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Crises, Inquiries and
the Politics of Blame

Sandra L. Resodihardjo
Crises, Inquiries and the Politics of Blame
 Sandra L. Resodihardjo

Crises, Inquiries and

the Politics of Blame
Sandra L. Resodihardjo
Institute for Management Research
Radboud University
Nijmegen, The Netherlands

ISBN 978-3-030-17530-6    ISBN 978-3-030-17531-3 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-17531-3

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer
Nature Switzerland AG 2020
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the
Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of
translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on
microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval,
electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now
known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are
exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information
in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the pub-
lisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the
material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The
publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institu-
tional affiliations.

Cover illustration: Pattern © John Rawsterne/patternhead.com

This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature
Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
To my parents
 Acknowledgements

Writing this book was by no means a solo endeavour. Many people have
helped me along the way with their advice, feedback, and support. I would
therefore like to thank the following people, starting with Paul ’t Hart.
Paul, thank you for pointing out blame game research to me. Will Jennings,
thank you for taking the time to discuss your blame game research meth-
ods and to provide feedback on various publications. I would also like to
thank Daniel Aldrich for facilitating my sabbatical stay at Northeastern
University.
This research would not have been possible without the help of numer-
ous students, student-assistants, and co-authors who have taken the time
to code the newspaper articles. So a big thank you to Steven Boesveld,
Maarten Geraerts, Rob Jetten, Dorine van de Lustgraaf, Martha Mahlstedt,
Sanne Maris, Renske van der Maten, Marlou Meertens, Marloes Meijer,
Dineke Meijers, Annemarie van der Plas, Louisa Reumerman, Josien de
Reuver, Claudia Schorr, Anne Walraven, and Wouter Zantinge.
I would like to thank two co-authors in particular because they have
stuck with me even though the blame game project has taken years to
complete and they have been kind enough to provide feedback on various
blame game publications—including this book. Brendan Carroll: without
your statistical wizardry, I would not have gotten very far with my blame
game research. Thank you for your help, feedback, and patience as well as
being so kind as to create the figures in this book for the Love Parade on
short notice. Carola van Eijk, thank you for the wonderful cooperation
over the years and your insightful feedback.

vii
viii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Over the years, numerous people have provided feedback at confer-

ences, workshops, and seminars—for which I am grateful. I would also like
to thank the following people for their feedback: Mark Bennister, Annika
Brändström, Michiel de Vries, Michel Dückers, Jean Hartley, Leonie
Heres, Wouter Jong, Niels Karsten, Sanneke Kuipers, Christiaan Lako,
Karin Lasthuizen, Jo Luetjens, Ruth Prins, Arjen Schmidt, Sabine Stiller,
Paul ’t Hart, Marieke van Genugten, Sabine van Zuydam, and Pieter Zwaan.
This book could not have been written without the support of my boss,
my co-workers, my parents, and my friends—a huge thank you, particu-
larly for their patience while I was submerged in this book. Lastly, but
certainly not least, I would like to thank Jemima Warren and Ollie Foster
for their support during this project.
As always, any mistakes are my own.
 Contents

1 Introduction  1

2 Framing and Blaming 11

3 Inquiries Following Crises 33

4 Three Festivals Gone Wrong 47

5 Towards a Better Understanding of Blame Games123

Index133

ix
 About the Author

Sandra L. Resodihardjo is Assistant Professor of Public Administration

at the Institute for Management Research, Radboud University, the
Netherlands. She studies framing, blame games following crises, and resil-
ience in formal emergency networks. Her work has been published in,
amongst others, the Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management,
Safety Science, and Public Administration. Her published work includes a
monograph titled Crisis and Change in the British and Dutch Prison
Services. Understanding Crisis-Reform Processes (Ashgate, 2009) and
­chapters in edited volumes including The Palgrave Handbook of Public
Administration and Management in Europe (Palgrave, 2018).

xi
 List of Figures

Fig. 2.1 Examples of presentational strategies located on a defensive-­

accommodative continuum based on Ihlen (2002, p. 190) and
Hood et al. (2009, p. 698) 26
Fig. 4.1 Police chief’s blame and blame response from 24 August 2009
to 28 February 2010 (Resodihardjo et al. 2012, p. 237).
Reprinted from the original journal (Blackwell Publishing Ltd,
2012) with permission of John Wiley & Sons 65
Fig. 4.2 Mayor’s blame and blame response from 24 August 2009 to 28
February 2010 (Resodihardjo et al. 2012, p. 237). Reprinted
from the original journal (Blackwell Publishing Ltd, 2012) with
permission of John Wiley & Sons 66
Fig. 4.3 The blame levels and blame responses of the six main actors in
the blame game from 26 July 2010 till 23 February 2012 97
Fig. 4.4 Blame levels and blame responses of the four actors (Resodihardjo
et al. 2018, pp. 10–12). Reprinted with permission of Boom
Juridisch111
Fig. 5.1 Factors influencing the blame game process (Resodihardjo et al.
2016, p. 361). Reprinted with permission of John Wiley & Sons
Ltd124

xiii
 List of Tables

Table 2.1 A ‘blame barometer’ used for coding daily media stories (Hood
et al. 2009, p. 718) 18
Table 2.2 Some basic strategic options for officeholders facing media
firestorms: Denial and admission of problem and responsibility
(Hood et al. 2009, p. 698) 24

xv
 CHAPTER 1

Introduction

On 20 September 2018, a horrible accident took place in Oss, the

Netherlands. An employee of a day-care centre was using an electric
transport wagon (a so-called stint) to transport children from the day-care
facility to primary school. The stint is popular with Dutch day-care centres
because it allows easy transportation of the children. On 20 September
2018, however, a stint collided with a train, killing four children and
severely injuring a child and the employee driving the transport wagon.
The shock of this tragedy reverberated through the country. In response
to this tragedy, the Minister of Infrastructure and Water Management Van
Nieuwenhuizen announced that it was no longer allowed to use the
stint—this to the dismay of day-care centres which heavily relied on the
electric transport wagon to transport children.1
It looks, though, as if the minister’s decision was not based on the wish
to ensure the safety of the public. Instead, the decision to prohibit the
usage of the stint seemed to be informed by the need to shift attention
away from the minister, the ministry, and the inspection agency (Inspectie

1
Henley, J. (2018, 20 September). Four children killed as train hits vehicle at Dutch level
crossing fifth child and woman driving electric wagon critically injured in collision in Oss. The
Guardian. Retrieved November 6, 2018 from https://www.theguardian.com/
world/2018/sep/20/four-children-killed-as-train-hits-cargo-bike-at-dutch-level-crossing.
Van Heerde, J., Zuidervaart, B. (2018, 1 November). Minister onder vuur om Stint.
Trouw, Section Nederland, p. 8.
Van Heerde, J. (2018, 5 October). Weerstand tegen het wegverbod voor stints. Trouw,
Section Nederland, p. 10.

© The Author(s) 2020 1

S. L. Resodihardjo, Crises, Inquiries and the Politics of Blame,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-17531-3_1
2 S. L. RESODIHARDJO

Leefomgeving en Transport (ILT)) which should have kept an eye on these

transportation vehicles but had failed to do so. By claiming that the stint
was unsafe, the transport wagon could be prohibited even though at the
time that decision was made, no real evidence existed which supported
this claim.2
RTL Nieuws’ reconstruction of the events makes for interesting reading.
The Dutch broadcasting station’s reporting shows how the government
had been warned in 2011 about these types of vehicles. Yet, the inspection
agency had failed to keep an eye on these transport devices—in fact, it did
not even know it had to keep an eye on the stint. Moreover, no clear
regulations had been made for these new types of vehicles. Consequently,
panic broke out. There was a pressing need to get rid of the stint. “From
that moment on, the Minister, Secretary-General, Director-General,
director, [civil servants], and lawyers worked on a laundry operation: all
the dirt[y laundry] from the past needed to be aired as quickly as possible,
but in a measured way so that it would not stand out too much. Quick
actions were needed to ensure that mistakes from the past would not
[negatively affect] the current minister and civil servants.”3
Prohibiting the stint was made difficult by the fact that there was no
evidence at the time that the stint was unsafe. But there was such a need
within the Ministry to prohibit the stint that “evidence was manipulated in
order to create reasonable ‘doubt.’”4 Amongst other things, actors
creatively copied and pasted from an investigative report by the Dutch
Forensic Institute into the stint while the inspection agency had also
influenced this investigation. Creative writing was also used when it came
to the company’s response to the questions raised about the safety of their
product as that response was either ignored or misrepresented in government
documents. Moreover, an incorrect police report—which the police
2
Vugts, Y., Klein, P. (2018, 29 October). Reconstructie Een giftige cocktail: vier dode
kinderen, paniek en House of Cards. RTL Nieuws. Retrieved November 6, 2018 from
https://www.rtlnieuws.nl/nieuws/artikel/4466311/een-giftige-cocktail-vier-dode-
kinderen-paniek-en-house-cards.
3
Vugts, Y., Klein, P. (2018, 29 October). Reconstructie Een giftige cocktail: vier dode
kinderen, paniek en House of Cards. RTL Nieuws. Retrieved November 6, 2018 from
https://www.rtlnieuws.nl/nieuws/artikel/4466311/een-giftige-cocktail-vier-dode-
kinderen-paniek-en-house-cards.
4
Vugts, Y., Klein, P. (2018, 29 October). Reconstructie Een giftige cocktail: vier dode
kinderen, paniek en House of Cards. RTL Nieuws. Retrieved November 6, 2018 from
https://www.rtlnieuws.nl/nieuws/artikel/4466311/een-giftige-cocktail-vier-dode-
kinderen-paniek-en-house-cards.
 1 INTRODUCTION 3

and the ministry knew to be incorrect—on another alleged stint related

accident experienced by an employee of another day-care centre was used
even though that day-care centre and its employee had made it clear that
the report did not truthfully depict the incident. Additionally, a rule was
fabricated that companies needed to inform the ministry when changing
aspects of these types of vehicles such as a more powerful battery.5
At the time of writing, it is not known what the causes were of the
incident and how this blame game ended. The plot was thickening though
as a day-care centre went to court to object to the stint’s prohibition, but
the court upheld the minister’s decision.6 Questions were raised about the
extent to which the minister had misinformed parliament.7 A research
organization (TNO) was asked to investigate the stint.8 This investigation,
in turn, allowed the Minister of Infrastructure and Water Management to
say that “until the results [of this investigation] are known, I will not make
any decisions.”9 Meanwhile, the inspection agency told a newspaper that
it lacked the capacity to inspect everything10 and the company which

5
Vugts, Y., Klein, P. (2018, 29 October). Reconstructie Een giftige cocktail: vier dode
kinderen, paniek en House of Cards. RTL Nieuws. Retrieved November 6, 2018 from
https://www.rtlnieuws.nl/nieuws/artikel/4466311/een-giftige-cocktail-vier-dode-
kinderen-paniek-en-house-cards.
6
Van Heerde, J. (2018, 5 October). Weerstand tegen het wegverbod voor stints. Trouw,
Section Nederland, p. 10.
‘Nieuwe regels voor de Stint zijn nodig.’ (2018, 2 November). De Telegraaf, Section
Binnenland, p. 8.
Uitspraak kort geding. Kinderopvang verliest kort geding: rijverbod stint blijft van kracht.
(2018, 1 November). RTL Nieuws. Retrieved November 6, 2018 from https://www.
rtlnieuws.nl/nieuws/nederland/artikel/4470621/kinderopvang-verliest-kort-geding-
rijverbod-stint-blijft-van.
7
Van Heerde, J., Zuidervaart, B. (2018, 1 November). Minister onder vuur om Stint.
Trouw, Section Nederland, p. 8.
Mebius, D. (2018, 2 November). Stint-storm is voor even geluwd. De Volkskrant, Section
Ten Eerste, p. 3.
‘Nieuwe regels voor de Stint zijn nodig.’ (2018, 2 November). De Telegraaf, Section
Binnenland, p. 8.
8
Van Heerde, J. (2018, 19 October). Stints gaan de komende maanden de weg nog niet
op. Trouw, Section Nederland, p. 11.
9
Uitspraak kort geding. Kinderopvang verliest kort geding: rijverbod stint blijft van kracht.
(2018, 1 November). RTL Nieuws. Retrieved November 6, 2018 from https://www.
rtlnieuws.nl/nieuws/nederland/artikel/4470621/kinderopvang-verliest-kort-geding-rijverbod-
stint-blijft-van.
10
Pas na drama ILT-onderzoek. (2018, 30 October). De Telegraaf, Section Binnenland,
p. 9.
4 S. L. RESODIHARDJO

produced the stint had to file for bankruptcy.11 In December, TNO

concluded its investigation into the stint: it was deemed to be an unsafe
transportation device. Consequently, the minister announced that her
decision to prohibit the stint was now final.12
The blame game following the tragic accident exhibits all the elements
of a classic blame game: actors try to shift the blame to the company which
produced the stints, there are already hints of internal strife between
government actors (e.g. whether or not the inspection agency had shared
certain information with the ministry), there are hints of excuses (e.g. the
inspection agency told the media it did not have enough resources to do
its job), and an inquiry is used to temporarily stop the decision-­
making process.
Blame games are nothing new. Crises are often followed by questions
about what happened and how this could have happened as well as whether
someone is responsible for what happened. The accountability phase
following a crisis thus consists of two elements: understanding what
happened so one can learn from the crisis in order to prevent its recurrence
and determining whether someone is responsible for what happened. The
learning part is often facilitated by an inquiry aimed at investigating the
events, pointing out what went wrong, and providing a list of
recommendations to avoid a similar crisis from happening again. Ideally,
the investigation is thorough and looks at the underlying causes of the
crisis and the lessons and recommendations of the inquiry are then
implemented (Greenwood 1998; Elliott and Smith 2006; Birkland 2009;
Elliott 2009). The second element is focused on determining whether
someone should be blamed and, if so, who that will be. This process is
known as the blame game.
Now I realize that the concept of blame game carries a negative
connotation for some readers as they will perceive blame games as processes
where self-serving actors dodge responsibility and shift blame to, for
instance, unsuspecting subordinates. A valid perception considering the
example described above where it seems as if various actors are trying to
do their best to protect themselves at the expense of others.

11
Misérus, M. (2018, 29 October). Fabrikant Stint vraagt faillissement aan. De Volkskrant,
Section Ten Eerste, p. 1.
12
Stint definitief van de weg, oorzaak ongeval onduidelijk. (2018, 14 December). Trouw,
Section Binnenland, p. 10.
 1 INTRODUCTION 5

Despite the negative association with the word blame game, I decided
to use the word in this research for two reasons. First, if I were to use a
different word to describe blame games—e.g. to be held accountable—
then this could lead to confusion throughout the book because I would be
using the same word (accountability) to describe a specific phase of crisis
management (the accountability phase which consists of learning and
blame games) and to describe a part of the process within that phase
(people being held accountable). That is why I decided to use the
commonly accepted concept of blame games.
The second reason for sticking with the concept of blame games has to
do with the fact that blame games entail more than just holding people
accountable. As I will show in the next chapter, blame games are complex
framing processes where debate in society leads to a commonly shared
definition of the event (that yes this was indeed a crisis) and a commonly
shared acknowledgement of the avoidable harm caused by the crisis. This
shared problem definition will also address the cause(s) of the crisis and
thus whether someone or an organization can be held responsible for what
happened. These blamed actors will then either accept, deflect, shift, or
minimize the blame they are facing. Depending on how society receives
these blame responses (favourably or not), the blame game will either
come to a conclusion or continue. The concept of blame games therefore
not only refers to that specific point in time when actors are trying to pass
the buck to someone else. It also refers to the framing contest which
determines, for instance, whether blame should be assigned and whether
that blame can be assigned to an actor or whether we are dealing here with
an act of God—in which case the blame game will come to a halt. So
despite the fact that some of the readers will perceive the concept of blame
game in a negative light, it does best describe the whole process from start
to finish.
Having said that, there is a problem with blame games and that problem
is actually the reason why I wrote this book. In recent years, blame games
have become more prominent in the accountability phase of crisis
management. Nowadays, media, politicians, and the public are quickly
outraged, searching almost frantically for someone who can be blamed
for what happened while demanding quite easily someone’s resignation
(cf. De Vries 2004; Weaver 2018; Hinterleitner and Sager 2019). This
focus on finding a culprit can be detrimental for the learning part of the
accountability stage because people will be less willing to open up if anything
they say can be used against them. After all, learning requires openness. It
6 S. L. RESODIHARDJO

requires a willingness to share information about mistakes that have been

made—mistakes which might have led or contributed to the crisis. But if
divulging any information leads to calls for resignation, then people will not
be willing to share information—information which can be vital in
understanding how the crisis came about and how it can be prevented in the
future (May 1992; Weick and Sutcliffe 2007; Choularton 2001; Sulitzeanu-
Kenan 2010; Stark 2010; Kuipers and ’t Hart 2014; Brändström 2016;
Guerin et al. 2018).
In an ideal world, there is room for both a blame game and for learning
as both are crucial elements of a responsive democracy. This, however,
requires a balanced accountability phase. Too much focus on finding a
culprit can result in a hostile environment where people do not feel safe to
share vital information. Conversely, a society where actors can get away
with murder by just saying sorry also hinders the learning process because
no one will have an incentive to dig deeper and find the underlying reasons
why something went wrong. Consequently, only superficial learning will
take place. Both types of unbalanced accountability will have a negative
impact on a society’s capability to learn and thus prevent future mishaps.
An unbalanced accountability phase could therefore lead to a society
which is not resilient, that is, not capable of bouncing back from crises,
because proper learning cannot take place (Resodihardjo et al. 2018b).
The aim of the book is to provide information about how blame games
work. This will help the audience of a blame game as well as the participants
therein to better understand why some crises result in the search for a
culprit while others do not and why some responses to allegations of
blame are more favourably met than others. Having a better understanding
of blame games allows for a better management of the blame games and,
hopefully, a more balanced accountability phase where learning no longer
takes a backseat.
It is, however, impossible to write an all-encompassing book on blame
games as blame games are complex cases where so many variables (such as
political and societal context, prior reputation, upcoming elections, and
even holidays) have an impact on how the blame games evolve. Though
blame game research is gaining traction, there is still much to be learned.
Having said that, the theories and cases explored in this book do help to
provide insight into what happens during a blame game as various theories
from a range of disciplines are connected in the theoretical chapters
(Chaps. 2 and 3) and the detailed description and analysis of the three
cases improves our understanding of how blame games evolve.
 1 INTRODUCTION 7

In the next chapter, theories on blame games will be addressed. The

chapter starts with an explanation of the importance of perceptions and
framing during blame games. These perceptions consist of negativity bias
and risk and causal perceptions. Negativity bias is a concept which describes
humans’ tendency to give more weight and meaning to things that (could)
go wrong than to things that (could) go well. Combine that with the fact
that people are more and more risk averse and that they demand
government to step in and make sure that they are safe and one can
understand how people are becoming less inclined to accept risks.
Considering the lower tolerance for and acceptance of crises, it is not
surprising that crises are quickly followed by public outcries. However, for
an event to be labelled as a crisis, there needs to be a shared understanding
of that event. This is where the framing contest within blame games starts
because if you are able to influence this discussion and achieve a shared
definition that the event was not a crisis, the blame game will not take off.
If the event is defined as a crisis, then various variables (such as the level of
harm resulting from the crisis, the cause of the crisis, and the prior
reputation of actors) influence who is going to be blamed for what
happened and how much blame these actors will receive. Following the
explanation of how blame is attributed, strategies to deal with blame will
be described. According to the literature, an adequate response to blame
matches the level of blame one is facing: low levels of blame allow you to
respond in quite a defensive manner whereas higher levels of blame require
a more accommodative response. The concept of a staged retreat is also
introduced: actors are likely to stay as defensive as possible until that
response no longer works. Only then will they become more accommodative
in their response.
One of the blame responses described in Chap. 2 is appointing an
inquiry. A number of blame game authors merely state that appointing
inquiries is a useful tactic. There is, however, much more to be said about
inquiries: why they are established in the first place, what their functions
are within the crisis management process, and how actors can try to
influence inquiries. Moreover, an inquiry which was initially established to
get an issue off the agenda can actually become influential and set the
agenda in terms of recommendations that need to be implemented. Such
an inquiry—also known as a catalytic inquiry—is, however, quite rare.
Most of the times, inquiries will have less impact on the policy making
process. But they can have quite an impact on how the blame game
unfolds—hence the focus on inquiries in Chap. 3.
8 S. L. RESODIHARDJO

In Chap. 4, I draw and extend on existing publications (Resodihardjo

et al. 2012, 2016, 2018a) to study three blame game cases in order to
further our understanding of how blame games evolve in reality. All three
cases revolve around festivals where something awful happened and where
the mayor was one of the key players in the blame game. The three cases
are the 2009 Sunset Grooves festival (Hoek van Holland/Rotterdam, the
Netherlands), the 2010 Love Parade (Duisburg, Germany), and the 2014
monster truck accident (Haaksbergen, the Netherlands). In the first case,
the mayor—being officially responsible for public safety—could stay in
office; in the second case, Duisburg citizens used a new state law to vote
their mayor out of office; and in the third case, the mayor resigned. In
each case, reality was more complex than expected by theory and
idiosyncratic factors appeared to be crucial. In the first case, for instance, a
more accommodative response to blame did not result in a decrease of the
mayor’s and police chief’s blame levels while length of tenure affected the
blame game outcome. In the second case, the mayor could not voluntarily
resign because that would negatively affect his pension; a new state law
had to be implemented which allowed citizens to vote their mayor out of
office. And in the third case, the mayor experienced an unsolvable conflict
between his role of a caring mayor and his role as administrator which
affected how his citizens perceived him.
These and various other factors influenced the three blame games. In
the concluding chapter, the determinative impact of such case-specific
details results in the creation of a more detailed overview of the variables
influencing the way in which a blame game evolves. This overview results
also in a number of avenues for future research.

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 This genus was founded by Kidston[1021] for fertile pinnae of a very
delicate fern, Zeilleria delicatula (Sternb.) characterised by filiform
ultimate segments bearing an indusium-like body, spherical when
immature and splitting at maturity into four small valves. Kidston, in
his earlier paper, compared the species with recent
Hymenophyllaceae. In the same genus he includes Z. avoldensis[1022]
(Stur) assigned by Stur to Calymmatotheca, a genus described by
some authors as characterised by groups of radially elongated
sporangia at the tips of the pinnules; these supposed sporangia are
now known to be the valves of an indusium-like organ or cupule, as
Stur asserted. There can be little doubt that the fertile fronds placed
in Calymmatotheca and in Zeilleria were borne by Pteridosperms.

Urnatopteris.
The Upper Carboniferous fronds of a delicate Sphenopteris habit,
to which this name was assigned by Kidston[1023], were described by
him as Eusphenopteris tenella (Brongn.)[1024] and compared with
Hymenophyllaceae; subsequently Kidston expressed the opinion
that Urnatopteris may be a Marattiaceous fern, as Williamson[1025]
believed; he has since suggested that the sporangia are the
microsporangia of a Pteridosperm[1026]. The sterile and fertile pinnae
differ in the absence of a lamina in the latter. The sporangia (or
microsporangia) are characterised by a poricidal dehiscence.
The records from strata higher in the geological series than the
Permian, disregarding many of doubtful value, afford ample
testimony to the existence of Marattiaceae in Upper Triassic and
Rhaetic floras.

Marattiopsis.
The generic name Danaeopsis was applied by Heer[1027] to an
Upper Triassic fern, previously described by Presl as Taeniopteris
marantacea. A splendid specimen from the Keuper of Stuttgart is
figured in Schimper’s Atlas[1028] showing the pinnate habit of the
frond and the broadly linear segments, 25 cm. × 3·5 cm., bearing
rows of contiguous sporangia. The large pinnules have a strong
midrib giving off curved and forked lateral veins. Presl’s species may
most appropriately be included in the genus Marattiopsis. A
specimen of M. marantacea described by Leuthardt[1029] as
Danaeopsis marantacea from the Upper Trias of Basel shows a
peculiarity in the venation; the lateral veins often fork near their
origin, as noticed by other authors, but each vein forks a second time
near the edge of the lamina and the two arms converge, forming a
series of intramarginal loops (fig. 265, B).

Marattiopsis Muensteri (Goepp.). Fig. 245, D, E.

This widely spread Rhaetic plant affords the best example of a
post-Permian species which may be accepted as an authentic record
of fossil Marattiaceae. Various generic names have been used for
this species; Goeppert originally described the plant as Taeniopteris
Muensteri[1030]; Schimper[1031] proposed the name Marattiopsis, and
Schenk[1032] substituted Angiopteris on the ground that the fertile
pinnules resemble that genus rather than Marattia. Marattiopsis, if
interpreted as indicating a family resemblance rather than special
affinity to the genus Marattia, would seem to be the more appropriate
designation.
This species has been figured by several authors and in many
instances with fertile pinnules; the best illustrations are those
published by Zeiller[1033] in his monograph of Tonkin plants.
The pinnate fronds are characterised by a broad rachis bearing sessile
broadly linear pinnules rounded at the base, obtusely pointed at the apex,
reaching a length of 15–20 cm. and a breadth of 12–35 mm. From a well-
marked midrib are given off secondary veins dichotomously branched close to
their origin. The linear synangia near the ends of the veins contain two rows of
sporangial compartments and open as two valves as in Marattia. (Cf. fig. 245,
A, p. 320.)

This species occurs in the Rhaetic beds of Scania, Franconia, and

Tonkin. A similar type is figured by Fontaine from Jurassic beds in
California as Angiopteridium californicum[1034], and Bartholin[1035] and
Moeller[1036] record M. Muensteri from the Lias of Bornholm. Schenk’s
species from China[1037], Angiopteris Richthofeni, is a closely allied
species, and a similar form is recorded from Jurassic and Caucasian
strata[1038]. The microscopical examination by Nathorst[1039] of a group
of spores from a synangium of M. Muensteri shows that they
resemble those of recent Marattiaceae.
• • • • •
From the Upper Triassic plant beds of Lunz, Stur has included
several species of ferns in the Marattiaceae, and of these
Krasser[1040] has recently published full diagnoses but unfortunately
without illustrations. In addition to Marattiopsis marantacea (Presl)
the list includes species referred to Coniopteris, to Speirocarpus, a
genus founded by Stur, to Oligocarpia, Asterotheca, and Bernouillia
(Heer).
As already pointed out, some at least of these Austrian ferns are
more probably Osmundaceous than Marattiaceous.

Danaeopsis

Danaeopsis Hughesi, Feistmantel.

The pinnate fronds described by Feistmantel[1041] from the Middle
Gondwana rocks of India and recorded from Rhaetic strata in South
Africa[1042], China[1043], and Tonkin[1044], may belong to a member of
the Marattiaceae, but no fertile specimens have been described. The
close agreement between the sterile leaves from India and South
Africa and the fertile fronds of Marattiopsis marantacea suggests
generic identity.
The Upper Triassic ferns described by Heer, Krasser[1045], and
Leuthardt[1046] as Bernouillia have been referred to the Marattiaceae,
but without trustworthy evidence in favour of this affinity.
The large leaves, 70 cm. long and 7 cm. broad, described by
Zigno[1047] from the Jurassic of Italy as Danaeites Heeri, are probably
Cycadean. The Polish Jurassic species Danaea microphylla[1048] is a
more satisfactory record.
 Fig. 294.
A, B. Nathorstia angustifolia, Heer. (After Heer. A, nat. size.)
C, D. Sorus of N. latifolia, Nath. (After Nathorst. C, × 12; D, × 45.)

Nathorstia.
This name was instituted by Heer[1049] for pieces of pinnate fronds
from Lower Cretaceous rocks of Greenland. The resemblance of the
long pinnules to the fertile segments of Laccopteris is so close that
generic identity might well be assumed, but it has recently been
shown by Nathorst[1050] that the soral characters justify Heer’s use of
a distinctive name for the Arctic fern. The circular sori arranged in
two rows (fig. 294, A, B) are superficially identical with those of
Laccopteris, but consist of concrescent sporangia forming a circular
synangium (fig. 294, C, D) like those of Kaulfussia and
Ptychocarpus. The lighter areas in fig. 294, D, represent the
sporangia: fig. C shows the radial disposition of the numerous
sporangial compartments round a central receptacle. From a stout
midrib lateral veins arise at right angles, but their distal terminations
are not preserved. It is probable, as Nathorst suggests, that
Bayer’s[1051] species Drynaria fascia from the Lower Cretaceous
rocks of Bohemia should be referred to Heer’s genus. In the
absence of well-preserved sori it would be exceedingly difficult, or
even impossible, to distinguish between pinnules of Laccopteris and
Nathorstia.
A Tertiary species, Marattia Hookeri (fig. 261, C, p. 350), described
by Gardner and Ettingshausen[1052] from the Eocene beds of the Isle
of Wight is referred by them to the Marattiaceae because of a
resemblance of the sterile pinnae to those of M. Kaulfussii; but this is
insufficient evidence of relationship.
 CHAPTER XXIII.
Psaronieae.
This family name, first suggested by Unger, may be conveniently
adopted for the numerous species of petrified tree-fern stems
characteristic of the Lower Permian and Upper Carboniferous strata.
In his monograph Über die Staarsteine published in 1854,
Stenzel[1053] referred to the Psaronieae as a special subdivision of the
Filices most nearly allied to the Polypodiaceae. There is now a
consensus of opinion in favour of including Psaronius in the
Marattiales, or at least of regarding the genus as more closely allied
to the Marattiaceae than to any other family. While admitting that the
balance of evidence is in favour of this view, it is probably wiser to
retain the distinctive term Psaronieae on the ground that species of
Psaronius differ in several respects from any recent ferns, and
because of our comparative ignorance in regard to the nature of the
fructification.

Psaronius.
This generic name was proposed by Cotta in his classic work Die
Dendrolithen[1054]. The stems so named, formerly included by
Sprengel[1055] in the genus Endogenites, had long been familiar as
petrified fossils. Most of the specimens described by the earlier
writers were obtained from Lower Permian rocks in the
neighbourhood of Chemnitz, Saxony. The mottled appearance
presented by their polished surfaces is said to have given rise to the
appellation Staarsteine (starling stones), a term expressing a
resemblance, more or less remote, to a starling’s breast. It has been
suggested that this word is a corruption of Stern Steine or star
stones[1056], a descriptive term suggested by the stellate arrangement
of the vascular strands in transverse sections of the roots.
Parkinson[1057], in his Organic Remains of a former World, speaks of
these stems as starry stones. The history of our knowledge prior to
1854 is summarised by Stenzel. At first compared with corals or the
stems of sea-lilies, Psaronii were recognised by Sprengel, who first
used a lens in the examination of the fossils, as fern stems most
nearly allied to those of recent Cyatheaceae. By other authors, e.g.
Schlotheim and Sternberg, they were referred to Palms, and by
Brongniart considered to be the lower portions of Lycopodiaceous
(Lepidodendron) stems. Corda and many subsequent authors
selected the Marattiaceae as the most closely allied family among
existing plants.
Psaronius is represented by specimens obtained from the Lower
Permian of Saxony and Upper Carboniferous rocks in Central
France, also from Bohemia, Brazil and North America. As yet a few
fragments only have been found in the English Coal-Measures. The
genus was recognised by Williamson[1058] who described the roots
and a small piece of the vascular tissue of a stem which he called P.
Renaulti, and this type has since been more fully described by
Scott[1059]. The roots of another species have been described by
Butterworth[1060] as P. Cromptonensis.
It was pointed out in the account of Lepidodendron that several
generic names have been used for the same type of stem in different
states of preservation; in Psaronius accidents of fossilisation have
been responsible for a similar confusion in nomenclature. The name
Psaronius is applied to petrified specimens which, as a rule, lack
external features. Casts or impressions of Palaeozoic tree-fern
stems provided with leaf-scars are described as species of
Caulopteris, Megaphyton, and less commonly as Ptychopteris (figs.
297–299). The first name is applied to stems exhibiting spirally
disposed leaf-scars like those of recent tree-ferns; in Megaphyton
the scars are distichously arranged, in two rows, while Ptychopteris
is applied to decorticated stems. These terms are used for stems
belonging to one generic type and possessing the structure of
Psaronius stems.
 Fig. 295. Psaronius stem with roots. (Much reduced. After Grand’Eury.)
The researches of Grand’Eury[1061] led to the discovery that certain
Psaronius stems bore fronds of the Pecopteris type some of which
bore sori of the Asterotheca or Scolecopteris type. The same
author[1062] has also contributed many interesting facts, obtained by
an examination of the relation of Psaronius stems to the sediments
of French Coal-fields in which they occur, in regard to habitat and
manner of growth. The specimen represented in fig. 295 shows a
portion of a Psaronius stem, the upper part of which illustrates the
Caulopteris state of preservation, while the lower part is covered by
a mass of roots. It is probable, as Rudolph[1063] suggests, that this
rich development of roots, which gives to an old Psaronius stem the
appearance of an elongated cone, may have served an important
mechanical purpose analogous to the secondary thickening in a
Dicotyledon or a Conifer. A specimen of Psaronius Cottai in the
Hofmuseum, Vienna, is cited in illustration of the enormous breadth
of the root-system: the radii of the stem proper and of the encasing
cylinder of roots bear the ratio 17 to 165. The comparatively frequent
occurrence of a lacunar cortex in the roots points to the growth of the
stems in swampy ground, a conclusion in harmony with the evidence
afforded by the anatomical features of many other Palaeozoic
genera.
• • • • •
Psaronius may be briefly defined as follows:—
Tree-fern stems, occasionally reaching a height of 50 feet or more, closely
resembling in habit recent tree ferns, but exhibiting in the structure and
arrangement of the vascular system a close agreement with recent
Marattiaceae. Leaves, in such cases where a connexion between fronds and
stems is known, large and highly compound and of the Pecopteris type, borne
in more or less crowded spirals (Psaronius polystichi), in four rows (P.
tetrastichi), or in two opposite rows (P. distichi). Leaves deciduous, leaving a
clearly defined oval scar containing the impression of the leaf-trace in the form
of an open U, or a closed oval with a small inverted V-shaped band a short
distance below the upper end of the long axis of the oval (figs. 297, 298); in
Megaphyton the alternate scars of the two opposite series are larger and
characterised by a different form of meristele. The surface of the cortex below
the leaf-scars occasionally shows impressions of pits similar to the lenticel-like
organs on recent Tree-fern stems. The central region of the stem is occupied
by a complex system of concentrically disposed steles (dictyosteles), which in
transverse section present the appearance of flat or curved bands varying in
extent and in degree of curvature. The vascular bands consist of xylem
surrounded by a narrow zone of phloem; the xylem is composed either
exclusively of tracheae or of tracheae and parenchyma; the protoxylem in the
one instance in which it has been clearly recognised is endarch[1064]. The
steles are embedded in parenchymatous tissue and in some species are
associated with mechanical tissue (e.g. P. infarctus, fig. 296, A, B). The central
or vascular region of the stem may be surrounded externally by a cylinder of
mechanical tissue interrupted by outgoing leaf-traces and adventitious roots.
The leaf-traces arise as single bundles from an internal stelar band and pursue
an obliquely radial course towards the outside, eventually anastomosing with
peripheral cauline steles, which in some species form with the leaf-traces the
outermost zone of the vascular region. The leaf-traces have the form of loops
which pass into the petioles as V-shaped meristeles or closed oval cylinders.
As a leaf-trace passes out compensating strands occupy the foliar gap.
The vascular region is surrounded by a parenchymatous cortex, which in
younger plants, or in the apical region of an older plant, forms the surface of the
stem to which the leaf-stalks are attached. From the peripheral steles, or from
the more external bands of the vascular network, roots are given off which pass
in a sinuous vertical course through the cortex, appearing on the surface
between the leaf-bases. In older stems, after leaf-fall, the tissue immediately
external to the vascular region produces secondary parenchyma with which the
roots become intimately associated by their outermost cells. As a result of the
secondary cortical development and the gradual increase in the number of
roots invading the cortical tissue from above, the stem is enclosed by a cylinder
of roots and associated parenchymatous tissue of secondary origin. In still
older portions of a stem the more external roots are free from the stem-cortex
and form a thick felted mantle, which increases in thickness towards the base
of the tree.
The roots (fig. 296, E) are polyarch, 5–10 groups of xylem alternating with
strands of phloem, and similar in structure to those of recent species of
Marattia and Angiopteris; the stele is enclosed by an inner cortex of compact or
lacunar tissue containing secretory sacs, and this is surrounded by a cylinder of
mechanical tissue. In one or two instances secondary xylem has been
observed wholly or partially enclosing the root-stele[1065].
 Fig. 296.
A. Psaronius infarctus (P, peripheral steles; L, leaf-traces).
B. P. infarctus, longitudinal tangential section through the peripheral
region of the stem.
C. P. coalescens.
D. P. musaeformis.
E. P. asterolithus (root).
(A—C, E, after Zeiller; D, after Stenzel.)
Our knowledge of the anatomy of Psaronius is based largely on
the investigations of Stenzel considerably extended by Zeiller’s more
intensive studies and, more recently, by the later work of Stenzel[1066]
and that of Rudolph. A striking fact, which has led to various
suggestions, is that in a transverse section of a Psaronius stem with
its encasing cylinder of roots no signs of leaf-traces are met with in
the root-region. If the roots simply penetrated the cortex, as in some
recent species of Lycopodium (fig. 125, A) or as in Angiopteris, we
should expect to find leaf-traces in the outer region (root-cylinder) of
Psaronius stems. An explanation of the absence of leaf-traces which
was suggested by Stenzel, is that the cortical zone formed a
comparatively narrow band in the young leaf-covered stem; after
leaf-fall it became the seat of active growth in its inner layers and so
produced a constantly widening zone of secondary parenchyma,
which pushed the superficial cortical tissue with the leaf-bases or
leaf-scars farther out until it was exfoliated. Farmer and Hill[1067] find it
difficult to accept this explanation; but, as Rudolph shows, the radial
arrangement of the cortical cells between the adventitious roots and
their elongation in a radial direction are arguments in support of the
secondary nature of the cortical zone.
In sections of the adventitious roots of Psaronius Renaulti figured
by Williamson[1068], the spaces between the cylindrical roots are
partially occupied by cell-filaments which, at first sight, suggest root-
hairs; it may well be, as Rudolph suggests, that these felted hairs
represent the outermost and looser part of the growing secondary
cortex which gradually passes into the covering mass of free extra-
cortical roots.
As Stenzel[1069] has shown, slender stems of Zygopteris (=
Ankyropteris) are occasionally met with growing through the web of
Psaronius roots.

Psaronius infarctus Unger. Fig. 296, A, B.

This species, which Zeiller[1070] has investigated from sections of
Unger’s material, illustrates a type in which the vascular tissue is
very richly developed and forms crowded concentric series of curved
plates associated, in the more peripheral series, with bands of
mechanical tissue. The outermost part of the vascular region
consists of (i) a series of loops or variously curved bands of
conducting tissue representing leaf-traces at different stages in their
outward course, (ii) a series of similar vascular strands (peripheral
steles of Zeiller) confined to the stem (cauline) and from which roots
are given off, and (iii) bands of mechanical tissue associated with the
leaf-traces and peripheral steles. The peripheral steles (fig. 296, A,
B, p) form anastomoses with the leaf-traces and contribute to their
formation.
The form of some of the vascular bands in the section of
Psaronius infarctus shown in fig. 296, A, illustrates the occasional
anastomosing of one dictyostele with another: the different degrees
of looping of other bands represent stages in the giving off of leaf-
traces which eventually pass out as V-shaped meristeles. Beyond
the leaf-traces and sclerenchymatous bands the section consists of
transverse sections of adventitious roots.
The surface-features of Psaronius infarctus are probably
represented, as Zeiller points out, by the cast described by
Lesquereux as Caulopteris peltigera (fig. 298, A).
 Fig. 297. Pecopteris Sterzeli: a, pinnule. (After Renault and Zeiller. ¹⁄₁₁ nat.
size.)
The Psaronius shown in fig. 297 is one of the few examples
illustrating the connexion between fronds and stem. The leaf
(Pecopteris Sterzeli Zeill. and Ren.[1071] is quadripinnate and is
described as reaching a length of at least 3 metres; the ultimate
segments are entire or lobed. The stem is characterised by elliptical
scars, 6–8 cm. x 3·5–4 cm., with leaf-traces like those in Caulopteris
peltigera. The fronds of Pecopteris Pluckeneti, a Pteridosperm, bear
a very close resemblance to those of P. Sterzeli, which are as yet
known only in a sterile state.
• • • • •
Psaronius brasiliensis Unger, a species founded by Unger on a
piece of silicified stem acquired by Martius in Brazil and now in the
Rio Museum, is a good example of a tetrastichous species. Solms-
Laubach[1072] has recently told the history of this type, which is
represented by sections, cut from the Rio stem, in several European
collections. A well-preserved section in the British Museum is figured
by Arber[1073] in his catalogue of the Glossopteris flora and by other
authors. Scott gives a concise description of the species in his
Studies in Fossil Botany[1074]. The roots of P. brasiliensis are stated
by Pelourde[1075] to have a lacunar cortex.

Psaronius musaeformis Corda[1076]. Fig. 296, D.

This species from the Lower Permian of Chemnitz and the Coal-
Measures of Bohemia affords an example of the distichous type in
which the leaves are borne in two rows. The vascular bands, as
seen in a section of the dictyosteles, occur in regular parallel series.
The stelar region is separated from the cylinder of encasing roots by
a sclerenchymatous sheath, broken at intervals where roots pass out
from the vascular region.
Psaronius coalescens[1077] (fig. 296, C) illustrates a somewhat
different arrangement of vascular tissue which approaches more
closely to the polycyclic structure characteristic of such recent ferns
as Matonia and Saccoloma. A still closer resemblance to the
solenostelic type is seen in Psaronius Renaulti from the Lower Coal-
Measures of England which Scott[1078] describes as characterised by
a single annular stele, interrupted only by the exit of leaf-traces. As
he points out, it is noteworthy that this species is distinguished by the
simplest form of stele met with in the genus; it is the oldest species
and may be regarded as the most primitive representative of the
genus Psaronius so far discovered.
 Fig. 298.
A. Caulopteris peltigera.
B. Megaphyton insigne.
(After Grand’Eury.) Much reduced.
Psaronius stems preserved as casts showing surface-features, or
in a decorticated state.

i. Caulopteris.
This generic name was instituted by Lindley and Hutton[1079] for
tree-fern stems from the English Coal-Measures showing circular or
oval scars arranged quincuncially. The vascular tissue of the petiole
is represented by a U-shaped impression on the scar, the ends of
the U being incurved, or by a closed oval ring with a wide-open and
inverted V near its upper end. The surface between the leaf-scars
bears the impression of adventitious roots. Caulopteris is
represented, in the Upper Coal-Measures of England, by C.
anglica[1080] Kidst. The species C. peltigera (fig. 298, A), originally
described by Brongniart as Sigillaria, illustrates the closed form of
leaf-trace and, as Zeiller suggests, it is the cast of a Psaronius stem
which possessed a vascular system on the same plan as that of P.
infarctus. C. Saportae[1081] illustrates the open U-shaped type of
petiole stele.
 Caulopteris peltigera has scars measuring 6–9 by 4–6 cm.; it
occurs in the Commentry Coal-field of France in association with the
fronds known as Pecopteris cyathea, a species which Kidston
regards as identical with P. arborescens[1082].

ii. Megaphyton.
The first use of this name was by Artis[1083], who gave it to a long
flattened cast, Megaphyton frondosum, found in Carboniferous strata
in Yorkshire, characterised by two vertical rows of large scars and by
impressions of sinuous roots. Kidston records the genus from the
Middle and Upper Coal-Measures of Britain. A good example of this
type of cast is afforded by M. McLayi Lesq.[1084] from the Coal-
Measures of North America, which has been recognised in European
Carboniferous rocks. The leaf-scars are rounded or oval, broader
than high; the vascular impression has the form of a closed ring (5–8
× 3–6 cm.), more or less circular and with a tendency to a
rectangular outline, characterised by a deep inverted U-shaped sinus
in the middle of the lower surface and by a W-shaped impression of
an internal strand (fig. 298, B)[1085].

iii. Ptychopteris.
This generic name, instituted by Corda[1086], is applied to
decorticated stems of Psaronius, the surface of which is that of the
vascular region on which the form of the leaf-scars is more or less
clearly defined. The scar-areas are limited by an impression of the
sclerenchymatous sheath enclosing the leaf-meristele, and internal
to this is the impression of the leaf-trace. In some specimens a layer
of coaly material which represents the carbonised cortex and
adventitious roots covers the Ptychopteris cast. The Ptychopteris
cast represented in fig. 299 shows the decorticated surface of part of
a long stem on which the leaf-scars are arranged as in Megaphyton.
An example of Ptychopteris is figured by Fontaine and White[1087]
from Virginia as Caulopteris gigantea.
Fig. 299. Ptychopteris. ⅙ nat. size. From the Middle Coal-Measures of
Lancashire. (The Manchester Museum.)
 Fig. 300. Dicksonia antarctica (half of stem in transverse section): st,
stele; s, sclerenchyma.

Position of Psaronius.
A comparison of Psaronius with the Marattiaceae and other recent
ferns leads to the conclusion that, on the whole, the evidence is in
favour of the view usually held, namely that this genus is more
closely related to the Marattiaceae than to any other recent ferns. It
is, however, important not to overlook the differences between
Psaronius and recent genera of Marattiaceae, or the resemblances
between the extinct genus and the Cyatheaceae. In habit Psaronius
agrees closely with recent tree-ferns; in the vascular system and in
the sequence of events connected with the production of leaf-traces,
there are striking resemblances between Psaronius and the
Cyatheaceous fern Saccoloma adiantoides (= Dicksonia Plumieri
Hook.) as described by Mettenius[1088]. The piece of stem of
Dicksonia antarctica represented in fig. 300 exhibits a fairly close
agreement with species of Psaronius, e.g. P. infarctus (fig. 296, A,
B). Moreover, the peripheral steles, which Zeiller has shown are
confined to the stem and play an important part in the production of
the roots and in the anastomoses with leaf-traces, are not
represented in any Marattiaceous fern; on the other hand, they are
comparable with the accessory strands met with in stems of recent
Cyatheaceous tree-ferns[1089] (cf. fig. 240). The complex system of
concentric dictyosteles is a feature more closely matched in