencing its
success / failure and, when orchestrated correctly, will assure the right balance of
growth, cash and cost.
The utopia of supply chain excellence requires transparency, real time visibility,
collaboration and digital integration end to end to empower relationships with
customers and suppliers, thus facilitating optimal fulfilment and perfect order
achievement. In this valuable guide the author addresses how end-to-end
processes, systems, tools and competencies must be designed and managed to
achieve success in the marketplace.’
Stuart Whiting, Senior Vice President, Logistics and Planning,
Global Supply Chain, Schneider Electric
Logistics & Supply
Chain Management
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 M A R T I N C H R I STO P H E R

Logistics & Supply Chain

Management
Sixth Edition

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Previously published 1992, 1998, 2005, 2011 (print), 2016 (print and electronic)
Sixth edition published 2023 (print and electronic)

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ISBN: 978-1-292-41618-2 (print)

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British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for the print edition is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Christopher, Martin, author.
Title: Logistics and supply chain management / Martin Christopher.
Other titles: Logistics and supply chain management
Description: Sixth Edition. | Hoboken, NJ : Pearson, [2023] | Revised
edition of the author’s Logistics & supply chain management, [2016]
Identifiers: LCCN 2022042551 | ISBN 9781292416182 (paperback) | ISBN
9781292416205 (epub) | ISBN 9781292416199 (pdf)
Subjects: LCSH: Business logistics--Cost effectiveness. | Delivery of
goods--Management.
Classification: LCC HD38.5 .C46 2023 | DDC 658.5--dc23/eng/20220919
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022042551

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
26 25 24 23 22

Cover designed by Michelle Morgan, At the Pop, Ltd

Front cover image © Toria/Shutterstock

Print edition typeset in Helvetica Neue LT W1G 9.25/12 by Straive

Printed by Ashford Colour Press Ltd, Gosport

NOTE THAT ANY PAGE CROSS REFERENCES REFER TO THE PRINT EDITION
To Margaret

vii
 Contents

About the author xiii

Preface xiv
Publisher’s acknowledgements xv

1 Logistics, the supply chain and competitive strategy 1

Supply chain management is a wider concept than logistics 2
Competitive advantage 4
The supply chain becomes the value chain 9
The mission of logistics management 10
The supply chain and competitive performance 12
The changing competitive environment 13

2 Delivering customer value 25

The marketing and logistics interface 26
Delivering customer value 27
What is customer service? 28
The impact of out-of-stock 30
Customer service and customer retention 32
Market-driven supply chains 35
Defining customer service objectives 39
Setting customer service priorities 43
Setting service standards 47

3 Going to market 51
Distribution channels are value delivery systems 52
One size doesn’t fit all 55
Innovation in the distribution channel 56
The omni-channel revolution 58
The personalised supply chain 62

4 The financial impact of logistics 65

Logistics and the bottom line 66
Logistics and the balance sheet 67
Logistics and shareholder value 69
Logistics cost analysis 74
The concept of total cost analysis 75
Understanding the cost-to-serve 78
Customer profitability analysis 79
Direct product profitability 84
Cost drivers and activity-based costing 86

viii
5 Matching supply and demand 89
The lead-time gap 90
Improving visibility of demand 91
The decoupling point 93
The supply chain fulcrum 94
Forecast for capacity, execute against demand 96
Demand management and planning 96
Collaborative planning, forecasting and replenishment 100

6 Creating the responsive supply chain 105

Using the volume/variability matrix 108
Product ‘push’ versus demand ‘pull’ 111
The Japanese philosophy 116
The agile supply chain 117
The foundations of agility 120
A routemap to responsiveness 125

7 Strategic lead-time management 129

Time-based competition 129
The concept of lead-time 133
Logistics pipeline management 137
Reducing logistics lead-time 141

8 The synchronous supply chain 149

The extended enterprise and the virtual supply chain 150
The role of information in the virtual supply chain 152
Laying the foundations for synchronisation 155
‘Quick response’ logistics 157
Production strategies for QR 160
Logistics systems dynamics 161

9 Developing and managing the supply network 167

The transition from purchasing to strategic sourcing 169
Segmenting the supply base 172
Category management 174
Agile procurement in an uncertain world 179

10 Complexity and the supply chain 181

The sources of supply chain complexity 182
The cost of complexity 188
Product design and supply chain complexity 189
Mastering complexity 190

11 Managing the global pipeline 195

The globalisation of supply chains 197
Gaining visibility in the global pipeline 201

CONTENTS ix
 Financing global supply chains 205
Organising for global logistics 205
Thinking global, acting local 209
Globalisation: the next phase 211

12 The digital supply chain 213

Supply chain 4.0 214
Big data and analytics 216
Artificial intelligence and machine learning 217
The Internet of Things 219
Robotics and automation 219
Blockchains and smart contracts 220
Control towers and digital twins 222
The road to digital transformation 223

13 Service logistics 227

What is a service? 227
Buying performance 228
The service dominant logic 229
The trend to ‘servitisation’ 229
Implications of servitisation for logistics 231
The critical role of capacity 231
Service supply chain processes 234
Managing the service supply chain 236

14 Managing risk in the supply chain 237

Why are supply chains more vulnerable? 239
Understanding the supply chain risk profile 241
Managing supply chain risk 245
Achieving supply chain resilience 253

15 The era of network competition 259

The new organisational paradigm 260
Collaboration and trust in the supply chain 262
Reducing costs through collaborative working 265
‘Co-opetition’ – co-operating with competitors 268
Managing the supply chain as a network 268
Supply chain orchestration 269
From 3PL to 4PL™ 271
The last word 273

16 Overcoming the barriers to supply chain integration 275

Creating the logistics vision 276
The problems with conventional organisations 276
Developing the logistics organisation 280
Logistics as a vehicle for change 284
Benchmarking 286

x C ONTENTS
17 Creating a sustainable supply chain 291
The triple bottom line 291
Greenhouse gases and the supply chain 293
Reducing the transport-intensity of supply chains 295
Beyond the carbon footprint 296
Reduce, re-use, re-cycle 299
The impact of congestion 301

18 The supply chain of the future 305

Emerging mega-trends 306
Shifting centres of gravity 307
Supply chain governance and compliance 308
The need for adaptability 309
Seeking structural flexibility 310
The road ahead 313
Waste in the supply chain 313
The New Industrial Revolution 314
Seven major business transformations 315
The implications for tomorrow’s logistics managers 317
Index 323

CONTENTS xi
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About the author

Martin Christopher is Emeritus Professor of Marketing and Logistics at Cranfield

School of Management, where his work in the field of logistics and supply chain
management has gained international recognition.
He also co-founded The International Journal of Logistics Management and was
its Joint Editor for 18 years. In addition to working with many organisations in an advi-
sory capacity, he has been a visiting professor at universities in the UK and overseas.
Martin is an Emeritus Fellow of the Chartered Institute of Logistics and Transport
and a Fellow of the Chartered Institute of Procurement and Supply. He is also the
recipient of the Distinguished Service Award of the USA Council of Supply Chain
Management Professionals. In 2021 he was awarded the OBE for services to busi-
ness, academia and the UK economy.

xiii
 Preface

In the thirty years since the first edition of this book was published the business envi-
ronment has changed dramatically. Whereas once there was a degree of stability,
now there is turbulence. Instead of being able to plan ahead, organisations today
must be able to respond to events as they happen. Such a seismic change to the
backdrop to economic activity requires new ways of working for every organisation,
particularly in the way in which they manage the supply/demand network of which
they are a part.
The intention behind this book, since its first edition, has always been to explore
the ways in which organisations can better serve their customers and in so doing,
improve the value they create. As markets become more competitive and the level
of uncertainty increases, the challenge is how to develop a supply chain strategy that
is capable of adapting to constantly changing conditions. Pandemics, geo-political
events, trade wars and supply chain disruptions have characterised the recent past –
demanding a much greater degree of flexibility and agility on the part of companies
as they seek to respond to these potential threats.
A further significant change that organisations must contend with today is the
growing complexity of their supply chains. This has partly arisen as a consequence
of outsourcing activities that were previously performed in-house, resulting in a
much higher level of interdependencies across the supply/demand ecosystem. This
increase in complexity makes the need for effective supply chain management even
more critical than before. Hopefully the ideas presented in this book will assist both
students and practitioners in their search for better ways to understand and manage
supply chains in this age of uncertainty.

Martin Christopher,
Emeritus Professor of Marketing & Logistics,
School of Management,
Cranfield University, UK.

xiv
Publisher’s acknowledgements

Text Credits:
Prelims Dr Yossi Sheffi: Quoted by Dr. Yossi Sheffi, Elisha Gray II Professor of
Engineering and Director, MIT Center for Transportation & Logistics; Prelims Alan
Braithwaite: Quoted by Alan Braithwaite, Chairman, LCP Consulting and Visiting
Professor, Cranfield Centre for Logistics and Supply Chain Management; Prelims
Bo-Inge Stensson: Quoted by Bo-Inge Stensson, Senior Vice President, Global
Purchasing, SKF Group; Prelims Matthias Holweg: Quoted by Professor Matthias
Holweg, Saïd Business School, University of Oxford; Prelims Bjorn Van Jensen:
Quoted by Bjorn Van Jensen, Vice President, Global Logistics, Electrolux; Prelims Dr
John Gattorna: Quoted by Dr John Gattorna, supply chain ‘thought leader’ and
author of Dynamic Supply Chains; Prelims Professor Hau Lee: Quoted by Professor
Hau Lee, Stanford Graduate School of Business, USA; 1 Erwin Rommel: Quoted by
Erwin Rommel; 2 Harvard University Press: Shaw, A.W., Some Problems in Market
Distribution, Harvard University Press, 1915; 3 CRC Press: Oliver R.K. and Webber,
M.D., Supply-Chain Management: Logistics catches up with strategy, Outlook, 1982;
3 Cranfield University: Aitken, J., Supply Chain Integration within the Context of a
Supplier Association, Cranfield University, Ph.D. Thesis, 1998.; 4 Penguin Random
House LLC: Ohmae, K., The Mind of the Strategist, Penguin Books, 1983; 10 The
Free Press: Porter, M.E., Competitive Advantage, The Free Press, 1985; 14 Emerald
Group Publishing: Adapted from (1989) Stevens, G. C., ‘Integrating the supply
chain’, International Journal of Physical Distribution and Materials Management, 19(8),
Emerald Group Publishing Limited; 19 D. Appleton & Company: Borsodi, R., The
Distribution Age, D. Appleton & Co, 1929; 20 The MIT Press: Holweg, M. and Pil,
F.K., The Second Century, MIT Press, 2004; 28 John Wiley and Sons: Johansson,
H.J. et al., Business Process Re-engineering, John Wiley, 1993; 32 Theodore Levitt:
Quoted by Theodore Levitt; 35 John Wiley & Sons, Inc: Baker, S., New Consumer
Marketing, John Wiley & Sons, 2003; 52 McKinsey & Co., Inc: Lanning, M. J. and
Michaels, E. G., ‘A Business is a Value Delivery System’, McKinsey & Co., Inc., June
1998; 54 Bain & Company, Inc: Kovac, M., Ledingham, D., & Weinger, L., ‘Creating
an Adaptive Go-to-Market System’, Bain & Co. www.bain.com/publications/articles/
creating-an-adaptive-go-to-market-system.aspx. Accessed 5 April 2015;
57 Telegraph Media Group Limited: The Sunday Telegraph on 5 April 2015 read
‘7,500 jobs at risk as retailers shut stores’.; 59 Deutsche Bank AG: Deutsche Bank
Research, FX Blog, “Labor supply is going up,up,up 5th may 2021”; 64 Peter
Drucker: Drucker, P., ‘The Economy’s Dark Continent’, Fortune, Vol. 72, April 1962;
74 SAGE Publications: Srivastava, R. et al., ‘Market-Based Assets and Shareholder
Value: A Framework for Analysis’, Journal of Marketing, Vol. 62, No. 1, January 1998,
pp. 2–18; 75 John Wiley & Sons, Inc: Shillinglow, G., ‘The Concept of Attributable
Cost’, Journal of Accounting Research, Vol. 1, No. 1, Spring 1963.; 80 A T Kearnley:
Hill, G.V., Logistics – The Battleground of the 1990s, A.T. Kearney., Inc; 81 Emerald

xv
 Publishing: Hill, G.V. and Harland, D.V., ‘The customer profit centre’, Focus 2(2),
Institute of Logistics and Distribution Management, 1983; 134 McGraw-Hill: Stock,
J.R. and Lambert, D.M., Strategic Logistics Management, 2nd edition, Irwin, 1987;
143 Emerald Group Publishing: Adapted from (1991) Scott, C. and Westbrook,
R., ‘New strategic tools for supply chain management’, International Journal of
Physical Distribution of Logistics Management, 21(1), Emerald Group Publishing.;
150 mThink: Cookson, C. ‘Linking Supply Chains to Support Collaborative Manu-
facturing’, Ascet, Vol. 3, 2001, www.ascet.com; 151 AT Kearney: Virtual Supply
Chain, A.T. Kearney; 153 AT Kearney: Internet Value Chain Economics, A.T. Kearney;
160 MCB UP Ltd: Lei, D. and Goldhars, J.D., ‘Computer-Integrated Manufacturing:
Redefining the Manufacturing Firm into a Global Service Business’, International
Journal of Operations & Production Management, Vol. 11, No. 10, 1991.; 162 The
MIT Press: Forrester, J., Industrial Dynamics, MIT Press, 1961; 165 Grocery
Manufacturers Association: Direct Store Delivery, Grocery Manufacturers
Association of America; 170 Keith Cochrane: Quoted by Keith Cochrane; 170 John
Manzini: Quoted by John Manzini; 184 Institute for Operations Research and
the Management Sciences: Ward, J., et al., ‘HP Transforms Product Portfolio
Management with Operations Research’, Interfaces, Vol. 40, No. 1, pp. 17–32, 2010;
186 Harvard Business Review: Gottfredson, M. and Aspinal, K., ‘Innovation vs
Complexity: What is too Much of a Good Thing?’, Harvard Business Review,
November 2005, pp. 62–71; 192 The Seattle Times: Dreamliner makes history with
plastic, outsourcing, design — and delays, The Seattle Times, December 12, 2009;
192 Dow Jones & Company, Inc: Jet Blues: Boeing Scrambles to Repair Problems
With New Plane’, The Wall Street Journal, December 7, 2007.; 202 Montgomery
Research, Inc: Styles, Peter, ‘Determining Supply Chain Event Management’, in
Achieving Supply Chain Excellence Through Technology, Montgomery Research, San
Francisco, 2002.; 204 Cranfield University: Cranfield School of Management, Cre-
ating Resilient Supply Chains, Report on behalf of the Department for Transport,
Cranfield School of Management, Cranfield University, 2003; 205 Pricewaterhouse-
Coopers (PWC): Courtesy of PwC (Vietnam) Limited, 2018. Retrieved from https://
www.pwc.com/vn/en/services/deals/working-capital-management.html; 214
Accenture: The Digital Supply Network: A New Paradigm for Supply Chain Manage-
ment. Accenture 2014; 216 Ernst & Young: ‘Digital Supply Chain! It’s All About That
Data’, Ernst & Young (EY), 2016; 223 Boston Consulting Group: ‘Conquering Com-
plexity in Supply Chains with Digital Twins’, Rainer Schuster (Partner and Associate
Director), Gaurav Nath (Managing Director & Partner), Llorenç Mitjavila (Managing
Director & Senior Partner), Boston Consulting Group, 2020; 229 Harvard Business
School Publishing: Chase, R.B. and Garvin, D.A. ‘The Service Factory’, Harvard
Business Review, July/August 1989.; 230 University of Cambridge: Adapted from
Neely, Institute for Manufacturing, University of Cambridge; 232 Emerald Group
Publishing: Aronsson, H., Abrahamsson, M. and Spens, K., ‘Developing lean and
agile health care supply chains’, Supply Chain Management: An International Journal,
Vol. 16, No. 3, 176–183, Emerald Group Publishing Limited.; 233 Emerald Group
Publishing Limited: Towill, D.R. & Christopher, M. (2006) ‘An evolutionary approach
to the architecture of effective healthcare delivery systems’, Journal of Health Organ-
ization and Management, Vol. 19, No. 2, pp. 130–147.; 235 Taylor & Francis

xvi PUBLISHER’ S ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Group: GAUDENZI, B. AND CHRISTOPHER, M., ‘ACHIEVING SUPPLY CHAIN
“LEAGILITY” THROUGH A PROJECT MANAGEMENT ORIENTATION’,
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF LOGISTICS: RESEARCH AND APPLICATIONS, DOI:
10.1080/13675567.2015.1073234 VOL. 19, NO.1, 2016, PP. 3–18; 238 Peerless
Media LLC: Singhal, V.R. and Hendricks, K., Supply Chain Management Review,
January/February 2002; 239 Cranfield University: Cranfield School of Manage-
ment, Supply Chain Vulnerability, Report on behalf of DTLR, DTI and Home Office,
2002.; 242 Cardiff University: Adapted from Mason-Jones, R. and Towill, D.R.,
‘Shrinking the supply chain uncertainty cycle’, Control, September 1998, pp. 17–22;
242 A. T. Kearney Inc: SUPPLY CHAINS IN A VULNERABLE, VOLATILE WORLD.
COPYRIGHT A.T. KEARNEY, 2003. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. REPRINTED WITH
PERMISSION; 246 Dr Christine Rutherford: CHRISTOPHER, M. AND
RUTHERFORD, C., ‘CREATING SUPPLY CHAIN RESILIENCE THROUGH AGILE SIX
SIGMA’, CRITICAL EYE, JUNE/AUGUST 2004. 246 Dr. Martin Christopher:
CHRISTOPHER, M. AND RUTHERFORD, C., ‘CREATING SUPPLY CHAIN RESIL-
IENCE THROUGH AGILE SIX SIGMA’, CRITICAL EYE, JUNE/AUGUST 2004. 255
City Research Online: Reducing the risk of supply chain disruptions, MIT Sloan
Management Review, Spring, 73–80 (Chopra, S. and Sodhi, M. S. 2014) 268 Oxford
University Press: J.H. Dyer, Collaborative Advantage, OUP, 2000 272 Accenture:
Fourth-party logistics, Accenture 273 Accenture: Fourth-party logistics, Accenture
286 Stuart Whiting: Quoted by Stuart Whiting 291 Oxford University Press: World
Commission on Environment & Development, Our Common Future, Oxford University
Press, UK, 1987. 292 Accenture: Bush, C., Sustainable Sourcing: A New Approach
to High Performance in Supply Chain Management, Accenture, 2010 294 IBM
Software Group: BUTNER, K., GEUDER, D. & HITTNER, J., MASTERING CARBON
MANAGEMENT: BALANCING TRADE-OFFS TO OPTIMISE SUPPLY CHAIN
EFFICIENCIES, IBM GLOBAL SERVICES, 2008 301 Steve Rose: Quoted by Steve
Rose. https://corporate.marksandspencer.com/msar2021/plan-a-report-2021.pdf
318 Harvard Business School Press: Kirby, J., ‘Supply Chain Challenges: Building
Relationships’ Harvard Business Review, Vol. 81, No. 7, 2003, pp. 65–73
319 Harvard Business School Press: Leonard-Barton, D., ‘Wellsprings of Knowl-
edge: Building and Sustaining the Sources of Innovation’, Harvard Business School
Press, Boston, 1995.

PU BLIS HER’S ACKNOWLEDGEM ENTS xvii

Logistics, the supply
chain and competitive
strategy
1
● Supply chain management is a wider concept than
logistics

● Competitive advantage

● The supply chain becomes the value chain

● The mission of logistics management

● The supply chain and competitive performance

● The changing competitive environment

Logistics and supply chain management are not new ideas. From the building of the
pyramids to the relief of hunger in Africa there has been little change to the principles
underpinning the effective flow of materials and information to meet the requirements
of customers.
Throughout the history of mankind, wars have been won and lost through logis-
tics’ strengths and capabilities – or the lack of them. It has been argued that the
defeat of the British in the American War of Independence can largely be attributed to
logistics failures. The British Army in America depended almost entirely upon Britain
for supplies; at the height of the war there were 12,000 troops overseas and for the
most part they had not only to be equipped, but fed from Britain. For the first six years
of the war the administration of these vital supplies was totally inadequate, affecting
the course of operations and the morale of the troops. An organisation capable of
supplying the army was not developed until 1781 and by then it was too late.1
In the Second World War logistics also played a major role. The Allied Forces’
invasion of Europe was a highly skilled exercise in logistics, as was the defeat of
Rommel in the desert. Rommel himself once said that ‘. . . before the fighting proper,
the battle is won or lost by quartermasters’.

1
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
1799; and that it flowers the end of June; in which month our drawing was
made, this year, at the Hammersmith Nursery.
 PLATE CCLI.

LACHENALIA PURPUREO-CÆRULEO.

Sweet violet-colour’d Lachenalia.

CLASS VI. ORDER I.

HEXANDRIA MONOGYNIA. Six Chives. One Pointal.

ESSENTIAL GENERIC CHARACTER.

Corolla 6-petala, infera; petalis tribus interioribus longioribus.

Stamina erecta. Capsula subovata, trialata. Semina globosa.
Blossom 6-petals, beneath; the three inner petals the longest.
Chives erect. Capsule nearly egg-shaped, three-winged. Seeds globular.
See Lachenalia pendula. Pl. XLI. Vol. I.

SPECIFIC CHARACTER.

Lachenalia corollis campanulatis, pedunculatis; petalis obtusis, revolutis;

staminibus corolla longioribus; foliis lanceolatis; floribus purpureo-cæruleis,
odoratissimis.
Lachenalia with the blossoms bell-shaped, and with foot-stalks; petals
obtuse and rolled back; chives longer than the blossom; leaves lance-shaped;
flowers of a purplish blue colour, and very sweet-scented.

REFERENCE TO THE PLATE.

1. A flower shewn from the outside.

2. The same shewn from the inside.
3. The Pointal and seed-bud.
This very fine species of Lachenalia, with its variety, have been figured by
Prof. Jacquin in his Icones, and Collectanea; but whether from dried
specimens or not we cannot determine. As yet there is no figure, of either, in
any British publication. Mr. Williams, of Turnham Green, nurseryman, was
the first who had it to flower in this kingdom, and to his kindness in sending
us a fine specimen, this year, in April, we are indebted for our present figure.
It is equally hardy with the rest of the species of the Genus, and propagates
abundantly by the root; delights most in a sandy peat soil.
 PLATE CCLII.

HEBENSTREITIA AUREA.

Golden-flowered Hebenstreitia.

CLASS XIV. ORDER II.

DIDYNAMIA ANGIOSPERMIA. Two Chives longer. Seeds covered.

GENERIC CHARACTER.

Calyx. Perianthium monophyllum, tubulosum, membranaceum,

emarginatum, subtus longitudinaliter dehiscens.
Corolla monopetala, unilabiata; tubus cylindricus, calyce longior, latere
inferiore ad dimidium dehiscens; limbus unilabiatus, adscendens,
planiusculus, quadrifidus, subæqualis.
Stamina. Filamenta quatuor, horum duo priora sub fauce margini corollæ
inserta, extantia; duo seriora, interiora, inferiora, reflexa ad latera. Antheræ
lunares, compressæ, extrorsum truncatæ.
Pistillum. Germen minimum. Stylus filiformis, per fissuram corollas
reflexus. Stigma simplex.
Pericarpium. Capsula oblonga, unilocularis, bivalvis.
Semina duo, oblonga, hinc convexa, trisulca, inde plana.
Empalement. Cup one-leafed, tubular, membranaceous, notched at the
end, splitting lengthways from beneath.
Blossom one-petalled, one-lipped; tube cylindric, longer than the cup,
splitting from the lower side half way; border one-lipped, ascending, flattish,
four-cleft, the clefts nearly equal.
Chives. Threads four, of which the upper pair is inserted into the edge of
the blossom under the throat, standing out; the lower anterior pair is bent
back to the sides. Tips crescent-shaped, flattish, appearing cut off on the
outside.
 Pointal. Seed-bud very small. Shaft thread-shaped, bent back through
the fissure of the blossom. Summit simple.
Seed-vessel. Capsule oblong, one-celled, two-valved.
Seeds two, oblong, convex on one side, three-furrowed and flat on the
other.

SPECIFIC CHARACTER.

Hebenstreitia foliis linearibus, integris, sub-teretibus, obtusis, glabris;

floribus congestis, racemosis, aurantiis.
Hebenstreitia with linear leaves entire, roundish, blunt, smooth; flowers
grow crowded together in long bunches, of a gold colour.

REFERENCE TO THE PLATE.

1. A flower.
2. The Empalement magnified.
3. A Blossom cut open with the chives remaining attached,
magnified.
4. The Pointal natural size.
5. The same, magnified.
The Hebenstreitias may all be reckoned as rather biennial plants than
perennial shrubs; they must be increased every year to keep up a succession,
which is a matter of no difficulty; as, if cuttings of any of the species are put
into separate small pots, and kept from the air by a hand-glass, for about a
month, they will become flowering plants by September, if the cuttings are
made in May. Our present plant was introduced in 1796 by Messrs. Lee and
Kennedy, Hammersmith, at whose nursery the drawing was made this year
in the month of March. They mostly flower in spring, and autumn; the
flowers are very fragrant at night. They are natives of the Cape of Good
Hope.
 PLATE CCLIII.

TALINUM PATENS.

Panicled Purslane.

CLASS XI. ORDER I.

DODECANDRIA MONOGYNIA. Twelve Chives. One Pointal.

GENERIC CHARACTER.

Calyx. Perianthium diphyllum, parvum, superum, apice compressum,

persistens.
Corolla. Petala quinque, plana, erecta, obtusa, calyce majora.
Stamina. Filamenta multa, capillaria, corolla dimidio breviore. Antheræ
simplices.
Pistillum. Germen subrotundum. Stylus simplex, brevis. Stigmata
quinque, oblonga, longitudine styli.
Pericarpium. Capsula tecta, ovata, trivalvis. Receptaculum liberum.
Semina plurima, parva.
Empalement. Cup two-leaved, small, above, compressed at the tip,
remaining.
Blossom. Five petals, flat, smooth, upright, blunt, larger than the
empalement.
Chives. Threads many, hair-like, shorter by half than the blossom. Tips
simple.
Pointal. Germ roundish. Shaft simple, short. Summits five, oblong, the
length of the shaft.
Seed-vessel. Capsule covered, egg-shaped, three-valved. Receptacle free.
Seeds numerous, small.

SPECIFIC CHARACTER.
 Talinum foliis lanceolato ovatis, sessilibus, planis; panicula ramosa,
terminali; floribus rubris.
Purslane with leaves between lance and egg-shaped, without foot-stalks,
flat; panicle branching and terminal; flowers red.

REFERENCE TO THE PLATE.

1. The Empalement and Pointal.

2. A Chive, magnified.
3. The Seed-bud, Shaft, and Summit.
4. The Seed-vessel nearly ripe, and the cup.
5. A ripe Capsule, cut transversely.
6. A Seed, magnified.
We now exhibit a plant which may, perhaps, be known by many, under
the name of Portulaca, rather than that of Talinum. But, as the adoption of
this new formed genus, upon a division of the species which have capsules
of a different construction, from the old generic character of Portulaca,
seems generally to obtain, amongst modern botanists; such as Jussieu,
Cavanilles, Willdenow, &c. we shall not dissent; although we, at the same
time, take the liberty to say, from the particular tendency of the old genus
Portulaca, to vary in most parts of the flower, both as to number and
character, we have taken up the present genus, but reluctantly. This plant is a
native of the West Indies, and is, by some, considered as an annual; whilst by
others it is treated of as a shrub; but, indeed, it partakes of both characters, in
some measure; for the stem generally decays down, near to the earth, and
often the whole plant dies, after flowering. It grows to the height of two feet,
half of which is formed of the flower-stem. It makes a very gay appearance
about August, and seeds abundantly. Our figure was taken from a plant in the
collection of J. Vere, Esq. Kensington Gore; where it flowers, annually, in
the highest perfection. Introduced, says the Kew Catalogue, by Chevalier
Murray, in the year 1776.
 PLATE CCLIV.

GERANIUM PROCUMBENS.

Procumbent Geranium.

CLASS XVI. ORDER IV.

MONADELPHIA DECANDRIA. Threads united. Ten Chives.

ESSENTIAL GENERIC CHARACTER.

Monogyna. Stigmata quinque. Fructus rostratus, 5-coccus.

One Pointal. Five summits. Fruit furnished with long awns, five dry
berries.

SPECIFIC CHARACTER.

Geranium caule subcarnoso, prostrato; foliis cordatis, lobatis, crenato-

dentatis; calycibus pentaphyllis; floribus tetrandris, corollis irregularibus.
Geranium with the stem rather fleshy, and prostrate; leaves heart-shaped,
lobed, between scolloped and toothed; cups with five leaves; flowers with
four fertile chives; blossoms irregular.

REFERENCE TO THE PLATE.

1. The Empalement.
2. The Chives spread open, and magnified.
3. The Pointal, and Seed buds, magnified.
This pretty Geranium is rather a delicate plant, and must be kept very dry in
the winter; as, from the situation of its branches, which are pressed to the
earth, and rather fleshy, they will be very apt to rot, if loo often watered, or
placed in a damp part of the green house. It was introduced in the year 1781,
by G. Hibbert, Esq. in whose collection, only, we have as yet seen it. Mr.
Allen informs us, that it is to be propagated as well by cuttings, as from the
seeds, which it does not produce plentifully. It has the appearance, if we may
judge by analogy, to be but a biennial, and not an abiding plant. It flowers in
April and May, and should be planted in light rich earth.
Here we have a botanical treat for the learned, who have adopted the new
arrangement of this very vagarious tribe; for in this one plant are united
some of the most essential characters of the three L’Heritierian Genera,
which, justly, formed but divisions of Linnæus’s original genus; agreeing
with Geranium and Erodium in the nectariferous cup; with Pelargonium in
the blossom and seed; but differing from all three, in having but four fertile
chives, with six abortive ones. A fact ascertained by the examination of
above fifty flowers, taken from four different plants.
 PLATE CCLV.

MORÆA NORTHIANA.

Northian Moræa.

CLASS III. ORDER I.

TRIANDRIA MONOGYNIA. Three Chives. One Pointal.

ESSENTIAL GENERIC CHARACTER.

Corolla hexapetala; petala tria interiora patentia, angustiora. Stigma

trifidum.
Blossom six petals; the three inner petals spreading, narrower. Summit
three-cleft.
See Moræa tricolor. Pl. LXXXIII. Vol. II.

SPECIFIC CHARACTER.

Moræa scapo foliisque falcatis, glaberrimis, distichis; floribus

terminalibus; petalis tribus exterioribus ovatis, concavis, pendulis, tribus
interioribus sub-erectis, medio retrofractis, apicibus revolutis.
Moræa with the flower-stem and leaves scymitar-shaped, very smooth,
pointing different ways; flowers terminal; the three outer petals egg-shaped,
concave, hanging down, the three inner ones nearly erect, broke back about
the middle, and rolled back at the ends.

REFERENCE TO THE PLATE.

1. The whole plant in miniature.

2. The outer valve of the sheath.
3. The inner valve of the sheath.
4. The Seed-bud, Chives, and Pointal, as they stand in the flower.
5. The Pointal only, the Chives being removed.
 About the year 1789 this very fine species of Moræa was introduced to
our gardens by the late, elegantly tasted Mrs. North, lady to the Right Hon.
the Lord Bishop of Winchester; to whose fervor and liberality in botanical
pursuits we owe much of the present prevailing taste for the science. The
plant was brought to England by the Hon. Mr. F. North, on his return from
Portugal; the only remnant of a number, which he had procured from the
gardens of the late Queen of Portugal; immediately on its arrival it was
consigned, in a very sickly state, to the care of Messrs. Lee and Kennedy,
Hammersmith, who had the good fortune to recover it.
It is a native of the Brazils, flowers about July or August, propagates
itself by suckers, which it makes from the root, should be planted in light
rich earth, and should be treated as a tender hot-house plant. The leaves
grow frequently to the length of two feet, or more; forming the appearance
of a large fan; the flower-stem proceeding from nearly the centre. The
flowers surpass, in delicacy and beauty of pencilling, any of this very
handsome tribe, and are as transitory as beautiful, their duration being but of
six hours, at most. It seldom happens that more than one flower is open at a
time; but the plant from which our drawing was made, in 1797, at the Right
Hon. the Marquis of Blandford’s, then resident at Bill Hill, Berks, was in the
highest perfection we have ever hitherto seen it.
 PLATE CCLVI.
IXIA MACULATA. Var. minor, flore purpureo.
Spotted-flowered Ixia. Small Var. with a purple flower.

CLASS III. ORDER I.

TRIANDRIA MONOGYNIA. Three Chives. One Pointal.

ESSENTIAL GENERIC CHARACTER.

Corolla 6-partita, patens, æqualis. Stigmata erectiusculo-patula.

Blossom six divisions, spreading, equal. Summits three, between upright
and spreading.

SPECIFIC CHARACTER.

Ixia foliis ensiformibus, glabris, scapo duplo brevioribus; floribus

alternis, sub-spicatis, minoribus, purpureis; petalis basi obscuris, ovatis,
concavis; stigmatibus bifidis.
Ixia with sword-shaped leaves, smooth, twice as short as the flower-stem;
flowers alternate, rather spiked, smaller, and purple; petals dark at the base,
egg-shaped, concave; summits two-cleft.

REFERENCE TO THE PLATE.

1. The Empalement.
2. A Flower cut and spread open.
3. The Seed-bud, Chives, and Summits, one summit magnified.
This variety of Ixia blossoms about June; and, like the rest of this species,
continues in flower near a month. It is one of the hardiest, and certainest
blowers, amongst the whole genus, and propagates freely; no particular
treatment is necessary for it, but what has been often repeated for the
management of these plants.
 PLATE CCLVII.

FALKIA REPENS.

Creeping Falkia.

CLASS V. ORDER II.

PENTANDRIA DIGYNIA. Five Chives. Two Pointals.

GENERIC CHARACTER.

Calyx. Perianthium monophyllum, sub-inflatum, corolla duplo brevius,

quinquangulatum, quinquepartitum; angulis medio dilatatis, compressis
extantibus; laciniis ovatis, acutis.
Corolla monopetala, campanulata, crenato-decem-partita; limbo
patente.
Stamina. Filamenta quinque, filiformia, tubo corollæ inserta, erecta,
inæqualia, corolla breviora. Antheræ ovatæ, compressæ.
Pistilla. Germen quatuor, supera, glabra. Styli duo, capillares, divaricati,
longitudine corollæ. Stigmata orbiculata, lanata.
Pericarpium nullum.
Semina quatuor, globosa, arillata, in fundo calycis.
Empalement. Cup one leaf, a little inflated, shorter by half than the
blossom, five-cornered, five-parted; the angles widened in the middle,
flattened, standing out; segments egg-shaped, pointed.
Blossom one-petal, bell-shaped, ten-parted by scollops; border spreading.
Chives. Threads five, hair like, inserted into the tube of the blossom,
erect, unequal, shorter than the blossom. Tips egg-shaped, flattened.
Pointals. Seed-buds four, above, smooth. Shafts two, hair-like,
straddling, the length of the blossom. Summits orbicular, woolly.
Seed-vessel none.
Seeds four, globular, covered by a coat, at the bottom of the cup.