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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Robin helped me to achieve my goal. Thank you for your countless hours
Coming together is a beginning: keeping together is progress; working
of outstanding support, guidance, and communication during this experi-
together is success.
ence. I could not have done it without both of you.
—Henry Ford
Quinnipiac University (Hamden, Connecticut) has been my home
Writing a textbook is one of life’s journeys that requires time, hard work, away from home for many years. It is here that I have shared my knowl-
and perseverance to complete the project. This textbook would not have edge of nursing and life with my students. I want to acknowledge and
been published without the help and support of many individuals at F. A. thank Quinnipiac University for the use of the health assessment labs
Davis Company. during the photoshoot for this book. Also, I want to thank my colleagues
This text is a result of Lisa Houck, Publisher at F. A. Davis Company, for their encouragement and support throughout this scholarly endeavor.
having a vision that a new-generation textbook was needed for nursing Nursing is a helping profession. I would be remiss if I did not recog-
students. Thank you, Lisa, for recognizing the need to publish innovative nize the contributors, reviewers, and item writers who have helped me
books that will enhance student learning. throughout many phases of this publication. I am very appreciative of your
I have had the privilege of working with Elizabeth Hart, Senior time and dedication to contribute to this textbook. By working together,
Content Project Manager, and Robin Richmond, Freelance Developmen- you have all helped me to publish the first edition of Essential Health
tal Editor, who have been instrumental in giving me the strength and Assessment. Thank you!
guidance needed to become an author. The expertise of both Liz and
vii
CONTRIBUTORS
Cory Ann Boyd, EdD, RN Karen L. Gorton, PhD, RN, MS, Meredith J. Scannell, RN, CNM, Leslie White, MSN, FNP-BC,
Associate Professor of Nursing ATC Ret. MSN, MPH, PhD(c) APRN
Quinnipiac University Assistant Professor, Assistant Clinical Instructor Adjunct Faculty
Hamden, Connecticut Dean of Undergraduate Northeastern University Nurse Practitioner
Chapter 22: Assessing the Child and Programs Research Nurse Yale University; Quinnipiac
Adolescent (co-author) University of Colorado College of Center for Clinical Investigation University
Nursing—Anschutz Medical Brigham and Women’s Hospital New Haven, Connecticut
Jane Brophy, RN, MSN, CNM Campus Boston, Massachusetts Chapter 23: Assessment of the
Assistant Professor of Nursing Aurora, Colorado Chapter 18: Assessing the Female Pregnant Woman
Trinity Washington University Chapter 16: Assessing the Breasts, Axillae, and Reproductive
Washington, DC Musculoskeletal System System (co-author)
Chapter 21: Assessing the Newborn (co-author)
(co-author)
Carol Agana, MNSc, CNP, Julie A. Beck, RN, DEd, CNE Judy Bornais, RN, BA, BScN, Margaret Davis, PhD, MSN,
APRN Associate Professor MSc, CDE RN, CNE
Faculty York College of Pennsylvania Experiential Learning Specialist Associate Professor
University of Arkansas York, Pennsylvania University of Windsor, Faculty of Chamberlain College of Nursing
Eleanor Mann School of Nursing Nursing Atlanta, Georgia
Fayetteville, Arkansas Judith Belanger, RN, BSN, Windsor, Ontario, Canada
MSN/Ed, CNE Terry Delpier, DNP, RN, CPNP
Kathleen R. Albert, RN, MSN, Associate Professor of Nursing Teresa S. Boyer, MSN, APN-BC Professor, Nursing
CEN, CPEN University of New England Associate Professor of Nursing Northern Michigan University
Clinical Educator Emergency Portland, Maine Motlow College Marquette, Michigan
Department Lynchburg, Tennessee
Lowell General Hospital Sarah Bergman, MSN, RN Jackie Sayre Dorsey, RN, MS,
Lowell, Massachusetts Assistant Professor Shirley K. Comer, RN, JD, DNP ANP
Adjunct Faculty—RN-BSN Nebraska Methodist College University Lecturer Assistant Professor
Program Omaha, Nebraska Governors State University Monroe Community College
Emmanuel College University Park, Illinois Rochester, New York
Boston, Massachusetts Billie E. Blake, EdD, MSN,
BSN, RN, CNE Kimberly Jones Cooper, MSN,
Ramona C. Anest, MSN, Associate Dean of Nursing; BSN
RNC-TNP, CNE Director of BSN Arkansas State University–
Associate Professor St. Johns River State College Jonesboro Beebe Campus
Bob Jones University Orange Park, Florida Assistant Professor Beebe Site
Greenville, South Carolina Coordinator
Beebe, Arkansas
ix
Annemarie Dowling-Castronovo, Sonya Franklin, EdD/CI, MHA, Cathy R. Kessenich, DSN, Jane Leach, PhD, RNC, IBCLC
AAS, BS, MA, PhD, RN, MSN, RN ARNP Coordinator of Nurse Educator
GNP-BC Associate Professor of Nursing Professor of Nursing and MSN Program
Associate Professor, Interim Cleveland State Community Program Director Midwestern State University
Director of Undergraduate College University of Tampa Wichita Falls, Texas
Nursing Studies Cleveland, Tennessee Tampa, Florida
The Evelyn L. Spiro School of G. Lindsay McCrea, PhD, RN,
Nursing, Wagner College Ronald C. Gonzalez, RN, MSN, Mary Knowlton, DNP, RN, FNP-BC, CWOCN
Staten Island, New York MHA CNE Professor, Department of Nursing
Professor Accelerated BSN Program and Health Science
Mary Ann Dugan, DNP, CRNP, College of Southern Nevada Director Associate Director, Semester
FNP-BC Las Vegas, Nevada Western Carolina University Conversion Initiative
Assistant Professor and Nurse Asheville, North Carolina California State University, East
Practitioner Kelly Holder, MSN, RN, FNP Bay
La Salle University Dean, Health Sciences and Robin Eades Koch, RN, MSN, Hayward Campus
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Human Services NNP-BC Hayward, California
Piedmont Community College Assistant Director/Program
Tonya Eddy, MS(N), RN Roxboro, North Carolina Director, Practical Nursing Jane M. Parks, RN, MSN
Assistant Professor Riverside College of Health Assistant Professor
Missouri Valley College Paul Jeffrey, RN(EC), BScN, Careers Creighton University School of
Marshall, Missouri MN, ACNP Newport News, Virginia Nursing
Program Coordinator/Professor Hastings, Nebraska
Janice Eilerman, MSN, RN Sheridan College Ramona B. Lazenby, EdD, RN,
Assistant Professor–Nursing Brampton, Ontario, Canada FNP-BC, CNE Sharon L. Phelps, RN, MS, CNE
Faculty Associate Dean and Professor of Curriculum Manager
Rhodes State College Patricia Kaufman, MSN, RN Nursing Chamberlain College of Nursing
Lima, Ohio Assistant Professor of Nursing Auburn Montgomery School of Downers Grove, Illinois
Cardinal Stritch University Nursing
Milwaukee, Wisconsin Montgomery, Alabama
Kimberly B. Porter, MNSc, RN Catherine Rice, RN, EdD Mendy Stanford, BSN, MSN/ Judy Vansteenbergen RN, MSN
Assistant Professor Professor/Faculty in the Ed, CNE Adjunct Faculty
University of Arkansas Little Department of Nursing Executive Director of Nursing Quinnipiac University
Rock Western Connecticut State and Allied Health Hamden, Connecticut
Little Rock, Arkansas University Treasure Valley Community Southern Connecticut State
Danbury, Connecticut College University
Valeria Ramdin, PhD (c), Ontario, Oregon New Haven, Connecticut
APRN-BC, MS, CNE Debra L. Servello, DNP, ACNP
Faculty/Clinical Instructor Assistant Professor of Nursing; Rebecca Sutter, MSN, APRN, Amber Williams, DNP, APRN,
Northeastern University ACNP Coordinator BC, FNP FNP-BC, RNC-MNN
Boston, Massachusetts Rhode Island College Associate Professor, Nursing Director of RN-BSN and
Providence, Rhode Island Northern Virginia Community MSN-OL Programs
Sherry Ray, MSN, RN College University of South Carolina
Nursing Faculty Joyce A. Shanty, PhD, RN Medical Education Campus Columbia, South Carolina
Arizona State University Associate Professor Springfield, Virginia
Phoenix, Arizona Indiana University of Erica Yu, PhD, RN, ANP
Pennsylvania Kathy Taydus Assistant Dean for Undergraduate
Paula Reams, PhD, RN, CNE, Indiana, Pennsylvania Assistant Professor Programs
LMT Jamestown Community College University of Texas Health
Professor, Chair Health Sciences Denise Schentrup, DNP, Jamestown, New York Science Center at Houston
Kettering College ARNP-BC School of Nursing
Kettering, Ohio Clinical Assistant Professor Elaine Della Vecchio, PhD, RN, Houston, Texas
University of Florida CCRN
Kathryn Reveles, PhD(c), DNP, Gainesville, Florida Assistant Professor Tamara Zurakowski, PhD,
APRN, CNS, CPNP-PC New York Institute of Technology GNP-BD
Associate Professor Old Westbury, New York Adjunct Associate Professor
Houston Baptist University University of Pennsylvania
Houston, Texas Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
CONTENTS
Chapter 1. Understanding Health Assessment, 1 Chapter 16. Assessing the Musculoskeletal System, 280
(Karen L. Gorton and Janice Thompson)
Chapter 2. Interviewing the Patient for a Health History, 8
Chapter 17. Assessing the Neurological System, 311
Chapter 3. Taking the Health History, 19
(Kimberly Foisy and Janice Thompson)
Chapter 4. Assessing Nutrition and Anthropometric
Chapter 18. Assessing the Female Breasts, Axillae, and
Measurements, 40
Reproductive System, 343
Chapter 5. Assessment Techniques, 60 (Janice Thompson and Meredith Scannell)
Chapter 6. General Survey and Assessing Vital Signs, 69 Chapter 19. Assessing the Male Breasts and Reproductive
System, 369
Chapter 7. Assessing Pain, 91
Chapter 20. Assessing the Anus and Rectum, 387
Chapter 8. Assessing the Skin, Hair, and Nails, 104
Chapter 21. Assessing the Newborn, 396
Chapter 9. Assessing the Head, Face, Mouth, (Janice Thompson and Jane Brophy)
and Neck, 140
Chapter 22. Assessing the Child and Adolescent, 440
Chapter 10. Assessing the Ears, 168 (Cory Ann Boyd and Janice Thompson)
Chapter 11. Assessing the Eyes, 180 Chapter 23. Assessment of the Pregnant Woman, 536
Chapter 12. Assessing the Respiratory System, 201 (Leslie White)
Chapter 13. Assessing the Cardiovascular System, 220 Chapter 24. Assessing the Older Adult, 555
Chapter 15. Assessing the Peripheral Vascular System and Advanced Assessment Techniques (online at DavisPlus)
Regional Lymphatic System, 261 References (online at DavisPlus)
CHAPTER
INTRODUCTION
The foundation of the healthcare delivery system is the interdisciplinary illness and alleviating unavoidable disease and disability. In all settings,
team that cares for the patients. Currently, there are about 3.6 million reg- nurses are essential to ensuring access to needed care, and their knowledge
istered nurses (RNs) who provide care and assess patients in many different and skills directly affect the quality of care that patients receive. In these
settings (American Nurses Association, Inc., 2017). Health assessment is a areas, all patients need to be assessed by nurses.
priority nursing skill that is the cornerstone of nursing care (Fawcett & Nursing is a practice profession. Health assessment is an essential skill
Rhynas, 2012). to nursing practice. Assessing patients and being able to identify normal
The Robert Wood Johnson Foundation Initiative on the Future of from abnormal findings is an essential role of the RN. Nurses must be
Nursing (2010) at the Institute of Medicine sought to build a blueprint able to use learned skills to collect information about patients’ health and
for the future of nursing as part of larger efforts to reform the health- physical well-being.
care system (Institute of Medicine, 2010). The U.S. healthcare system is There are growing trends of changing demographics and increased
evolving, and care is becoming more focused on wellness, disease preven- diversity throughout the world. Nurses assess individuals of different
tion, health promotion, and chronic illness management. In addition, cultures across the life span and in every practice setting from birth to the
healthcare reform provides many people with access to health care that end of a patient’s life. Every person is unique, and each culture has its
they did not have previously. As a result, there continues to be an increased own health beliefs and practices. Cultural practices influence an indi-
demand for everyday care through community health centers, professional vidual’s behavior to promote, maintain, and restore health and how, when,
home healthcare services, long-term care facilities, primary care providers’ and with whom they seek help or treatment (Dossey & Keegan, 2013).
offices, and nonemergency settings that are close to home. Cultural considerations are important when assessing patients.
In 1981, the World Health Organization (WHO) adopted a program Assessment requires each nurse to be like a detective, investigating
called Global Strategy for Health for All by the Year 2000. “Health for everything about what the individual reports, observing their nonverbal
All” does not mean an end to disease and disability or that physicians and body language, and looking for clues that may indicate something out
nurses will care for everyone. It means that resources for health are evenly of the ordinary. Assessment is a skill that uses most of our perceptual
distributed and that essential health care is accessible to everyone (WHO, senses: hearing, seeing, smelling, and feeling. Assessment skills are learned
2016). Health for All proposes that health begins at home, in schools, and need to be practiced to master the techniques of assessing an
and in the workplace and that people use better approaches for preventing individual.
The new movement in health care is person-centered care (PCC), Nursing practice covers a broad continuum of care. Active collabora-
which emphasizes the intrinsic value of treating all patients as persons tion with the individual and family in decision making, promotion of
(Entwistle & Watt, 2013). Nurses work with individuals as copartners in health, and prevention of stress and illness is part of this relationship
care. The holistic caring process is a relational process; the nurse collabo- (Dossey & Keegan, 2013). These collaborative relationships require lis-
rates with the individual to pursue goals for health and well-being (Dossey tening, communicating therapeutically, and together with the individual,
& Keegan, 2013). Every nurse uses interpersonal skills to communicate planning common goals.
and facilitate interventions to meet the needs of patients.
DEFINITION OF HEALTH
Health is a term that has different meanings for each individual, family, ■ The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) identifies
community, or population. An individual’s quality of life and level of five determinants of health:
functioning are dependent on their level of health. Nurses should have an 1. genetics and biology (i.e., age and sex)
understanding of each patient’s definition of health and know and under- 2. individual behavior (i.e., alcohol use, unprotected sex,
stand when individuals feel healthy or unhealthy. There are many defini- smoking)
tions for health, including: 3. social environment (i.e., income and lifestyle)
■ The WHO defines health as the state of complete physical, social, 4. physical environment (i.e., where the individual lives)
and mental well-being 5. health services (i.e., insurance and access to health care)
and not merely the (CDC, 2014)
absence of disease and Physical
Culture Social
support
infirmity (WHO, environment networks Healthy People 2020
1946). Income Healthy The scope of health assessment encompasses many aspects of health
■ Health is a balance and child that are commensurate with the nation’s federal initiative, Healthy People
social status development
of body, mind, and ( Jeanfreau et al., 2010). Healthy People is a science-based framework
spirit. Social
Your Biology updated every 10 years by the U.S. Department of Health and Human
and genetic
■ Health is influenced environments Health and Services that identifies health and risk factors for diseases. The report
Well Being endowment
by each individual’s stresses that individuals must take responsibility for their own health.
external environment Employment/ Healthy People 2020 has goals and objectives for health promotion and
working Education
and physiological- conditions
disease prevention. This framework establishes benchmarks and monitors
biological, behavioral, progress over time to:
Health Personal
and economic-political services health
Gender ■ encourage collaborations across the federal government, states,
factors ( Jeanfreau, practices communities, and private and public sectors
and coping
Porche, & Lee, 2010) skills ■ guide individuals toward making informed health decisions
(Fig. 1-1). Fig. 1-1. Factors affecting health and well-being. ■ measure the impact of prevention activities.
Healthy People 2020 recognizes that specific disease outcomes, risk ■ TIP A key role of nursing is to educate your patient and promote
factors, and health determinants need to be addressed at various stages health and well-being; share your knowledge with your patient.
across the life span. Risk assessments are identified for particular age-
groups, diseases, and health promotion (Box 1-1). Nurses should be famil-
iar with the objectives and goals to integrate these into each patient’s
plan of care.
(HHS, 2010)
HEALTH ASSESSMENT
Health assessment means assessing the whole patient. This includes: □ physical health
■ a method to establish a baseline health history by collecting pertinent □ behavioral aspects of health
patient health status data □ spirituality
■ an organized, systematic, ongoing process of collecting, validating, □ social factors
and clustering data □ economic-political aspects of health
■ collecting different types of data about the individual’s past and □ cultural variations
present health □ life span and developmental considerations
■ assessing factors influencing health and well-being, including (see ■ Performing a physical examination.
Fig. 1-1)
THE NURSING PROCESS
The American Nurses’ Association (ANA) has identified the nurs- potential health risks or problems; the nurse uses clinical judgement
ing process to be the essential core of practice for the RN to deliver and critical thinking to analyze all the information about the
holistic, patient-focused care (ANA, 2017). The nursing process is a sys- individual, synthesize and cluster the information, and hypothesize
tematic, problem-solving process that assists the nurse in organizing the about the individual’s health status (Wilkinson et al., 2015).
assessment to identify information about an individual’s health and risk 3. Planning/Outcomes involves working with the individual as a
factors and develop a plan of care. This essential process collects informa- copartner in care to meet the needs or short- and long-term goals of
tion about the health status of the individual. the individual. The goals must be measurable and achievable.
■ TIP Assessing a patient is always a priority role of the RN; this is a role 4. Implementation of interventions includes the nursing and individual
that should never be delegated to the licensed practical nurse or unli- actions and plan of care to meet the individual’s goals.
censed assistive personnel. 5. Evaluation is the ongoing process that assesses whether the short-
The five steps of the nursing process are as follows: and long-term goals have been met; this phase of the nursing process
1. Assessment is the first, essential step requiring the nurse to collect and involves clinical judgment about whether the goals have been met or
analyze information about the whole individual. This information are unmet.
includes physiological, psychological, psychosocial, spiritual, and ■ TIP The nursing process should include the individual, significant
cultural practices and beliefs. others, and the healthcare providers caring for the individual.
2. Diagnosis involves analyzing a potential or actual health problem
with a patient. Nursing diagnosis reflects the individual’s actual or
COGNITIVE SKILLS
Critical Thinking ■ a combination of reasoned thinking, openness to alternatives, an
Critical thinking is essential during the assessment process. Performing ability to reflect, and a desire to seek truth (Wilkinson et al., 2015)
an assessment requires the nurse to be able to think, recall knowledge, ■ a process of purposeful and creative thinking about resolving problems
and recognize the difference or deviations between normal and abnormal ■ a multidimensional thinking process
assessment findings. Critical thinking is an active, purposeful, and orga- ■ reflective thinking
nized cognitive process involving creativity, reflection, problem solving, ■ thinking “outside of the box”
both rational and intuitive judgment, an attitude of inquiry, and a philo- ■ questioning, interpreting information, and analyzing the situation and
sophical orientation toward thinking about how a nurse thinks (Dossey then synthesizing the information
& Keegan, 2013). Critical thinking is a unique problem-solving, reflective ■ development of alternative solutions to a problem.
process that uses (Fig. 1-2):
sm
al
en
t
appropriate plan of care.
Refle zin
g ■ Clinical judgment is defined as “an interpretation or conclusion about
& de cting aly ns
cidin An ptio a patient’s needs, concerns, or health problems and/or the decision to
g u m
ass
take action (or not), use or modify standard approaches, or improvise
Implement
nosis
2006).
ag
ati
Di
Intuitive Thinking
on
Patient care assessment involves evaluation of data not only from a ratio-
s
Ex ern
nal, analytic, and verbal mode but also from an intuitive, nonverbal mode.
ce
al
Planning
pl ati
t
le ng
ur
or ve
so
Dr. Patricia Benner, a nursing theorist, introduced the concept that expert
ib si
in s
ed U
nurses develop skills and understanding of patient care over time through
cr
PSYCHOMOTOR SKILLS
Assessment is a “doing” process. The four techniques of physical assess- 3. Palpation, using your hands to feel surface characteristics
ment are: 4. Auscultation, listening for sounds
1. Inspection, looking These four techniques will be discussed thoroughly in Chapter 5.
2. Percussion, tapping different areas of the body to assess underlying
structures.
COMMUNICATION SKILLS
■ Health assessment requires essential therapeutic communication skills ■Interpersonal communication skills and the ability of the nurse to
to obtain information about the individual. communicate with patients, family members, and the interdisciplinary
■ The purpose of communication is to exchange information about the healthcare team are essential in health assessment.
patient’s health and well-being (Fleischer et al., 2009). Communication and interviewing techniques will be discussed more in
■ Communication facilitates a patient-centered relationship. Chapter 2.
INTRODUCTION
Interviewing and obtaining the health history are the key components of a dependent role. The exchange of information, feelings, and concerns
to obtain baseline information about a patient. As early as 1953, Hilde- takes place during the assessment process. The nurse should be sensitive,
gard Peplau, a nursing theorist, emphasized the nurse-patient relation- nonjudgmental and genuine and demonstrate professionalism.
ship as the foundation of nursing practice. Nurses interview patients in SENC Patient-Centered Care Privacy and confidentiality must be
many different environments, including hospitals, long-term care settings, maintained and respected during the entire patient encounter. In
homes, clinics, and community centers. Communication and interviewing April 2003, the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act
techniques are acquired skills (Varcarolis, 2011) and should be practiced. (HIPAA) federally regulated and created a law to maintain confiden-
The process begins a therapeutic partnership between the nurse and the tiality for all personal health information (U.S. Department of Health
patient. During an interview, the nurse initiates the nurse-patient rela- and Human Services, 2003).
tionship and the patient relinquishes his or her independent role to that
THERAPEUTIC COMMUNICATION
Interviewing a patient requires therapeutic communication skills. Com- focus the direction of the interview to make sure all vital information is
munication is a complex process that is influenced by a variety of personal, obtained and a clear understanding of the patient’s concerns is acquired.
environmental, cultural, and social factors. It is the act of transmitting Therapeutic communication encompasses the following dimensions for a
information effectively and a process of creating shared understanding patient-centered assessment:
(Barker, 2013). Nurses need to offer their presence, mutual respect, caring, ■ Empathy and compassion are a deep awareness of and insight into
and understanding during every patient encounter. As a healthcare pro- the feelings, emotions, and behavior of another person and their
vider, the nurse recognizes that each patient is unique and has feelings meaning and significance (Venes, 2013), and identifies a patient’s
and beliefs. feelings and concerns.
Nurses are responsible for gathering vital health and personal informa- ■ Unconditional regard means respecting and accepting a patient as a
tion about the patient. During the patient encounter, the nurse needs to unique individual.
From L. Thornton, Creating a Healing Environment. Course I: The Model of Whole-Person Caring (Fresno, CA: self-published, 2010): 68, with permission.
PREPARATION
The nurse should prepare and plan for the interview. Preparation is key ■ Sit or stand at the same level as the patient so the patient does not
to being organized and ready to speak with the patient. Some pointers to have to look up or down at you.
prepare for the interview include the following: ■ Always introduce yourself to the patient and tell the patient
■ Reading the patient’s record before seeing the patient will help you to approximately how long the interview should take.
prepare. ■ Reassure the patient that the health history is confidential.
■ The patient should stay dressed until you are ready to perform the ■ Encourage the patient to ask questions and to let you know if she or
actual physical assessment. he ever feels uncomfortable.
■ Arrange for the interview to take place in a private environment that SENC Patient-Centered Care Be sure to consider the developmen-
is free from distractions and noise, has good lighting, and has a tal level of the patient. It is important to use words that the patient
comfortable temperature. will understand and avoid medical terminology.
■ Allow sufficient time to complete the interview and health history.
Have a clock available to keep track of time but only glance
occasionally at the clock.
■ Never appear rushed during the interview. It is essential to allow
sufficient time to interview, obtain a health history, and assess the
patient.
COMMUNICATION SKILLS
Effective and good communication skills are important in health assess- ■ share patient concerns
ment and essential to gathering information for a health history. Nurses ■ exchange knowledge.
must use professional etiquette during a nurse-patient interaction. Thera-
peutic communication is an active process that includes empathy and Nonverbal Communication
active listening while maintaining objectivity and professional boundaries Nonverbal communication is communication without the use of spoken
(Patel & Jakopac, 2012). The purpose of communication is to: language. Nonverbal communication includes gestures, facial expressions,
■ share content: the actual subject matter, words, gestures, and and body positions (known collectively as “body language”) as well as
substance of the message (Wilkinson et al., 2015) unspoken understandings and presuppositions, and cultural and environ-
■ share and exchange thoughts, perceptions, and feelings mental conditions that may affect any encounter between people (Ameri-
■ send, receive, and gather data can Heritage New Dictionary of Cultural Literacy, 2014). Patients
communicate in different ways. While verbal and written communication ■ facial grimacing
skills are important, research has shown that nonverbal behaviors make ■ tone of voice
up a large percentage of our daily interpersonal communication (Cherry, ■ nonverbal sounds such as crying and moaning.
n.d.). Communication is said to be 10 percent to 20 percent verbal and ■ TIP Remember that both you and the patient convey nonverbal body
80 percent to 90 percent nonverbal (Varcarolis, 2011). The following are language. During the interview, health history, and assessment be
nonverbal visual cues to be aware of during an interview: mindful of your body language.
■ physical appearance CULTURAL CONSIDERATIONS Russians do not appreciate gestures such
■ body language as standing with hands inserted in pockets, arms crossed over chest, or
■ facial expression slouching postures when being interviewed. Until trust is established, many
■ eye contact Russians are aloof when speaking with healthcare providers (Purnell, 2014).
■ gestures
COMMUNICATION TECHNIQUES
Effective Communication
Therapeutic communication will facilitate a therapeutic exchange between ■ Avoid medical terminology that may not be understood.
a patient and a nurse. Nurses must develop and refine communication ■ Keep your questions simple for clear understanding.
skills to assess patients. While assessing patients, nurses need to be open ■ Ask one question at a time, and wait for the patient to
to receive information in a nonjudgmental way. There are some helpful respond.
strategies that may be able to assist you to elicit or clarify information ■ Listen attentively and maintain eye contact (if culturally
throughout the interview. appropriate).
SENC Patient-Centered Care Some experiences may be difficult or ■ Do not interrupt the patient while he or she is talking.
painful for a patient to discuss. Ask permission to ask sensitive ■ Avoid taking excessive notes during the interview.
questions. ■ Display nonverbal body language that says you are interested in
hearing the patient’s story (be cognizant of your posture, maintaining
Effective communication includes the following:
eye contact, and hand gestures).
■ Be clear, concise, and honest in your communication.
■ Always ask permission before touching a patient; take into account
■ Be sure that you have a shared understanding of the patient’s report,
cultural considerations.
problems, and concerns.
Some effective communication techniques include: since your husband has been in jail. You are showing great strength in
■ Active listening: Pay close attention to the patient’s report and continuing to care for your children.”
nonverbal cues; maintain good eye contact and express a willingness ■ Exploring: Encourage the patient to give you more details. An
to listen. example is, “Tell me more about the pain in your back.”
■ Active observing: Concentrate on what you hear and see during the ■ Facilitation: Use simple verbal statements or words to encourage the
interview. patient to continue to tell the story. Use statements like “uh-huh,”
■ TIP Nurses should document what they see or observe during the “Mm” or “And then?”
interview such as the patient crying during the interview while discuss- ■ Focusing: Ask specific questions to collect and clarify data that the
ing the recent loss of a spouse. patient may not be stating during the interview. An example of a
■ Broad opening questions: Will allow the patient to report more focused question is, “How many stairs can you climb before you feel
spontaneous information and tell you their story. An example is, short of breath?”
“What can I do for you today?” ■ Reflecting/Stating the Observed: Repeat the patient’s words
■ Clarification: Obtain clarification if the patient does not clearly specifically to encourage elaboration of the patient’s self-report;
express the problem or issue and you are confused about what the this encourages more discussion. An example of reflection is
patient is saying to you. An example is, “I did not understand what Patient: “I cannot believe that I did not go for my mammogram and
you meant when you said the rash comes and goes. Can you explain now I may have breast cancer.”
what ‘comes and goes’ means?” Nurse: “You sound upset. Are you angry that you did not go for your
■ Confrontation: Give the patient honest and respectful feedback mammogram?”
about what you see or hear that is inconsistent with what the patient ■ Transitional statements: Use transitional statements to help redirect
is telling you. An example of this is, “You told me that you do not the interview to another significant area. An example of a transitional
have a drinking problem but you stated that you were arrested for statement is, “Now, I would like to discuss your family history.”
drinking under the influence 3 months ago? Can we talk about how ■ Silence: Refrain from speaking; planned absence of verbal remarks
much alcohol you drink on a daily basis?” allows the patient and the nurse to think over or feel what is being
SENC Patient-Centered Care Never sound angry or judgmental discussed. If silence does not prompt a response within 5 to 10
when confronting a patient; be cognizant of your tone of voice and seconds, the interviewer should try another skill as prolonged silence
nonverbal body language. may make the patient feel uncomfortable (Fortin, Dwamena, &
■ Empathy: Identify, understand, share, and accept the patient’s Smith, 2012). An example of a question you might ask is, “You
feelings. Empathy is caring about and for the patient as you are appear to be quiet. Is there anything you would like to talk about?”
■ Summarizing: State a brief summary at the end of the interview;
speaking together. An example of an empathetic response is, “I am
sorry to hear that you have been in pain for this long. How has the this allows for clarification and accurate data of the patient’s history
pain affected your daily life?” or problem. An example of initiating a summary is “Let me
■ Respect: Be respectful of what the patient is saying and feeling. An
summarize the important points.”
example of being respectful is, “This has been a difficult time for you
Barriers to Therapeutic Communication ■ Giving opinions: Do not give your own opinions. If the patient asks,
Communication is a reciprocal conversation. As healthcare providers, we “What should I do?” help to clarify the options, and provide
must be aware of the barriers of communication. The following tech- information about the choices the patient has and refer the patient to
niques should not be used during a patient-centered interview. talk with the healthcare provider.
■ Leading the patient: Do not lead the patient; patients tell you what ■ Stereotyping: Be objective during the assessment; every patient is
they want you to hear and may not always be truthful in their unique and should be respected regardless of race, religion, gender,
self-report. For example, “Do you think that because your mother sexual preference, or age.
died of cancer you may also have cancer?” ■ Using patronizing language: Patronizing language communicates
■ Asking too many questions: Only ask one question at a time for superiority or disproval. Statements such as, “you know better than
clarity and to disallow misunderstanding. that” is condescending. “Elder speak” such as “Dearie” or “Sweetie”
■ Not allowing enough response time: Give the patient enough time describes ways that healthcare providers may unintentionally show
to think through the answer. disrespect to older adults (Wilkinson et al., 2015).
■ Using medical jargon: Use lay terms so the patient can understand
you. Special-Needs Patients
■ Assuming what the patient is saying: Never assume what the patient Communication depends on the ability to hear, speak, and understand.
is saying; this leads to misinterpretations. If you are unsure, ask the There are patients with sensory and neurological deficits who require
patient to clarify or give more information. special considerations.
■ Taking the patient’s responses personally: Realize that the patient
Hearing-Impaired Patients
may be inappropriately displacing feelings or frustrations.
Hearing loss is a common human sensory deficit affecting the patient’s
■ Using clichés: Clichés (e.g., “you will feel better in the morning”)
ability to communicate.
show disregard for the patient’s feelings. This is giving false
■ Make sure the patient’s hearing aid(s) is turned on and the batteries
reassurance. If you are unsure of an answer, tell the patient that you
are working.
will try to find the answer.
■ Reduce background noise in the room.
■ Specifically asking “why” questions: A patient may feel offended
■ Face the patient and speak slowly and clearly; use short and simple
and feel like you are criticizing; a subtle approach is usually more
sentences.
comfortable (Wilkinson et al., 2015).
■ If the individual cannot hear, try to use written communication such
■ Offering false reassurance: Never tell the patient that everything
as a whiteboard or paper and pencil if the patient can read and/or
will be fine when it may not be.
write.
■ Changing the subject inappropriately: Sometimes nurses change the
■ Confirm that the patient hears and understands.
subject abruptly when the interview is uncomfortable; this is not
■ Allow for extra time and do not rush the assessment.
helpful for the patient.
■ Never shout at the patient.
A. NATURNÄHE.
Naturalismus.
Wir empfehlen dem Leser, sich für die vorerst folgende Gruppe
von Bildbeispielen, für die „naturalistischen“ Kunstwerke, seinen
„naiven Realismus“ nicht nehmen zu lassen. Wir wissen, daß es
heute noch nicht wieder allgemein als angängig gilt, sei es das
„wirkliche Vorhandensein“ der „Objekte“ dieser Welt zu behaupten,
sei es schon gar, deren „naturalistische Kopie“ für ein „Kunstwerk“ zu
erklären. Doch wir stehen gegenüber den zwei wesentlichen
Einwürfen, die diesen beiden Behauptungen stets gemacht werden,
auf dem Standpunkte, daß erstens jene Lehre, die alle Dinge und
Vorgänge dieser Welt für bloße „Vorstellungen“ von uns erklärt,
entweder tautologisch-überflüssig oder metaphysisch-unbeweisbar,
in beiden Fällen aber jedenfalls durchaus und völlig entbehrlich ist;
und wir sind zweitens der Meinung, daß der andere Einwurf, der das
„rein naturalistische“ Kunstwerk negiert, indem er sein Wesentliches
in jenen individuellen Klein-Veränderungen sehen will, die die
„persönliche Handschrift“ des Künstlers ausmachen, am Kerne des
Problems, nämlich an der Frage nach dem Wesen der s e e l i s c h e n
E i n s t e l l u n g des Künstlers, völlig vorbeigeht.
Man erprobe also vorerst an Hand der Beispiele, ob die im ersten
Teile gegebene „Theorie“ — die erst nach vielfachen Erlebnissen
von Kunstwerken, also „a posteriori“ aufgestellt worden ist — nicht
nur ein in sich widerspruchsloses System darstellt, sondern auch die
einzelnen Begriffskomplexe den Tatsachen der Kunsterfahrung
eindeutig zuordnet. Daß das System „geschlossen“ ist, also in sich
keinen Widerspruch aufweist, zeigten die Ausführungen des
theoretischen Teiles, sowie die an seinem Schlusse gebrachte
„Tabelle“ der möglichen Kunstformen; ob es dann aber auch den
Tatsachen des Kunstgebietes genügend und eindeutig angepaßt ist,
kann nur die Nachprüfung an Hand einer größeren Anzahl von
Beispielen erweisen. —
Die vier Handzeichnungen Albrecht Dürers geben Abb. 1.
in raschen Strichen die Gestalten von vier Tieren. Man
wird vielleicht sagen wollen, daß das „Künstlerische“ dieser vier
Skizzen darin beruhe, daß Dürer hier „das Wesentliche“ gebracht,
und „das Unwesentliche“ weggelassen habe. Diese weltläufige
Behauptung ist in mehrfacher Beziehung nicht aufrecht zu halten,
das heißt: den Tatsachen der Erfahrung nicht genügend angepaßt.
Denn einerseits werden wir gleich in der Folge naturalistische
Beispiele kennen lernen, in denen derselbe Dürer bis auf das
kleinste noch sichtbar-erfahrbare Element ins Detail geht: also auch
alles „Unwesentliche“ bringt, und dennoch ein Kunstwerk schafft;
und andererseits ist der Begriff des „Wesentlichen“ deshalb in
diesem allgemeinen Sinne unbrauchbar, weil auch er nichts
„Absolutes“ ist, sondern sich, in durchaus relativer Weise, in seinem
Bedeutungs-Inhalt stets danach richtet, von welchem Standpunkte
aus und mit welchen Zielen man eine Sache betrachtet. Für einen
Tiger ist bei „der Ziege“ etwas ganz anderes „wesentlich“, als für das
Ziegenlamm oder für eine Fliege; für den Viehzüchter etwas anderes
als für den Wollhändler; für den Plastiker etwas anderes als für den
Dichter oder den Philosophen; für den Maler etwas anderes, je
nachdem er sich für die Farbe oder für die Form, für den Kontur oder
für die Valeur interessiert, oder je nachdem, in welcher weiteren
Stilphase und in welchem engeren Charakterkomplexe er eben
zufällig steht.
Lassen wir also alle diese Pseudo-Probleme beiseite und fragen
die Gestaltungen einfach danach: ob es uns möglich ist, sie auf eine
seelische Verhaltungsweise z u r ü c k zubeziehen, aus der heraus sie
mit Wahrscheinlichkeit entstanden sind.
Denn der wirkliche Vorgang ist doch offenbar folgender. Der
Künstler sieht ein Objekt und kommt auf Grund dieses Erlebnisses in
eine bestimmte seelische Verhaltungsweise. Aus dieser
Bewußtseinslage heraus gestaltet er ein Kunstwerk. — Der
Aufnehmende sieht dann dieses Kunstwerk. Er kann den Künstler,
der nicht neben seinem Werke bleibt, nicht direkt fragen: aus
welcher Bewußtseinslage hast du dies Bild erstellt? — Doch er kann
etwas anderes tun: er kann das Werk selbst erleben, und sich durch
das möglichst restlose Aufnehmen seiner Gegebenheiten in jene
Bewußtseinslage tragen lassen, die der äußeren Bildformung
innerseelisch entspricht. Da sich nun die Menschen des gleichen
Kulturkreises und nicht zu weit auseinanderliegender Zeitperioden
im Wesentlichen ihrer seelischen Reaktionen gleichen: wird sich im
Bewußtsein des Erlebenden auf Grund der Kunstwerk-
Gegebenheiten eine Gefühls-Verfassung herstellen, die jener in
ziemlich weitem Ausmaße ähnlich ist, ja ihr bei einiger Übung bis zu
einem sehr hohen Grade entspricht, aus der heraus der Künstler
sein Werk gestaltet hat. Hat sich nun diese Gefühlslage im
Bewußtsein des Erlebenden eingestellt, so hat er das Werk
„verstanden“.
Es wird sich also in allen folgenden Analysen ausschließlich
darum handeln: vorerst durch Erleben des Bildkomplexes dessen
farblichen, lichtlichen und inhaltlich-formalen Gegebenheiten
gefühls-vermittelnd in sich wirksam zu machen, also durch ihre
Rückbeziehung auf die Seelenlage des Künstlers eben diese
Bewußtseinsverfassung des Kunstwerk-Gestalters in sich
herzustellen; um dann zu versuchen, diese Seelenlage mit
entsprechenden Worten analysierend zu beschreiben.
Da zeigt es sich nun, daß Dürers Interesse bei diesen vier
Tierfiguren auf ihren „wirklichen“ Stellungs- und Bewegungs-Habitus
eingestellt war. Beim Löwen, den er nicht so gut „kannte“, bei dem
ihm also reichere Beobachtungen des Wirklichen fehlten, gelang es
ihm keineswegs, dieses ihm „Wesentliche“ einer Löwen-Haltung und
des Löwen-Schrittes zu geben. Beim Hund trifft er die Haltung schon
besser; am besten aber den spitzen Tritt der Ziege und das platte
Liegen des Frosches. Kein naiver und noch „ästhetisch
unverdorbener“ Beschauer wird in diesen Zeichnungen etwas
anderes als Studien des „wirklich-Lebendigen“ erleben können.
Der Tendenz nach gleich, doch weitaus intensiver Abb. 2.
in der Annäherung an die Natur stellen der
Abb. 3.
„Hirschkäfer“ und der „Feldhase“ das gleiche
„Problem“. Wir würden die Behauptung wagen, daß kein Mensch,
und wäre er der erfahrenste Kunst-Historiker, im W e s e n t l i c h e n
dieser beiden Natur-Studien die „individuelle Seele“ gerade Dürers
erkennen könnte, wenn er nicht bereits wüßte, daß die Zeichnungen
von Dürer sind. Nicht daß man nicht in Details, im graphologischen
Duktus kleinster Linien und Kurven die „Handschrift“ Dürers
nachzuweisen vermöchte. Doch eben nur in minder wesentlichen
Details. Denn die Grund-Einstellung des Bewußtseins, die Te n d e n z
des Schaffens ist so klar und eindeutig auf die Wieder-Gabe eines
eben jetzt „objektiv“ Gesehenen gerichtet, daß eben mit dieser
Einstellung fast alles in den Darstellungen Natur-Kopie wird, und fast
kein Raum mehr für persönliche „Veränderung“ dieses objektiv-
Gesehenen übrig bleibt. Man muß dabei auch noch bedenken, daß
auch „die Natur“ nicht für alle Menschen die gleiche ist; sondern daß
jeder Mensch in kleinen Abweichungen seine „besondere“ Natur
sieht oder hört. Definieren wir aber die „Wirklichkeit“ als Das, was
der Einzelne bei immer wiederholter Erfahrung, also im Sehbereich
bei immer wiederholter Betrachtung auch immer wieder erfährt und
vorfindet: so kann doch wirklich kein Zweifel sein, daß dieser
Hirschkäfer und dieser Feldhase für Dürer i m W e s e n t l i c h e n des
Schaffensprozesses reine „Wiederholungen“ des Objektes, reine
Natur-Kopien waren.
Dürer hat dabei einen außerordentlich scharfen Abb. 2.
Blick für die Objekte und eine unerhörte Sicherheit,
dieses Gesehene, zuweilen bis zur fast völligen Vor-Täuschung des
Dreidimensionalen, in der Zeichnung auch wiederzugeben. Wie
dieser Hirschkäfer seine Beine setzt, wie er das letzte Fußglied leise
tappend und tastend an den Boden legt, wie die lichten Schatten
zusammenlaufen; wie dann das Gefühl des leise Komischen
lebendig wird, das diese Käferbildung dadurch hat, daß sie, mit
ungeheuren Greifzangen bewehrt, dennoch so gänzlich wehrlos ist:
all das ist aus unmittelbarem Wirklichkeits-Erleben unmittelbar in die
Zeichnung übertragen.
Noch drastischer, noch unmittelbarer, noch Abb. 3.
„wirklicher“ ist diese packende physiologische
Lebendigkeit beim Feldhasen erreicht. Was an drollig-purzeligem,
körperlich-weichlebendigem Sein in einem solchen jungen Tiere drin
ist, was das durch die breit aufliegenden Hinterbeine getragene,
sprungbereite Hocken, das weichwollige Fell, die Schnuppernase mit
den langen Haarborsten, die komisch langen Ohrlöffel an
„Gefühlsvermittlung“ in der Wirklichkeit, beim lebendigen Urbild,
brachten, das ist diesem Abbilde im Wesentlichen als
Gefühlsbegleitung geblieben; und zwar dadurch, daß die „Gefühls-
Träger“, die Farben, Lichter und Formen möglichst so
wiedergegeben sind, wie sie sich bei der Beobachtung der Natur
boten. Bei diesem Bilde sich an „Dürer“, und nicht am „Hasen“
freuen zu wollen, wäre wirklich völlige Verzerrung jedes gesunden,
unmittelbar lebendigen Gefühls-Erlebens.
Was nun einem Hasen recht ist, muß auch einem Menschen billig
bleiben.
Leibl hat die Identität von Form und Inhalt im naturalistischen
Bereiche wie selten Einer erfühlt und in seine Bilder gebracht. Er hat
die restlose Einstellung auf das Objekt mit innigster Hingabe gepflegt
und damit Gestaltungen geschaffen, die allen Saft und alle Fülle, das
berauschend Intensive, die Dichtigkeit der Struktur bis ins
Molekulare hinein, das unmittelbar Pulsierende reinster Lebendigkeit
bewahren. So wird er ein Meister und ein Muster für jene
Einstellung, die so malen will, „wie A l l e es sehen“; die das Auge in
immer wiederholter Dauerbetrachtung zum Objekt wendet, um auch
nicht im Kleinsten Anderes zu geben, als dieses vor-zeigt. Er wollte,
wie er selbst sagte, „nicht schön sehen, sondern gut sehen“, er
wollte „d i e Natur, nicht s e i n e Natur“ geben.
So ist es etwa bei den „Drei Bäuerinnen in der Abb. 4.
Kirche“. Drei Jahre lang, von 1868 bis 1870, täglich
mehrere Stunden, und immer vor den Modellen, und immer in der
Kirche, hat Leibl an diesem Bilde gesessen. Alles ist von Einer Ecke