Solution Manual for Discovering the

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Module 3.1

Physical Development in Infancy

Learning Objectives
After reading Module 2.1, students will know

• how the human body and nervous system develop.

• how the environment affects the pattern of development.

• what developmental tasks infants must accomplish in this period.

• what the role of nutrition is in physical development.

• what sensory capabilities infants possess.

Key Terms and Concepts
Affordances Norms Rhythms
Brazelton Neonatal Perception Sensation
Behavioral Assessment Scale Plasticity Sensitive period
(NBAS) Principle of hierarchical State
Cephalocaudal principle integration Sudden infant death
Cerebral cortex Principle of the independence syndrome (SIDS)
Multimodal approach to of systems Synapse
perception Proximodistal principle Synaptic pruning
Myelin Rapid eye movement (REM)
Neuron sleep
Nonorganic failure to thrive Reflexes

Module Outline
I. Growth and Stability
A. Physical Growth: The Rapid Advances of Infancy
1. By age 5 months, the average infant's birthweight has doubled to about 15 pounds.
2. By age 1, the infant’s birthweight has tripled to approximately 22 pounds.

70
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.
 3. By the end of its second year, the average child weighs four times its birthweight.
4. By age 1, the average baby stands 30 inches tall.
5. By the end of the second year, the average child is 3 feet tall.
6. Not all parts of the body grow at the same rate.
7. The CEPHALOCAUDAL PRINCIPLE states that growth follows a pattern
that begins with the head and upper body parts and then proceeds to the rest
of the body.
8. The PROXIMODISTAL PRINCIPLE states that development proceeds from
the center of the body outward.
9. The PRINCIPLE OF HIERARCHICAL INTEGRATION states that simple
skills typically develop separately and independently but are later integrated
into more complex skills.
10. The PRINCIPLE OF INDEPENDENCE OF SYSTEMS suggests that
different body systems grow at different rates.
B. The Nervous System and Brain: The Foundations of Development
1. The nervous system comprises the brain and the nerves that extend throughout
the body.
2. Infants are born with between 100 and 200 billion NEURONS, the nerve cells of
the nervous system.
a) Neurons communicate with other neurons by means of chemical transmitters
that travel across the small gaps between neurons, known as synapses.
3. As the infant's experience in the world increases, neurons that do not become
interconnected become unnecessary and die off – a process called SYNAPTIC
PRUNING.
4. Neurons increase in size.
a) Neurons become coated with MYELIN, a fatty substance that helps
insulate neurons and speeds transmission of nerve impulses.
b) The brain triples its weight in the first 2 years of life.
c) The infant's brain is 3/4 its adult size by age 2.
5. As they grow, neurons become arranged by function.
a) Some move into the CEREBRAL CORTEX, the upper layer of the brain.
b) Others move to subcortical levels, which regulate fundamental activites
such as breathing and heart rate and are below the cerebral cortex.
6. PLASTICITY is the degree to which a developing structure (e.g., the brain) or
behavior is susceptible to experience and is relatively great for the brain.
a) Infants who grow up in severely restricted environments are likely to
show differences in brain structure and weight.
b) Research with nonhumans reveals that a SENSITIVE PERIOD exists, which is
a specific but limited time span, usually early in an organism's life, during
which the organism is particularly susceptible to environmental influences
relating to some particular facet of development.
C. Integrating the Bodily Systems: The Life Cycles of Infancy
1. Behavior becomes integrated through the development of various body
RHYTHMS, which are repetitive, cyclical patterns of behavior.
2. An infant's STATE is the degree of awareness it displays to both internal
and external stimulation
a) Although irregular in infant brain waves become regular by age 3.
3. Changes are reflected in brain waves measured by a device called an EEG,
or electroencephalogram.
4. The major state occupying the infant is sleep.

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Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.
 a) On average, newborns sleep 16-17 hours daily, ranging from 10 to 20 hours
a day.
b) Sleep stages are fitful and "out of sync" during early infancy.
c) By the end of the first year most infants are sleeping through the night for
a total of about 15 hours.
d) Infants have a cycle of sleep similar to but different than REM —
RAPID EYE MOVEMENT, the period of sleep found in adults and
children and associated with dreaming.
(1) Brain waves are different than the dreaming sleep of adults.
(2) This active REM-like sleep takes up half an infant’s sleep at first.
(3) Researchers think the function of REM sleep in infants is to provide
a means for the brain to stimulate itself – a process called
autostimulation.
(4) Cultural practices affect the sleep patterns of infants.
e) SUDDEN INFANT DEATH SYNDROME (SIDS) is a disorder in
which seemingly healthy infants die in their sleep.
(1) It affects 1 in 1,000 infants in the U.S. annually.
(2) No cause has been found.
(3) It is the leading cause of death in children under 1 year old.
(4) Since “back-to-sleep” was recommended by the American
Academy of Pediatrics there has been a significant decrease in
the number of SIDS deaths.

II. Motor Development

A. Reflexes: Our Inborn Physical Skills

1. Basic REFLEXES, unlearned, organized, involuntary responses that occur
automatically in the presence of certain stimuli, represent behavior that
has survival value for the infant.
a) Swimming reflex
b) Eye blink reflex
c) Some reflexes stay throughout life; others disappear over time.
d) Some researchers believe reflexes stimulate the brain toward development.
e) Reflexes can serve as helpful diagnostic tools for pediatricians because
they appear and disappear on a regular timetable.
f) Reflexes are genetically determined and universal and may be remnants
from the past.
g) Reflexes evolved because they had, at one point in humankind’s
history, survival value.
h) There appears to be cultural variations in the way reflexes are displayed.
B. Motor Development in Infancy: Landmarks of Physical Achievement
1. Gross Motor Skills
a) By 6 months infants can move by themselves.
b) Crawling appears between 8 and 10 months.
c) Infants can walk holding on to furniture by 9 months and most can walk
alone by 1 year.
d) Most can sit unsupported by 6 months.
2. Fine Motor Skills
a) By 3 months infants can coordinate movements of limbs.
b) Infants can grasp an object by 11 months.
c) By age 2, infants can drink from a cup without spilling.
d) Motor skill development follows a sequential pattern in
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Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.
 which simple skills are combined with more sophisticated ones.
3. It is important to keep in mind that developmental NORMS are the
average performance of a large sample of individuals of a certain age
and mask substantial individual differences.
a) BRAZELTON NEONATAL BEHAVIORAL ASSESSMENT SCALE
(NBAS) is a measure used to determine infants' neurological
and behavioral responses to their environment.
(1) Supplements the Apgar
(2) It includes 27 categories of responses
(a) Interactions with others
(b) Motor behavior
(c) Physiological control
(d) Response to stress
b) Norms should be based on large, heterogeneous samples.
c) The time at which specific motor skills appear is in part determined
by cultural factors.
d) There are certain genetic constraints on how early a skill can emerge.
C. Cultural Dimensions: The Cultural Dimensions of Motor Development
1. The time at which specific motor skills appear is in part determined by
cultural factors.
2. Activities that are intrinsic to a culture are more apt to be purposely taught to
infants in that culture, leading to their earlier emergence.
3. However, there are certain genetically determined constraints on how early a skill
can emerge.
D. Nutrition in Infancy: Fueling Motor Development
1. Without proper nutrition, infants cannot reach their physical potential and also
may suffer cognitive and social consequences.
2. Malnutrition, the condition of having an improper amount and balance of
nutrients, produces several results.
a) Slower growth
b) Susceptibility to disease
c) Lower IQ scores
3. Risks are greater in underdeveloped countries and in areas with high poverty rates.
4. Malnutrition can cause MARASMUS, a disease characterized by the cessation
of growth in infants.
5. Older children are susceptible to KWASHIORKOR, a disease in which a
child's stomach, limbs, and face swell with water.
6. In some cases, NONORGANIC FAILURE TO THRIVE is a disorder in
which infants stop growing due to a lack of stimulation and attention as the
result of inadequate parenting.
7. Infant OBESITY
a) defined as weight greater than 20 % above the average for a given height b)
Research, although inconclusive, suggests an excess of fat cells (which remain
in the body throughout life) early on may predispose an individual to be
overweight as an adult.
8. There appears to be no correlation between obesity, defined as weight greater than
20 % above the average for a given height, and later weight at
age 16.
E. Breast or Bottle?
1. For the first 12 months of life there is no better food for an infant than breast milk.

73
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.
 a) All essential nutrients
b) Natural immunity to childhood diseases
c) More easily digested
d) It is sterile, warm, and convenient for mother to dispense.
e) Some evidence it may enhance cognitive growth
F. Introducing Solid Foods: When and What?
1. Most babies can begin to eat solid foods at about 4 to 6 months.
a) Foods are introduced gradually.
b) Weaning, the cessation of breastfeeding, occurs on average in the U.S. at 3
to 4 months.
c) Experts recommend infants be breastfed for the first 12 months of life.
III. Development of the Senses
A. SENSATION is the stimulation of the sense organs.
B. PERCEPTION is the sorting out, interpretation, analysis, and integration of
stimuli involving the sense organs and brain.
C. Visual Perception: Seeing the World
1. Newborn infants cannot see beyond 20 feet.
2. By 6 months, the average infant's vision is 20/20.
a) Gibson and Walk’s "visual cliff" experiments showed that most infants
between 6 and 14 months would not crawl over the apparent cliff.
b) This depth perception develops by 6 months of age.
3. Infants prefer to look at patterns and complex stimuli.
4. Infants prefer to look at faces.
D. Auditory Perception: The World of Sound
1. The ability to hear begins prenatally.
2. Infants are more sensitive than adults to high and low frequencies but not to
the middle ranges.
3. Sound localization permits infants to discern direction from which a sound
is emanating.
a) This skill is poorer in infants than adults because of infants' smaller heads.
b) It reaches adult level at 1 year.
E. Smell and Taste
1. Infants react to unpleasant tastes and smells from birth.
2. Newborns can detect their mother's smell, but only when breastfed.
3. Infants have an innate sweet tooth.
F. Sensitivity to Pain and Touch
1. Infants are born with the capacity to feel pain.
a) There seems to be a developmental progression in reactions to pain.
b) Research with rats suggests that exposure to pain in infancy may lead
to permanent rewiring of the nervous system that results in greater
sensitivity to pain during adulthood.
2. Touch is one of the most highly developed sensory systems in a newborn.
a) The rooting reflex is strong.
b) Infants gain information about the world through touch.
G. Multimodal Perception: Combining Individual Sensory Inputs
1. Eventually infants use the MULTIMODAL APPROACH TO PERCEPTION
in which information collected by various individual sensory systems is
integrated and coordinated.
2. Infant’s perceptual growth is aided by AFFORDANCES, the action possibilities
that a given situation provides.

74
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.
 75
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.
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 white onion, 125
Oxford brawn, 137
common oyster, 114
good oyster, 114
piquante, 118
common pudding, 402
delicious German pudding, 403
pine-apple pudding, 405
pine-apple syrup, 405
punch, for sweet puddings, 402
sweet pudding, 404
raspberry, 404
remoulade, 137
Robert, 118
shrimp, 115
common sorrel, 120
Soubise, 126
Soubise (French receipt), 126
Spanish, 100
sweet, for venison, 100
Tartar, 143
common tomata, 123
a finer tomata, 124
tournée, or thickened pale gravy, 105
excellent turnip, 127
very common white, 111
English white, 111
wine sauces, 402
French white, or béchamel, 107
vegetable marrow, fine, 127
velouté (obs.), 107
Sauces, to thicken, 105
green, for colouring, 129
Saucisses aux truffes, or truffled sausages 263
Saunders, 270
Sausage-meat, cake of, 261
in chicken-pie, 353
Kentish, 261
to make, 261, 262
pounded, very good, 262
boned turkey, filled with, 268
Sausages, boiled, 262
and chestnuts (an excellent dish), 262
common, 261
excellent, 262
truffled, 263
Sauté pan, for frying, 176
Savoury toasts, 390
Scientific roasting, 171
Scotch marmalade, 528
Scottish shortbread, excellent, 557
Sea-kale to boil, 316
stewed in gravy (entremets), 316
Sea-pheasant, or pintail, to roast, 294
Sefton, a, or veal custard, 362
Shad, Touraine fashion, 79
Shrimp sauce, 115
Shrimps, to boil, 93
boudinettes of, 92
potted, 306
to shell quickly and easily, 93
Sippets à la Reine, 5
fried, 4
Sirloin of beef, to roast, 184
Smelts to bake, 78
to fry, 77
Snipes to roast, 293
Snow-balls, orange, 420
apple, 421
Soles, baked, or au plat, 66
baked, a simple receipt, 66
to boil, 64
to choose, 48
fillets of, 65
to fry, 64
stewed in cream, 67
Solimemne, a, or rich French breakfast cake, 549
Soufflé, Louise Franks’ citron, 378
cheese, 379
Soufflé-pan, 377
Soufflés, remarks on, 377
Sounds, cods’, to boil, 63
to fry in batter, 63
Soup, apple, 21
artichoke, or Palestine, 19
good calf’s head, not expensive, 27
Buchanan carrot, 46
common carrot, 20
a finer carrot, 20
carrot, maigre, 45
chestnut, 19
cocoa-nut, 19
cucumber, 38
fish, cheap, 46
des Galles, 28
clear pale gravy, or consommé, 10
another gravy, 10
cheap clear gravy, 11
superlative hare, 32
a less expensive hare, 32
in haste, 43
à la Julienne, 38
Mademoiselle Jenny Lind’s (authentic receipt), 16
the Lord Mayor’s, 17
the Lord Mayor’s (author’s receipt for), 18
maccaroni, 13
milk, with vermicelli, 44
mock turtle, 25
old-fashioned mock turtle, 26
mullagatawny, 35
vegetable mullagatawny, 37
mutton stock for soups, 16
ox-tail, 42
white oyster, or oyster-soup à la Reine, 30
parsnep, 22
another parsnep, 22
partridge, 35
common peas, 41
peas, without meat, 42
rich peas, 41
cheap green peas, 40
an excellent green peas, 39
green peas, without meat, 39
pheasant, 33
another pheasant, 34
potage aux nouilles, or taillerine soup, 14
potage à la Reine, 29
potato, 21
rabbit, à la Reine, 31
brown rabbit, 31
rice, 14
cheap rice, 44
rice flour, 15
white rice, 15
sago, 14
sausage (Swedish receipt), 577
semola and soujee, 13
 semoulina, 12
semoulina (or soup à la Semoule), 12
a cheap and good stew, 43
spring, 38
taillerine, 14
tapioca, 14
economical turkey, 33
common turnip, 21
a quickly made turnip, 21
turtle, mock, 23
mock turtle, old-fashioned, 26
vermicelli (or potage au vermicelle), 12
stock for white, 15
Westerfield white, 22
a richer white, 23
Soups, directions to the cook for, 2
to fry bread to serve with, 5
ingredients used for making, 1
nouilles to serve in, 5
mutton stock for, 16
to thicken, 4
time required for boiling down, 4
vegetable vermicelli for, 5
Spanish sauce, or Espagnole, 100
sauce, with wine, 100
Spiced beef, 199
Spinach, à l’Anglaise, or English fashion, 317
common English modes of dressing, 317
French receipt for, 316
green, for colouring sweet dishes, &c., 455
dandelions dressed like, 318
Sprouts, &c., to boil, 332
Steaming, general directions for, 172
Stewed beef-steak, 189
 beef-steak, in its own gravy, 189
beet-root, 340
cabbage, 333
calf’s feet, 228
calf’s liver, 228
carp, 82
celery, 341
cod-fish, 62
cucumber, 323
eels, 84
figs, 492
fillet of mutton, 238
fruits (various), 456-459
hare, 286
lamb cutlets, 246
leg of lamb with white sauce, 243
loin of lamb in butter, 246
lettuces, 319
mackerel, in wine, 72
fillets of mackerel in wine (excellent), 72
mutton cutlets in their own gravy, 240
onions, 342
ox-tails, 195
ox, or beef tongue (Bordyke receipt), 203
oysters, 86
sea-kale in gravy, 316
soles in cream, 67
tomatas, 327
trout, 80
turnips in butter, 334
turnips in gravy, 335
knuckle of veal, with rice or green peas, 221
shoulder of veal, 219
shoulder of venison, 283
Stew, a good English, 191
a good family, 242
a German, 190
 an Irish, 242
baked Irish, 243
Spring stew of veal, 224
a Welsh, 191
Stew, to, shin of beef, 192
a rump of beef, 194
Stewing, general directions for, 173
Stewpan, copper, 181
Stock, clear pale, 11
for white soup, 13
mutton, for soups, 14
shin of beef for gravies, 97
pot, 169
Store sauces, 145-155
Strawberries, to preserve, for flavouring creams, &c., 506
Strawberry vinegar, 577
jam, 504
jelly, 505
isinglass jelly, 468
tartlets, 375
vinegar, of delicious flavour, 577
Stufato (a Neapolitan receipt), 615
Stuffing for geese and ducks, No. 9, 160
Cook’s stuffing for geese and ducks, 161
Suédoise, or apple hedgehog, 480
Suédoise of peaches, 488
Suet crust, for pies, superior, 348
common, 348
Sugar glazings, and icings, for fine pastry and cakes, 543
barley, 564
grains, to colour, for cakes, &c., 542
 to boil, from candy to caramel, 563
to clarify, 562
Swan’s egg, to boil, 448
forced, 447
en salade, 448
Sweetbreads, to dress, 227
à la Maître d’Hôtel, 227
cutlets, 227
small entrées of, 232
roasted, 215
Sweet, patties à la minute, 387
Syllabub, a birthday, 581
Syllabubs, superior whipped, 476
Syrup, fine currant, or sirop de groseilles, 579
Tamarinds, acid, in curries, 296
Tapioca soup, 14
Tarragon vinegar, 151
Tart, a good apple, 363
young green apple, 364
barberry, 364
German, 362
the monitor’s, 370
Tartlets, of almond paste, 367
creamed, 375
jelly, or custards, 375
to make, 361
lemon, 372
strawberry, 375
Tarts, to ice, 345
Tench, to fry, 83
Thickening for sauces, French, 106
Tipsy cake, 474
Toasting, directions for, 183
Toffee, Everton, 567
another way, 567
Tomata catsup, 151
sauces, 123, 124
Tomatas, forced, 327
forced (French receipt), 328
purée of, 328
roast, 327
en salade, 327
stewed, 327
Tongue, to boil, 203
to stew, 203
Tongues, to pickle, 197
Tourte, à la châtelaine, 364
the lady’s, 364
meringuée, or with royal icing, 363
Trifle, brandy, or tipsy cake, 474
an excellent, 473
Swiss, very good, 473
Trout, to stew (a good common receipt), 80
in wine, 80
Truffled butter, 139
sausages, 263
Truffles and their uses, 331
à l’Italienne, 332
à la serviette, 232
to prepare for use, 332
Turbot, to boil, 56
au béchamel, 57
cold, with shrimp chatney, 144
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Turkey, to boil, 267
boned and forced, 268
to bone, 265
à la Flamande, 270
to roast, 267
poult, to roast, 270
Turkeys’ eggs, to dress, 447
forced (excellent entremets) 447
poached, 449
sauce of, 110
Turnip-radishes, to boil, 318
soup, economical, 33
Turnips, to boil, 333
to mash, 333
stewed in butter, 334
in gravy, 335
in white sauce 334
Vanilla in cream, pudding, &c., 410
Veal, blanquette of, with mushrooms, 229
boiled breast of, 218
roast breast of, 219
breast of, simply stewed, 618 (see note)
breast of, stewed and glazed, 618
cake, Bordyke, 222
cake, small pain de veau, or veal, 222
to choose, 209
Scotch collops of, 226
custard, or Sefton, 362
cutlets, 225
cutlets, or collops, à la Française, 226
cutlets, à l’Indienne, or Indian fashion, 225
cutlets, à la mode de Londres, or London fashion, 226
divisions of, 209
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roast fillet of, 216
fillet of, au bechamel, with oysters, 216
fricandeau of, 223
fricasseed, 231
goose (City of London receipt), 220
Norman harrico of, 224
boiled knuckle of, 221
knuckle of, en ragout, 221
knuckle of, with rice or green peas, 221
boiled loin of, 218
roast loin of, 217
stewed loin of, 218
minced, 230
minced, with oysters (or mushrooms), 231
neck of, à la crême, 220
neck of, roast, 220
to bone a shoulder of, 219
stewed shoulder of, 219
spring stew of, 224
Sydney, 231
Vegetable marrow, to boil, fry, mash, 327
vermicelli, 6
Vegetables, to boil green, 309
to clear insects from, 309
remarks on, 308
Venetian cake (super excellent), 547
fritters (very good), 383
Venison, to choose, 281
collops and cutlets, 284
to hash, 284
to roast a haunch of, 282
in pie, 352
sauces for, 295
to stew a loin of mutton like, 239
 to stew a shoulder of, 283
Vermicelli pudding, 439
soup, 12
Viennese pudding, or Salzburger Nockerl, 620
Vinegar, cayenne, 153
celery, 152
cucumber, 152
eschalot, or garlic, 152
horseradish, 153
green mint, 152
raspberry (very fine), 578
strawberry (delicious), 577
tarragon, 151
Vol-au-vent, a, 357
à la crème, 358
of fruit, 358
Vols-au-vents, à la Parisienne, 374
small, to make, 361
Walnut catsup, 149-150
Walnuts, to pickle, 536
salad of, 141
Water Souchy (Greenwich receipt), 78
White bait (Greenwich receipt), 78
Whitings baked, À la Française, 68
baked (Cinderella’s receipt), 70
to boil, 68
to fry, 67
fillets of, 68
Wild ducks, to roast, and their season, 294
salmi, or hash of, 294
Wild fowl, its season, 294
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eschalot, 153
ginger, 584
to mull (an excellent French receipt), 581
orange, 585
raisin, which resembles foreign, 583
Wine-vase, antique, 577
Wire lining for frying-pan, 177
Woodcocks, or snipes, to roast, 293
Woodruff, in Mai Trank, 620
Yorkshire ploughman’s salad, 315
pudding, common, 441
pudding, good, 440
Regent potatoes, their excellence, 311
[TN: Footnote text is not allowed within the range of the Index.

Footnote 194 is referenced from the entry for “fillets of whitings”.

Footnote 195 is referenced from the entry for “Queen Mab’s summer
pudding”.

Clicking on the footnote numbers below will take you to the index
entries that reference these footnotes.]
194. Though not included in this list, all sweet puddings are served as entremets,
except they replace the roasts of the second course.

195. Fish is not usually served as an entrée in a common English dinner; it is,
however, very admissible, either in fillets, or scallops, in a currie, or in a vol-
au-vent. Various circumstances must determine much of the general
arrangement of a dinner, the same dishes answering at times for different
parts of the service. For example, a fowl may be served as the roast for a
small company, and for a large one as an entrée. For a plain family dinner,
too, many dishes may be served in a different order to that which is set
down.

Woodfall and Kinder, Printers, Milford Lane, Strand, London, W.C.

 APRIL 1885.

GENERAL LISTS OF WORKS

PUBLISHED BY

Messrs. LONGMANS, GREEN, &

CO.
PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON.

HISTORY, POLITICS, HISTORICAL MEMOIRS, &c.

Arnold’s Lectures on Modern History. 8vo. 7s. 6d.
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