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PREFACE
The second edition of Pharmacology for Rehabilitation In addition to the new chapters, all original chapters
Professionals presents basic pharmacological principles have been updated with the newest drug information with
along with the mechanism of action and side effects of emphasis on marketed drugs as opposed to those in the
major drug categories seen in rehabilitative practice. pipeline. The discussion activities have also been expanded
Similar to the first edition, the chapters are organized with new cases and questions that will spur some debate
using the systems approach. Each section begins with and promote integration into practice. Boxes have been
the pathophysiology and continues with a discussion of inserted providing generic and brand names of drugs along
the drug groups used for treatment. Most sections end with special comments for easy reference, and many fig-
with a discussion about how drugs affect rehabilitation ures have been redrawn. Specifically the cardiovascular
and how therapeutic interventions may affect drug pharmacology chapters and the diabetes section have been
effectiveness. Drug-exercise interactions, when known, expanded and further debate has been provided on the
are discussed. The chapters conclude with discussion affects of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory agents on the
activities that help the student learn the material and cardiac system and even the role that diuretics and
apply it to practice. The title has been changed to re-  blockers may have in increasing the risk of diabetes.
flect the inclusion of coverage of other rehabilitation The chapter, “Exploring Drug-Exercise Interaction”
professionals. (chapter 28) follows the model presented in the first edi-
New to this edition are chapters on vitamins and min- tion by specifically reviewing exercise-drug implications
erals (including their interactions with drugs), comple- for cardiovascular disease, pulmonary disease, and diabe-
mentary and alternative agents, drugs used to facilitate tes, discussing red flags particularly related to drug treat-
wound healing, and drugs of abuse and doping ment and exercise, and presenting sample exercise pre-
agents. In particular the chapter on alternative medicine scriptions. Additionally the chapters on chemotherapeutic
(chapter 26), provides an in-depth review of the support- drugs and antimicrobials/antiviral agents have been
ing evidence, or lack thereof, of the supplements com- expanded. There is further discussion on monoclonal anti-
monly used by patients with cardiovascular disease and bodies in the prescription of exercise while cycling on
women undergoing menopause. The chapter on wound chemotherapy. Treatment sections for HIV disease and
healing (chapter 25), specifically discusses venous stasis hepatitis have also been expanded to reflect the newest
ulcers, and arterial and diabetic ulcers. Cleansing agents, drug regimens.
antimicrobials for wounds, and enzymatic agents are The book continues to be written on a level commen-
discussed as are pressure dressings. The chapter on abuse surate with rehabilitation education, while offering a mix
(chapter 27) reviews the physiological effects of alcohol, of basic and clinical science following the knowledge re-
heroin, marijuana, and hallucinogenic agents and the quirements of a Doctorate in Physical Therapy. The web-
pharmacological management of these addictions. An site companion to the book offers answers to many of the
extensive review of methadone treatment has been added discussion activities, sample test questions, image library,
to the chapter on pain. updates, and links to supplemental resources.
vii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I wish to acknowledge the continuing efforts of the staff chapters. Additionally I would like to thank my col-
at Elsevier who managed to keep calm when the author leagues at the University of Medicine & Dentistry whose
did not always display proper decorum. A special thanks scholarship continues to amaze me and provides me with
also goes to my contributing authors who brought everlasting goals.
expert knowledge and practical experience to their Barbara Gladson
viii
CONTENTS
SECTION ONE
Principles of pharmacology
1. Introduction 2
Barbara Gladson
SECTION TWO
Autonomic and Cardiovascular Pharmacology
5. Drugs Acting on the Autonomic Nervous System 48
Barbara Gladson
6. Antihypertensive Agents 66
Barbara Gladson
8. Drug Therapy for Congestive Heart Failure and Cardiac Arrhythmias 109
Barbara Gladson
9. Drug Therapy for Pulmonary Disorders 125
Barbara Gladson
ix
x CONTENTS
SECTION THREE
Pain Control
10. Anesthetic Agents 142
Barbara Gladson
SECTION FOUR
Endocrine Pharmacology
13. Selective Topics in Endocrine Pharmacology 191
Barbara Gladson
SECTION FIVE
Neurologic Pharmacology
15. Drugs for Epilepsy and Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder 249
Barbara Gladson
SECTION SIX
Anti-Infective and Anti-Cancer Agents
20. Antimicrobial Agents 334
Wolfgang Vogel
21. Antiviral Agents and Selected Drugs for Fungal Infections 353
Barbara Gladson and Wolfgang Vogel
SECTION SEVEN
Special Topics in Pharmacology
23. Drugs for Gastrointestinal Disorders 412
Barbara Gladson
27. Drugs of Abuse: Anabolic Steroids and Other Doping Agents 478
Wolfgang Vogel
1
CHAPTER
1
Introduction
Barbara Gladson
WHAT IS PHARMACOLOGY?
Pharmacogenomics examines how our genetic makeup
Pharmacology is defined as the study of how chemical produces unexpected and peculiar reactions to drugs and
substances affect living tissue, and it includes the moni- helps direct therapeutics according to a person’s geno-
toring of how these agents bind to receptors to enhance type.5,6 The science of pharmacogenomics has its roots
or inhibit normal function.1,2 The study of pharmacol- as far back as 1948 when it was descovered that some
ogy may be divided into two main areas: pharmaco- patients suffered fatal reactions to the local anesthetic
therapeutics (also known as medical pharmacology) and drug procaine. It was later discovered that these indi-
toxicology. Pharmacotherapeutics is the use of chemical viduals had a genetic alteration that produced a low af-
agents to prevent, diagnose, and cure disease, whereas finity between the drug and its metabolizing enzyme. We
toxicology is the study of the negative effects of chemi- now know that there are many variations in both gene
cals on living things, including cells, plants, animals, and sequence and expression that alter responses to drugs
humans. Pharmacology is separate from pharmacy, and that these variabilities appear more common in cer-
which refers to the mixing and dispensing of drugs, as tain races and ethnicities. It has been accepted that ge-
well as to clinical functions, including monitoring drug netic variations exist in drug receptors, ion channels, and
prescriptions for appropriateness and monitoring pa- other drug targets. And, in fact, genetic tests are avail-
tients for adverse drug interactions.3 able that help identify if a patient will respond to certain
Pharmacotherapeutics may be further divided into medications or not.7 Tests can help determine whether a
two domains: pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics. woman with breast cancer would respond to either of
When we think of the word kinetics, we think of mathe- the breast cancer drugs tamoxifen and trastuzumab
matical formulas and rates. When the word kinetics is (Herceptin) and if a patient with a coagulation disorder
applied to pharmacology, it refers to the study of how would receive adequate anticoagulation from the drug
fast and how much of a drug is absorbed into the body, warfarin. From a clinical perspective, genetics is why
how it is distributed to the various organs, and how it is Asians and Hispanics diagnosed with schizophrenia
ultimately metabolized and excreted by the body. Com- have significantly higher serum drug levels than white
puting the concentration of drug absorbed or excreted is individuals, which results in a greater incidence of extra-
part of a pharmacokinetic study. pyramidal symptoms, and why angiotensin-converting
Pharmacodynamics describes what the drug does to enzymes are less effective in blacks than in whites.8 The
the body and its beneficial or adverse effects at the cel- recognition of these genetic polymorphisms has led to
lular or organ level. Pharmacodynamic studies identify the development and marketing of pharmacodiagnostic
the mechanism of action and compare effects of different tests to help determine which drug to choose for an in-
drugs for potency and efficacy. Pharmacodynamic prin- dividual patient.9
ciples are often presented in a graphic form called a Pharmacoepidemiology is concerned with the effec-
dose-response curve.2 This curve demonstrates the effect tiveness of a drug in large populations compared with
of increasing drug doses on a particular response (see that in individuals.10 This discipline utilizes all the tools
Figures 2-10 and 2-11). The dose-response curve helps for studying epidemics and chronic diseases to evaluate
explain the nature of the drug-receptor interaction and the use and effectiveness of medicines. Particular empha-
is useful for comparing drugs in similar categories for sis is placed on determining the frequency of adverse
strength and effectiveness (see Chapter 2). drug reactions by adopting a systematic approach after
Although this schema for describing the basis of phar- spontaneous postmarketing reporting. The true value of
macology is simple and easily understood, it should, in pharmacoepidemiology is that it provides information
fact, be expanded to include not only the traditional about drug effectiveness and safety.
areas of pharmacology driven by a systems approach but Pharmacoeconomics is the area of pharmacology that
also some new specialty areas such as pharmacogenom- quantifies in dollar amounts the cost versus benefit of
ics, pharmacoepidemiology, and pharmacoeconomics.4 therapeutics.11 Pharmacoeconomic studies have been
2 Copyright © 2011, Elsevier Inc.
CHAPTER 1 Introduction 3
balancing the need of the pharmaceutical companies to The chemists recruited have knowledge of the structure
show a profit with the need of patients to have easy ac- of the insulin receptor and develop chemical compounds
cess to safe medications, especially nonprofitable drugs that bind to the receptor. These compounds are then
or “orphan drugs” (drugs for rare diseases). The regula- passed along to the pharmacologist for drug screening. A
tory process is designed to ensure drug safety and variety of biological assays are used to test the com-
efficacy by a detailed review of all research studies, both pounds at the molecular and cellular levels as well as at
preclinical and clinical, to scrutinize product labeling to the organ and animal levels. The tissues selected for test-
prevent fraud and to make sure directions are accurate ing are those influenced by insulin, and the animals cho-
and easily understood by patients, and to ensure quality sen for testing are those that have insulin receptors simi-
in the manufacturing process.22 In the United States, the lar to those of humans. An evaluation of cardiovascular
FDA is charged with this responsibility, but in Europe and renal functions are performed on healthy animals for
and the rest of the world, there are both centralized and safety. Specifically, acute and chronic toxicity tests are
decentralized procedural methods for drug approval. In performed; as well, the drug’s effect on reproduction and
the European Union, the European Medicines Evalua- its mutagenic and carcinogenic potentials are evaluated.
tion Agency (EMEA), has replaced the previously indi- Efficacy testing is conducted on animals bred to become
vidual country approval process.23 Individual countries diabetic. Additional testing on the respiratory, gastroin-
still have the authority to grant national licenses, but testinal, reproductive, and central nervous systems is
there is a significant “harmonization of practice” at the performed. These experiments constitute the preclinical
global level. Harmonization of regulations was more testing phase, usually lasting 2 to 6 years.26 At the end of
formally accepted in 1990 with the establishment of the this phase, representatives from Drug Company X take
International Conference on Harmonisation of Techni- the data on their lead compound to the FDA and seek
cal Requirements for Registration of Pharmaceuticals approval to begin testing the oral insulin in humans. If
for Human Use (ICH).24 The ICH is a group of pharma- the compound is believed to be safe for humans, a Notice
ceutical regulators and companies from Europe, the of Claimed Investigational Exemption for a New Drug
United States, and Japan that produce guidance docu- (IND) is filed with the FDA. Human testing begins once
ments addressing how clinical trial data obtained in one the FDA approves the investigational new drug (IND)
country might be used to support the regulatory applica- and consists of four phases as described below.
tion in another country so that trials need not be dupli- Phase 1 is the safety assessment study. In this study,
cated. There are, however, exceptions to harmonization. the oral insulin is given to a small number of healthy
The Japanese Pharmaceutical Affairs Bureau requires volunteers (about 25 to 50), and a safety profile is estab-
most prescription drugs to be first studied in Japan prior lished.27 These studies are conducted to identify any toxic
to regulatory approval. The reason for this tighter con- effects and to begin to establish a safe dosage range.
trol is due to differences in the metabolism and body size Pharmacokinetic studies are also performed. If the drug
of Japanese individuals compared with those of individ- is thought to have significant toxic effects, testing will be
uals who originate from the United States or Europe. conducted on volunteer patients with the disease being
Although some centralized control over drug regula- targeted instead of on healthy control subjects. This is
tion is exercised, individual countries have their own often the case for AIDS drugs or drugs designed for resis-
rules regarding possession and prescription of drugs, and tant types of cancers. This phase lasts up to 2 years.
these rules vary greatly. In some countries, patients can Phase 2 is the drug effectiveness study.27 In this phase,
obtain drugs without a prescription, whereas in others a small number of patients (approximately 200) who
purchase of drugs by individuals is tightly controlled. In have the targeted disease receive the new drug. The study
addition, vitamins, dietary supplements, and herbal rem- design is usually single-blinded, and the new drug is
edies are not regulated as drugs in the United States and compared with a placebo (a nonactive compound) or
many other countries, so manufacturers of these items with an older active agent with known safety and
do not have to abide by the strict regulations for safety, efficacy. Therefore a phase 2 study using the above ex-
purity, and efficacy governing prescription drugs.25 ample would compare glucose levels in patients admin-
stered the gold standard, that is, injectable insulin, with
those in patients taking the experimental version. The
Drug Development questions that would be addressed by this study include:
The first step in the drug development process is the de- Is the experimental drug safe for patients with diabetes,
termination of a target market by the drug company. For and is it more effective than the injectable form of the
example, let us say that Drug Company X decides that drug in lowering blood glucose levels? This phase may
there is a need for an oral form of insulin. Insulin is com- last for another 1 to 2 years but the duration can vary,
monly delivered by means of a subcutaneous injection, a depending on the specific endpoint being studied. In our
form of drug delivery that is less desirable to patients. example, lowered blood glucose level is the endpoint,
First, the drug company enlists some chemists to perform but the study might track the time to development of
research on and provide support to the new proposal. cardiovascular complications or other secondary sequela
CHAPTER 1 Introduction 5
of the disease, such as retinal damage, which would ex- drug prescription should be viewed as a therapeutic ex-
tend the length of the study. periment and that we are all subjects in drug studies.
Phase 3 is a much larger study, including many more The time it takes to bring a drug to market is long, as
subjects with diabetes than in the previous phase just the clinical phases (phases 1 to 3) take, on average,
(5000 to 10,000 subjects or more).28 In addition, the 8.6 years and the entire process may take between
duration of the study is usually extended, perhaps up to 10 and 15 years in the United States.30,31 In 2001, the
as long as 3 to 6 years. Investigators and study sites for total cost from molecule to marketing was estimated to
these trials are chosen from all over the world. Safety and be $802 million, and there is no evidence that this cost
effectiveness are again studied but on a much larger scale. has been reduced.30 It is a labor-intensive process that
Phase 3 trials tend to be double-blinded randomized con- does not always lead to success. One of the major bottle-
trolled trials (RCTs) that are either parallel or crossover necks in the process is subject recruitment. Trials are
in design. Parallel designs test at least two therapies at the often delayed or abandoned due to poor enrollment of
same time, but each patient group is assigned only one subjects. Eighty-six percent of studies conducted in the
drug. In studies with crossover designs, patients act as United States do not recruit the required number of sub-
their own control subjects by receiving therapies in se- jects in a timely manner.32 In addition, the United States
quence. Some patients may receive Drug A first and then ranks behind Asia, Western Europe, Eastern Europe, and
Drug B, and other patients may receive Drug B first and South America in the number of subjects recruited into
then Drug A. Phase 3 studies tend to be performed in trials per month.33 Between 2003 and 2006, the average
larger tertiary care centers by experts in the targeted dis- trial time increased by 74%, compared with data col-
ease. Again, in our example of oral insulin, test sites lected between 1999 and 2003.34 This delay has led to a
would be set up around the country and in Europe and growing number of trials being conducted abroad.35
Japan, preferably at centers for the study of diabetes. Due to the tremendous costs and time involved in
These centers receive funding from the pharmaceutical drug discovery, pharmaceutical companies maintain
company to recruit and pay subjects, set up data collec- some exclusivity on their products through patents. Pat-
tion systems, and obtain any other supplies or equipment ents are filed usually around the end of the preclinical
needed to support the research. Clinical researchers from studies and are in place for 20 years.28 However, since
the drug company will closely monitor all the data to the clinical phases take time, the patent owner has only
make sure that the oral insulin is effective and safe a limited amount of time to market the drug before the
throughout phase 3. generic forms begin to appear in pharmacies. The drug
If phase 3 studies are successful, the drug company companies therefore fight hard to extend their patents by
files a New Drug Application (NDA) with the FDA.28 As coming up with new uses for their drugs to balance out
part of this application, the company submits all pre- the lengthy review process and the cost of failed
clinical and clinical data on the oral insulin. The FDA compounds.
then reviews the materials, and if the drug seems to be When the patent expires, any company may produce
effective and without significant adverse effects, the FDA and sell the drug as a generic without having to pay any
gives permission to the company to market the oral fees to the original company, but the licensed trade name
insulin to the public. given to the drug remains the property of the original
Phase 4 begins when the drug is approved for public drug maker. In the case of a lengthy FDA review process,
use. It is called the postmarketing surveillance phase and the patent may be extended for up to 5 years.
is a much larger study than any previously performed.29 Although the FDA approves drugs for specific indica-
This phase constitutes monitoring the drug for safety in tions, which then become listed on the package insert, it
large numbers of patients under real-life conditions. Dur- does not limit the use of drugs to these described condi-
ing this phase, members of the public who have diabetes tions. Physicians have the final say on how a drug may
become study subjects without their knowledge. If many be used. Prescribing a drug for off-label or unapproved
adverse drug reactions are discovered during this phase, uses is common and legally permitted.
and if they present significant health risks, the drug may
be recalled. Technically, phase 4 has infinite duration
Orphan Drugs and Treatment
because the drug company will continue monitoring for
Investigational New Drugs
any problems throughout the marketing process. How-
ever, even though the drug has been released for public Because drug development is an extremely expensive and
consumption after phase 3, it is prudent to wait until it lengthy process, drugs for rare diseases, the so-called
has been on the market for at least 2 years before using “orphan drugs,” tend not to be researched or marketed
it. It is responsible health care to prescribe an older drug by drug companies. Therefore, in 1983, the Orphan Drug
with a proven track record first and then to switch to a Act was passed to provide research grants for the study of
newer drug after all the adverse drug reactions (ADRs) diseases affecting fewer than 200,000 patients in the
have been identified. This process underscores the atti- United States.19 This Act provides special financial incen-
tude among many health care professionals that every tives to companies to help offset their development costs.
6 CHAPTER 1 Introduction
However, lack of profit is not the only reason that orphan incomplete understanding of pathophysiology, we can
drugs are rarely studied. These drugs present some hope that in the future further study in this area will lead
scientific dilemmas because it is difficult to establish safety to more effective drugs.
and effectiveness in small numbers of patients. In addi- Another problem with the drug discovery process, in
tion, many rare diseases occur in children, and investiga- the case of many diseases, is the lack of animal models
tors prefer not to include children in early clinical trials. for drug screening.37 Even though there are animals that
The FDA has also provided guidelines to streamline can grow specific tumors, animals that are bred to have
the development of certain drugs for life-threatening diabetes, and even animal models for epilepsy, animal
conditions such as AIDS and certain cancers.36 These models are lacking for many other illnesses. Again, men-
drugs receive Treatment Investigational New Drugs tal illness is a good example because no animal model
(IND) status, allowing them special priority throughout exists for the testing of different compounds.
the review procedure. This status also allows patients Reluctance to include women and children in clinical
outside the ongoing studies to be treated with investiga- trials, largely because of differences in pharmacokinetics
tional drugs. Treatment IND status is issued for a drug and pharmacodynamics in these populations, represents
designed to treat serious life-threatening illnesses when another impediment to clinical trials. One solution to
no other acceptable alternative is available in the mar- this has been the establishment of the Office of Women’s
ket. The drug must already be involved in a clinical trial, Health within the FDA in 1994.40 This office has pro-
and the pharmaceutical company must show that it is moted the development and approval of drugs for dis-
proceeding with the normal steps involved in the drug eases affecting women. In addition, this office is dedi-
approval process. If a physician wants to prescribe a cated to identifying how drugs affect women because
drug that is in clinical study but lacks the treatment IND traditionally most clinical trials have been conducted
status, the drug may still be obtained for a patient under only on men. Governmental groups have attempted to
a “compassionate use” clause. provide incentives to the pharmaceutical industry to in-
clude more minorities and women into clinical trials.
The National Institutes of Health (NIH) Revitalization
Barriers to Drug Development Act of 1993 (Public Law 103-43) requires that all studies
Many barriers to development of new drugs exist, par- funded by the NIH include representations of women
ticularly for diseases that progress over time, such as and minority groups.41 However, despite this legislation,
multiple sclerosis and Parkinson’s disease. Foremost several populations remain under-represented in clinical
among the barriers, of course, is the issue of funding. This trials.42-45 Minorities and women are still less likely to
barrier affects studies of rare diseases much more than enroll in studies compared with white males, particularly
studies of the more common diseases; but the discovery of in cancer and HIV clinical trials. In the future, the U.S.
new drugs even for common illnesses is risky and quite House of Representatives is expected to consider legisla-
expensive. Drug researchers suggest that charity organiza- tion that would extend patent rights to companies that
tions and government support programs continue to be run clinical trials that are ethically and racially focused.46
emphasized as funding sources.37 Additional barriers include the lack of experienced prin-
Another barrier to development is the fact that many cipal investigators, and lack of coordinated data collec-
diseases lack specific markers of identification or there is tion systems, greater protocol complexity.47,48
lack of consensus regarding clinical trial endpoints, which Drug development is a labor-intensive, expensive,
makes it difficult to document treatment progress. Ex- risky, and time-consuming process. Although this proc-
amples include Alzheimer’s disease and some mental ill- ess is widely accepted and adhered to, there is growing
nesses such as bipolar disorder and schizophrenia. Mental discussion regarding alternative methods to prove drug
illness tends to be a multifactorial condition demonstrat- safety and efficacy.49 Improved postmarketing surveil-
ing impairments in language, memory, motor planning, lance, which involves a coordinated data collection sys-
and cognitive domains.38 Functional testing in all these tem from around the world, has been suggested to detect
areas is necessary to prove that a medication is effective. unanticipated events, both positive and negative, that
Even when markers have been identified, researchers in could lead to greater accuracy in identifying treatment
the field do not always agree on the level of significance options.50,51 The use of meta-analyses for analyzing
that these markers provide in terms of documenting im- many trials simultaneously has also been suggested as a
provement. For example, manufacturers of arthritis drugs way of improving therapy. In some cases, a meta-analy-
may claim that their drugs are effective by showing a re- sis of multiple small trials can be used to identify a drug
duction in the signs and symptoms of rheumatoid arthritis effect not previously recognized by individual trials.
(e.g., redness, swollen joints), but others may insist that Pharmacoeconomics, which consists of studies that deter-
effectiveness claims be based on a slowing of disease pro- mine the cost/benefit ratio of drugs, is likely to become a
gression as determined by radiography.39 Because the growing field as research dollars continue to shrink.
lack of a specific drug target or marker is a result of our Pharmacoeconomic studies examine overall outcome in
CHAPTER 1 Introduction 7
clinical practice and are used to inform changes in prac- 6. The Signa or Sig, which gives directions to the pa-
tice. These suggestions are not likely to become standard tient, including how often to take the drug, how
operating procedures in the drug delivery process yet, much drug to take, and additional instructions such
but the FDA has instituted a number of changes that will as “shake well” or “take with food.” Signa is Latin
ultimately benefit patients. Approvals of drugs via the for “label.” The patient instructions are usually writ-
“fast-track” and greater inclusion of women in clinical ten with Latin abbreviations.
trials represent two recent changes in the drug discovery 7. Refill information.
process. In addition, the FDA has begun using outside 8. Prescriber’s signature.
help, groups of clinical specialists in a variety of fields, 9. Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) number,
in evaluating studies to hasten the review process. Fur- which is required for controlled substances, as well as
ther changes focused on streamlining the process and for insurance claims processing.
improving data collection are expected as time goes on. In the past, many adverse drug events have occurred
due to prescribing errors. Quickly scribbled prescriptions
that omit important information are illegible or contain
ELEMENTS OF A PRESCRIPTION the wrong dose or dose units and can be disastrous. A
The prescription is an order written by a licensed practitio- misplaced decimal point is not uncommon and can lead to
ner (e.g., physician, dentist, veterinarian, or podiatrist, a 10-fold difference in dose, which is why, for example,
and, in some states, the physician assistant and nurse “.1 mg” should always be preceded by a zero, “0.1 mg”.
practitioner) to instruct the pharmacist to provide a specific Another recommendation is to avoid using the abbrevi-
medication needed by a patient. The elements contained in ated form of micrograms, “g” since this can be read as
the prescription include the following52 (Figure 1–1): “mg” which would produce a 1000-fold error. U for Units
1. The prescribing physician’s name, credentials, address, should also not be used since it may be mistaken as a zero,
and telephone number. and QD, QOD, and qd can all be mistaken for one an-
2. The date the prescription was written and the other, so these instructions should be written out as
patient’s full name and address. “daily” and “every other day.” Box 1–1 lists acceptable
3. Rx, called the superscription, which tells how the abbreviations.
drug is to be administered to the patient (e.g., orally
or by injection). Rx is an abbreviation of the Latin
CONTROLLED SUBSTANCES
word for “recipe” and “receive thou.”
4. Inscription, which includes the drug name (either Controlled substances are drugs classified according to
brand or generic), dose, and quantity to dispense. their potential for abuse. They are regulated under the
5. Subscription, which gives directions to the pharma- Controlled Substances Act (CSA), which classifies these
cist regarding the mixing instructions (compound- compounds into schedules (levels) from I to V.52 This
ing), IF NEEDED. law, which was enacted in 1971, also makes provisions
for research into drug abuse and treatment programs for
dependency. This Act, along with assistance from the
Don Dose, MD DEA, controls the manufacture, distribution, and dis-
65 South Lake Drive
Capsule, Ca 07008 pensing of drugs that have the potential to be abused.
(282) 233-2748
FOR: DATE:
ADDRESS:
Schedule I
Rx Schedule I drugs are available only for research. They
Drug Name, Strength (Metric Units), have the highest abuse potential, leading to dependence
& Quantity without any acceptable medical indication. Some exam-
ples include heroin, LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide),
and mescaline. Special approval is necessary before any
SIG: (how drug is taken, e.g. at meals or 2 tab BID)
of these agents can be used.
REFILL______
OR
UNTIL_______ Schedule II
Schedule II drugs also have a high abuse potential with
Warning: ,MD
the likelihood of physical and psychological dependence,
but unlike schedule I drugs, they have accepted medical
DEA#
State License # uses. Drugs classified at this level include stimulants such
as amphetamines; opioids, including morphine, fentanyl,
FIGURE 1-1 Sample drug prescription. and oxycodone; and some barbiturates. Automatic refills
8 CHAPTER 1 Introduction
listed in the official drug compendia, The United States enzyme inhibitors. The last method for categorizing
Pharmacopeia, and stays with the compound, no matter drugs is a classification based on either the chemical
how many trade names it accumulates. The generic names makeup or the source for the drug. Plant material pro-
are also the only names recognized for use in scientific jour- vides a good natural source for many compounds. Atro-
nals, although these names, too, can vary from one country pine is named after the plant species Atropa. Penicillin is
to another; for example, acetaminophen in the United part of a group of compounds described as -lactam
States is known as paracetamol in the United Kingdom. antibiotics because they contain a -lactam ring, a four-
The trade name or brand name is the name given to the member nitrogen-containing carbon structure.
drug by the pharmaceutical company and is copyrighted The system that is currently in place for classifying
to that company. In recent years, there has been a push for and naming drugs is imprecise, confusing, and implies
trendy names that the public will recognize. An example that all drugs within the same classification group act in
is the drug Singulair. Singulair, taken from the word a similar manner.56 In light of the potential for mistakes
“single,” is supposed to remind the public that it has when trade or proprietary names are used and the inac-
once-a-day dosing and is thus a more desirable drug than curacies implied in using functional categories for nam-
one that must be administered several times a day. These ing, there is a push toward using the official or generic
names, although they are helpful in steering the public names of drugs when speaking to patients and health
toward a particular drug, actually add more confusion to care professionals or when writing prescriptions. How-
the system of naming and increase the possibility that ever, pharmaceutical companies continue to market their
someone might make a mistake when writing a prescrip- drugs with trendy trade names.
tion. Once a patent expires, other pharmaceutical compa-
nies have a right to market the drug and assign their own
ACTIVITIES 1
trade names. Because there may be several trade names
given to one generic drug, use of trade names should be 1. This chapter has reviewed the phases of clinical drug
avoided while writing prescriptions. development. Outline some elements that must be
taken into consideration to ensure that this is an
ethical process.
Drug Classification 2. Discuss the key questions that should be answered
Drugs are often classified into specific categories. These concerning a drug during the development process.
categories do not represent a universally accepted sys- 3. Look-alike/sound-alike drugs are responsible for
tem, and one drug may be placed into a variety of differ- many medication errors.
ent classes.55 The classes do, however, provide a useful A. Name a few sound-alike drugs, and give their
framework for studying pharmacology. Drugs may be indications.
classified according to the body system being treated, for B. Discuss some strategies that can be used to reduce
example, cardiovascular drugs, pulmonary drugs, and look-alike and sound-alike medication errors.
gastrointestinal drugs. Drugs may also be classified ac- 4. Describe the following drugs using the pharmaco-
cording to their pharmacotherapeutic actions, or the therapeutic, pharmacologic, and molecular categories
overall pharmacologic actions of the drugs on specific of drug naming:
disease processes. Examples of drugs classified in this Propranolol
manner are antidepressants and antihypertensives. A Prazosin
mistake that is often made when medicines are delin- Captopril
eated in this manner is the assumption that all the drugs Losartan
classified under the same heading act in the same man- Nifedipine
ner. However, this is not always true. Diuretics and cal- Hydrochlorothiazide
cium channel blockers are both antihypertensives, but
they have very different mechanisms of action.
Drugs may also be categorized according to their
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CHAPTER 1 Introduction 11
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CHAPTER
2
Pharmacodynamics:
Mechanism of Action
Barbara Gladson
Mutta sitten kävi ilmi, että yhdellä heistä oli ollut suosituskirje
kirjailijalle, jonka nimi oli James Joyce, muttei hän ollut viitsinyt
vaivautua sitä esittämäänkään, sillä hän sanoi, ettei James Joyce
sittenkään tiennyt, ken hän oli, ja miksi vaivautua tapaamaan
jotakuta, joka tiesi niin vähän "Algonquinista", että hän luultavasti
luulisi sitä joksikin sivistymättömäksi intiaaniheimoksi? Mutta herra
Boyd jatkoi yhä ja kysyi: "Miksette sentään kaiken varalta mennyt
häntä tapaamaan? Hänellä olisi voinut olla jotakin sanottavaa."
Ja minä olin tosiaan mielissäni, että hän lähti. Sillä sitten tapahtui
jotakin, mikä tosiaan oli häkellyttävää, mutta lopuksi koitti yhdeksi
elämäni värisyttävimmistä hetkistä. Tarkoitan, että herra Boyd vilkaisi
taakseen ja huomasi minut, joten minun tietenkin täytyi hänelle
hymyillä. Ja sitten hän kääntyi puhumaan koko pyöreän pöydän
seurueelle ja sanoi: "Hyvät herrat, te keksitte aina Dusen tai Saphon
tai Kleopatran joka viikko, ja nyt on luullakseni minun vuoroni. Sillä
minä olen keksinyt nuoren naisen, jossa ne kaikki kolme ovat
kierretyt yhteen. Saanko luvan tuoda rouva Lorelei Lee Spoffardin
pöytäämme?" No, vaikka he tosiaan kiinnittivät perin vähän
huomiota herra Boydin puheisiin, sanoivat he, että kyllä heidän
puolestaan. Niin hän saattoi minut heidän pöytäänsä ja esitteli minut,
ja melkein jokainen heistä nyökkäsi minulle, vieläpä joku puhuikin. Ja
he sallivat minun istua siellä koko puolisen ajan.
No, seuraava, mikä minun oli tehtävä, oli liittyä Lucy Stonen
liittoon voidakseni säilyttää oman tyttönimeni avioliiton jälkeen. Sillä
tytön nimen tulisi olla pyhä, ja kun hän käyttää miehensä nimeä,
vajottaa se vain hänen yksilöllisyyttään. Ja kun tyttö aina vimmatusti
pitää kiinni omasta tyttönimestään, niin ihmiset ymmärtävät, että
hänen täytyy olla tärkeä yhdessä tai toisessa. Ja erittäin sopiva
paikka tiukata vihkimätöntä nimeänsä on silloin, kun menee
vieraaseen hotelliin aviomiehensä seurassa. Sillä kun
huonekirjanpitäjä huomaa, että tyttö-niminen tyttö asuu samassa
huoneessa herrasmiehen kanssa, tuottaa se jonkun verran
selittelyjä, ja silloin tyttö tuntee olevansa varsin huomattava henkilö
jokaisen mielestä seurustelusalissa.
Kolmas luku
No, sitten kun minä sanoin Henrylle, että minä aioin kirjoittaa
Dorothyn elämäkerran, pelkään, että meille sattui pikkuisen kinaakin.
Sillä Henry näkyi ajattelevan, että maailmalle olisi paljoa parempi,
että se ei tuntisi Dorothyn kaltaisen tytön elämää. Tarkoitan, että
Henry on kovin laajasydäminen, niinkuin kaikkien suurten
maailmanparantajain täytyy olla voidakseen katsella samaa asiaa
molemmilta puolilta samalla kertaa. Eikä hän tosiaan välitä siitä, mitä
tyttö on kokenut, kunhan hän vain ei riemuitse loppuun asti. Mutta
Henry sanoi, että kun Dorothyn kaltaiset tytöt eivät koskaan saa
mitään maksaa, niin kuinkas kaikki siveelliset henkilöt voisivat saada
tyydytystä heidän kärsimystensä katselemisesta? Ja kuinka sitten
kävisi kristinuskon?
Mutta minä en tosiaan moiti rouva Shawia siitä, että hän kävi
alakuloiseksi, sillä Dorothyn isä ei sittenkään koskaan ollut
ihanteellinen aviomies. Tarkoitan, että hän näkyi pitävän
ansiokkaana tekona juoda itsensä humalaan ennenkuin kieltolaista
vielä uneksittiinkaan. Niinpä rouva Shaw alkoi kovin "kyllästyä"
karnevaaliseuran elämään ja kaivata omaan hotelliinsa, varsinkin
kun hänen korviinsa oli tullut huhuja, että se alkoi olla huonossa
maineessa. Sillä sanottiin, että tuskin kukaan kauppamatkustaja,
joka vähänkin voi kerskua hyvästä ulkonäöstä, koskaan suoritti
Hazelille laskuaan. Ja kun Dorothyn äitipuoli kuuli, että Hazel oli
muuttanut aamiaistunnin puoli seitsemästä kahdeksaan, olivat asiat
hänen mielestään menneet jo kyllin pitkälle. Senvuoksi hän pakotti
herra Shawin jättämään koko uransa, jotta hänet vietäisiin pois ja
pidettäisiin heidän asunnossaan Modestossa.
Neljäs luku
No, sitten piti Curley suunsa kiinni varsin pitkän tovin. Mutta
jonkun ajan kuluttua hän sanoi Dorothylle, että Dorothy oli sittenkin
vielä liian nuori puhuakseen moisista asioista, joten he aivan hyvin
voisivat palata markkinapaikalle.
No, kun Dorothy päätti sen tehdä, sanoo hän, että ainoa, jossa
hän saattoi olettaa olevan mielenkiintoa, oli poliisikomisarjus, sillä
Curley ei koskaan juolahtanut "romaanina" hänen mieleensä. Ja kun
he ehtivät takaisin markkinapaikalle, oli komisarjus siellä, kuten
tavallista, istumassa Le Vinon teltan takakaistaleen alla ja oli
auttavinaan rouva Le Vinoa herneiden silpimisessä, vaikka hän
tositeossa vilkuili joka suunnalle etsien Dorothya. Kun siis Dorothy oli
päättänyt ottaa selvän "asioista", irtausi hän Curleystä ja virkkoi
komisarjukselle ystävällisen sanan ensi kertaa senjälkeen, kun tämä
oli alkanut seurailla karnevaalikiertuetta. Ja lopuksi hän sopi, että
lähtisi sinä iltana kaupungin elokuviin komisarjuksen kanssa.
No, kun Dorothy kuuli uutisen, käsitti hän, ettei se ollut muuta kuin
Curleyn vehkeitä. Niinpä hän meni etsimään tuota miekkosta ja
tapasi hänet istumassa kanvassilla peitetyssä käärmekuopassaan.
Ja Dorothy sanoo ryhtyneensä antamaan hänelle "mitä kuului"
sentähden, että hän kepposen vuoksi, joka ei ollut edes sukkela,
toimitti komisarjuksen äidin kaltaisen vanhan naisen pitkälle
rautatiematkalle rautatievaunussa, koska Dorothy ei voinut edes
kuvitellakaan lähtevänsä tämän komisarjuksen matkaan.