Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:40224–40244

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-30556-y

SPECIAL ADSORBENT MATERIALS FOR RETENTION AND DEGRADATION

OF POLLUTANTS FROM FLUID PHASES

Recent advances and mechanisms of microbial bioremediation

of nickel from wastewater
Sonu Sharma1 · Monu Sharma1 · Raman Kumar1 · Mohammad Sayeed Akhtar2 · Ahmad Umar3,4 ·
Abdulrab Ahmed M. Alkhanjaf5 · Sotirios Baskoutas6

Received: 22 February 2023 / Accepted: 16 October 2023 / Published online: 6 November 2023
© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2023

Abstract
The global concern over emerging pollutants, characterized by their low concentrations and high toxicity, necessitates effec-
tive remediation strategies. Among these pollutants, pharmaceutical and personal care products, pesticides, surfactants,
and persistent organic pollutants have gained significant attention. These contaminants are extensively distributed within
aquatic ecosystems, posing threats to both human and aquatic physiological systems. Nickel, a valuable metal renowned
for its corrosion-resistant properties, is widely utilized in various industrial processes, leading to the generation of nickel-
containing waste streams, including batteries, catalysts, wastewater, and electrolyte bleed-off. Contamination of soil, water,
or air by these waste materials can have adverse effects on the environment and human health. This review article focuses
on the recent advancements in environmental and economic implications associated with the removal of nickel from diverse
waste sources. Physicochemical technologies employed for treating different nickel-containing effluents and wastewater are
discussed, alongside bioremediation techniques and the underlying mechanisms by which microorganisms facilitate nickel
removal. The recovery of nickel from waste materials holds paramount importance not only from an economic standpoint
but also to mitigate environmental impacts.

Keywords Emerging pollutants · Pesticides · Surfactants · Nickel · Wastewater · Physico-chemical techniques ·

Bioremediation

Abbreviations
DDT Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane
Responsible Editor: Robert Duran AS Activated sludge
MBR Membrane bioreactor
* Raman Kumar
ramankumar4@gmail.com SMBR Submerged membrane bioreactor
HMs Heavy metals
1
Department of Biosciences and Technology, ACC​ 1-Aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC)
Maharishi Markandeshwar (Deemed to be University), deaminase
Mullana (Ambala), Haryana 133207, India
IAA Indole-3-acetic acid
2
Department of Botany, Gandhi Faiz-e-Aam College, RBC Rotating biological contractor
Shahjahanpur, Uttar Pradesh 242001, India
PGPB Plant growth-promoting bacteria
3
Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science and Arts,
and Promising Centre for Sensors and Electronic Devices
(PCSED), Najran University, Najran 11001, Saudi Arabia
4
Introduction
Department of Materials Science and Engineering, The Ohio
State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
5
Environmental contamination is a global concern for
Department of Clinical Laboratory Sciences, College
of Applied Medical Sciences, Najran University,
ecotoxicologists, environmental biologists, biochemists,
Najran 11001, Saudi Arabia pathologists, and other specialists. Metal-polluted wastes
6
Department of Materials Science, University of Patras,
have become a laborious issue of significant environmental
26500 Patras, Greece significance (Lim et al. 2008; Zhou et al. 2023; Daź et al.

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Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:40224–40244
2022; Yang et al. 2023). Water contamination is caused by a
wide range of contaminants, including dangerous heavy met-
als and emerging toxic compounds (Wang 2023; Yin et al.
2019; Shen et al. 2023; Gong et al. 2020; Priya et al. 2022;
Ren et al. 2023). Among these contaminants, heavy metals,
with their wide sources, long residual time, and difficulty in
degradation, pose a significant threat to marine ecosystems
(Jin et al. 2022; Diab et al. 2020; Yang et al. 2022; Wang
et al. 2022). The increased frequency of human activities,
driven by industrialization, has led to a surge in heavy metal
pollution, particularly the pollution caused by heavy metal
ions (HMIs) (Zeng et al. 2022; Huang et al. 2018; Li et al.
2022). This pollution extends to natural resources such as
water and land, which are crucial for agriculture and soci-
etal well-being but have suffered substantial damage from
human activities (Akhtar et al. 2018; Niyonzima et al. 2023;
Masindi and Muedi 2018).
Certain HMIs have been found to be hazardous at concen-
trations as low as 0.001–0.1 ppm, posing a serious threat to
human health (Verma and Kuila 2019; Gao et al. 2022; Chen
et al. 2020; Suo et al. 2022). Nickel, a transition metal, is
considered a heavy metal due to its physiological necessity
at low concentrations but harmful effects at higher concen-
trations (Engwa et al. 2019; Kour et al. 2019). Nickel con-
tamination has emerged as a significant environmental issue,
especially in industrial wastewater discharges, as nickel is
non-biodegradable and can accumulate in organisms (Lu and
Astruc 2018; Burakov et al. 2018; Kour et al. 2019). Sec-
tors such as mining, metallurgy, electroplating, tanning, and
others release substantial amounts of potentially hazardous
heavy metals, including nickel (Liu and Lu 2022; Burakov
et al. 2018; Kour et al. 2019; Abdullah et al. 2023).
Fig. 1  Illustration of the path-
way of nickel contamination in
the food chain and its impact on
the human health
40225
While plants and animals require small amounts of nickel
for various physiological functions, elevated levels can have
detrimental effects. Plants experience disrupted metabolic
activities, growth disturbances, abnormal flowering, and
decreased biomass production (Ahmad and Ashraf 2011).
Animals exposed to nickel face risks such as cancer, respira-
tory illnesses, allergies, cardiovascular diseases, and renal
disorders due to mitochondrial disorders and oxidative stress
induced by nickel (Genchi et al. 2020). The interference of
heavy metals like nickel with normal biological processes
in human organs poses severe health risks (Acosta et al.
2018; Das et al. 2021; Renu et al. 2021) (Fig. 1).
Given the persistence of nickel contamination and its
detrimental effects, effective techniques for the removal
of nickel from wastewater are crucial. Bioremediation,
utilizing microorganisms, has emerged as a cost-effective
and environmentally favorable strategy for the removal of
heavy metals, including nickel, from contaminated environ-
ments. Understanding the recent advances and mechanisms
of microbial bioremediation for nickel removal from waste-
water is essential for developing efficient and sustainable
remediation strategies.
Nickel (Ni) is a remarkable metal that was discovered
by Axel Fredrik Cronstedt in 1751. With its beautiful, sil-
very-white appearance, nickel is the 28th element on the
periodic chart and accounts for approximately 1% of the
Earth’s crust (Lenntech Water Treatment and air purifica-
tion 1998). It possesses unique physical and chemical prop-
erties, including magnetizability, a high melting point of
1453 °C, exceptional corrosion and oxidation resistance,
low thermal and electrical conductivities, and resilience to
extreme temperatures. Nickel’s atomic number is 28, and its
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40226
electron configuration is 1­ s2, ­2s2, ­2p6, ­3s2, ­3p6, ­4s2, ­3d8, with
an atomic mass of 58.71 (Marin 2022).
Nickel commonly crystallizes as a face-centered cubic
lattice and is the strongest, most malleable, and abundant
component of the Earth’s crust. In aqueous solutions, nickel
primarily exists in the Ni(II) oxidation state. Through alloy-
ing with other metals, nickel enhances their durability and
provides protection against corrosion across a wide range
of temperatures (Marin 2022). It exhibits ferromagnetic
properties at room temperature, but also exists in a non-
ferromagnetic hexagonal form. Ullmann’s Encyclopaedia of
Industrial Chemistry provides comprehensive information
on nickel’s physical and chemical characteristics, as well as
its occurrence, extraction, purification methods, compounds,
and alloys. Nickel compounds and alloys find extensive
applications in various industrial and commercial sectors
(Coman et al. 2013).
Nickel is widely used in the production of stainless steel,
non-ferrous alloys, and nickel-based superalloys known for
their excellent corrosion and temperature resistance. Indus-
tries such as machinery manufacturing and precision elec-
tronics heavily rely on nickel alloys. Additionally, nickel
compounds and complexes serve as efficient catalysts in
numerous syntheses, while nickel oxide hydroxide is com-
monly employed in Ni-based rechargeable batteries (Coman
et al. 2013). Divalent nickel is extensively utilized in mineral
processing, metal finishing, electroplating, battery manufac-
turing, leather tanning, zinc base casting, and hydrometal-
lurgical industries. Its applications span from magnets to
specific alloys and stainless steel.
However, despite its widespread use, nickel and its com-
pounds pose significant health risks. The World Health
Organization (WHO) guidelines specify a maximum allow-
able level of 3 mg/L for Ni(II) in sewage and a limit of 0.02
Fig. 2  Comprehensive illustra-
tion of the adverse human
health effects caused by nickel
exposure
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Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:40224–40244
mg/L in drinking water. Exposure to nickel has been associ-
ated with kidney damage, lung fibrosis, skin rashes, and can-
cer. Divalent nickel, in particular, has been linked to lung,
bone, and nasal cancers (Fig. 2).
Ni compounds are recognized as potent carcinogens capa-
ble of inducing rapid cell alterations and tumor formation
in both humans and animals. High levels of Ni(II) exposure
have been correlated with an increased risk of lung cancer
and pleomorphic cancer. These metallic species have also
been reported to cause genetic defects and toxic effects on
cells. Heavy metals like nickel can influence cell signaling
pathways, including G protein-coupled receptors, MAP
kinase, and nuclear transcription (Rodríguez and Quesada
2006). Excessive concentrations of nickel have been asso-
ciated with cardiovascular and kidney diseases, as well
as cancer (Islam et al. 2019). Ni(II) is harmful to various
organisms, affecting the growth and development of plants,
animals, and microbes. It induces oxidative stress, leading
to oxidative and non-oxidative damage to cell membranes,
proteins, lipids, and DNA (Das et al. 2008a; Barrera-Díaz
et al. 2012). The toxicity of nickel at the cellular level can be
examined through techniques such as scanning and transmis-
sion electron microscopy.
Considering the extensive usage of nickel and the associ-
ated health and environmental concerns, effective methods
for the remediation of nickel contamination are impera-
tive. Microbial bioremediation has emerged as a promising
approach for the removal of nickel from wastewater. Under-
standing the recent advances and mechanisms involved in
microbial bioremediation can contribute to the development
of efficient and sustainable strategies for addressing nickel
pollution.
Excessive accumulation of nickel in plants can have detri-
mental effects on their growth and development. High levels
Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:40224–40244
of nickel can slow down the growth of shoots and roots,
affect branch development, and alter the shape of various
plant parts. It can also lead to abnormal flowers, reduced
biomass production, leaf spotting, and disruption of mitotic
root tips. Nickel toxicity can result in iron deficiency, caus-
ing chlorosis (yellowing of leaves) and foliar necrosis (death
of leaf tissue) (Fig. 3).
Metabolic functions, cell wall flexibility, cell divisions,
and hydrolytic enzyme activities are all reduced under nickel
toxicity, which can negatively impact seed germination and
seedling development. Protein synthesis and the movement
of stored food from the endosperm to the developing embryo
can be disturbed, leading to a loss of seed germination and
seedling development. Root growth is particularly affected
by nickel toxicity (Tang et al. 2022a; Seregin et al. 2003;
Seregin and Kozhevnikova 2006; Shaikh et al. 2022; Walker
et al. 1985; Bishnoi et al. 1993).
Nickel toxicity also interferes with plant metabolism, pre-
venting proper transpiration and photosynthesis. It can alter
the ultrastructure of plants and lead to decreased yields in
crops. Increased levels of nickel significantly inhibit seed
germination and seedling development in various plant spe-
cies. Higher concentrations of nickel reduce water content
in both dicot and monocot plants, further contributing to the
toxicity effects. The suppression of protein and chlorophyll
processes is closely associated with nickel toxicity in plants
(Zhang et al. 2007; Rao and Sresty 2000; Naz et al. 2022).
To address nickel contamination in wastewater, several
techniques are available for preconcentration and removal of
Ni(II). These include membrane filtration, biological treat-
ment, chemical coagulation and flocculation, solvent extrac-
tion, photocatalytic degradation, and adsorption. Adsorption
is one of the most commonly used methods for removing
heavy metal ions from wastewater, including nickel. Other
physicochemical techniques such as ion exchange, precipita-
tion, reverse osmosis, electrochemical treatment, and mem-
brane technologies are also employed. Biological methods
Fig. 3  Visual depiction of the
diverse adverse effects on plants
from nickel exposure
40227
can be utilized as well. Adsorption using activated carbon
and the investigation of heavy metal biosorption in multime-
tallic systems have shown promising results in the removal
of heavy metals from wastewater (Borja et al. 2016; Efome
et al. 2019; Qiu and He 2019; Liu et al. 2020; da Silva
Oliveira et al. 2007; Pang et al. 2011; Dong et al. 2022; Sun
et al. 2018; Dhandole et al. 2020; Shi et al. 2018; Li et al.
2018; Ding et al. 2020; Gapusan and Balela 2020; Topare
and Wadgaonkar 2022; Verma and Balomajumder 2020;
Aloulou et al. 2020; Azimi et al. 2017; Semerjian 2018; de
Sa Costa et al. 2021; Bai et al. 2022). These techniques aim
to reduce nickel and other heavy metals to simpler forms or
immobilize them for safe disposal or reuse.
Bioremediation is a widely documented technique for the
removal of heavy metals and organic pollution, known for its
cost-effectiveness and environmental friendliness (Dönmez
and Aksu 2001; Costa et al. 2022; Tang et al. 2022b). Vari-
ous organisms, including bacteria, yeast, fungi, algae, and
plants, have been found to be effective agents in bioremedia-
tion (Fig. 4, Tables 1, 2, and 3). Biosorption, a process where
bio-derived products or waste materials are used as adsor-
bents, plays a crucial role in bioremediation. The adsorp-
tion technique is simple and cost-effective for the separation
and recovery of metal ions from aqueous solutions (Li et al.
2018; Molina-Campos et al. 2020; Bawazeer 2022).
The functional groups present on the surface of bioad-
sorbents are primarily responsible for pollutant removal
in the biosorption process. Studies by Wong et al. (2018),
Georgieva et al. (2020), and Qu et al. (2021) have success-
fully removed Ni(II) and other contaminants using various
bioadsorbents such as charcoal, sawdust, straw, dried fun-
gal, bacterial, algal, and plant biomass. Parameters such as
pH, initial pollutant concentration, temperature, and surface
characteristics of the bioadsorbent, including functional
groups, significantly influence pollutant biosorption.
Bioremediation is a biotechnological approach used
to remove or treat contaminants. It involves the use of
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40228 Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:40224–40244

Fig. 4  Diverse microorganisms

utilized in bioremediation for
environmental cleanup

Table 1  Different bacterial species, removal rates, and mechanisms for metal removal in wastewater treatment
Bacteria Removal rate Associated mechanism References

Bacillus megaterium 1295S 80.46% Accumulation and surface sorption Gheethi et al. (2017)
Bacillus aryabhattai HU-39 89% Accumulation and surface sorption Khadim et al. (2019)
Klebsiella sp. USL2S 86.06% Biosorption Orji et al. (2021)
Desulfovibrio desulfuricans 90.1mg/g Biosorption Kim et al. (2015)
Pseudomonas aeruginosa 8.26mg/g Biosorption Kang et al. (2005)
Micrococcus spp. 90% Sulaymon et al. (2013)
Pseudomonas flurescens 4F39 80% López et al. (2002)
Streptomyces noursei 0.79 mg/g Biosorption Mattuschka and Straube (1993)
Microbacteriumsp. MRS-1 95% Sathyavathi et al. (2014)
B. thuringiensis 15.7% Biosorption Öztürk (2007)
Escherichia hermannii 130.57 mg/g Biosorption Hernandez-Cruz et al. (1998)
Enterobacter cloacae 117.12mg/g Biosorption Hernandez-Cruz et al. (1998)
Acinetobacter baumannii 8.8mg/g Biosorption Rodríguez and Quesada (2006)
Yarrowia lipolytica 138.9mg/g Biosorption Shinde et al. (2012)
Stenotrophomonas maltophilia 54.3 mg/g Biosorption Wierzba (2015)
Oedogonium hatei 40.9 mg/g Biosorption Gupta et al. (2010)
C. vulgaris 60.2% Biosorption Aksu et al. (2002)
E. hermannii 175.12% Biosorption Hernandez-Cruz et al. (1998)
B. infantis 42% Bioaccumulation Beglari et al. (2022)

organisms to eliminate or utilize pollutants in a polluted
environment. Bioremediation is considered a safe, cost-
effective, and eco-friendly method for removing toxins
from contaminated water (Salgot and Folch 2018). It can
be performed in situ (at the contaminated site) or ex situ
(outside the contaminated site) and includes techniques
such as bioreactor suspension, phytoremediation, bioleach-
ing, biostimulation, and composting. Active members
of microbial consortia, including Nitrosomonas, Pseu-
domonas, Penicillium, Bacillus, Xanthobacter, Flavo-
bacterium, and Mycobacterium, play significant roles
in biodegradation in various polluted environments (El-
Sheekh et al. 2015).
Biosorption, on the other hand, differs from biore-
mediation as it involves living organisms accumulating,
decomposing, mineralizing, transforming, and sorbing pol-
lutants through functional groups on their cell surfaces.
Different enzyme-catalyzed mechanisms are responsible
for the degradation, mineralization, and transformation of
pollutants into less hazardous forms, such as carbon diox-
ide, methane, water, and biomass (Han et al. 2020). Heavy
metals and certain recalcitrant organic compounds, like

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Table 2  Fungal species, removal rates, and mechanisms for metal removal in wastewater treatment
Fungi Removal rate Associated mechanism References

Phanerochaete chrysosporium 89.4% Adsorption by surface functional group Noormohamadi et al. (2019)
Trichoderma harzianum 11000 mg/kg Accumulation inside mycelia Cecchi et al. (2017)
Aspergillus flavus CR500 73.1% Accumulation inside mycelia and biosorption Kumar and Dwivedi (2020)
on mycelia
Trichoderma asperellum TS141 78% Accumulation inside the mycelia Hoseinzadeh et al. (2017)
Phlebia brevispora 72·7% Sharma et al. (2022)
Penicillium sp. MRF1 74.6% biosorption Sundararaju et al. (2020)
Aspergillus versicolor 30.05% Bioaccumulation Taştan et al. (2010)
Trichoderma aureoviride 88% Biosorption Siddiquee et al. (2013)
Fusarium flocciferum 5.2/100 mg Biosorption Delgado et al. (1998)
Trichoderma virens T128 Biosorption Siddiquee et al. (2013)
Trichoderma harzianum T32 835.1 mg/g Biosorption Siddiquee et al. (2013)
Phanerochaete chrysosporium (ATTC 101.34 mg/g Biosorption Iqbal and Saeed (2007)
24725)
Trametes pubescens MB 89 8.6% Biosorption Enayatizamir et al. (2020)

Table 3  Algal species, removal Algae Removal rate Associated mechanism References
rates, and mechanisms for metal
removal in wastewater treatment Dunaliella sp. 80.8% Bioaccumulation and Dahmen-Ben Moussa et al. (2018)
binding on cell surface
Asparagopsis armata 17.7mg/g Biosorption Romera et al. (2007)
Codium vermilara 13.2mg/g Biosorption Romera et al. (2007)
Durvillaea antarctica 32.8mg/g Biosorption Guarín-Romero et al. (2019)
Cystoseria indica 18.17mg/g Biosorption Khajavian et al. (2019)
Oedogonium westi 59-89% Biosorption Shamshad et al. (2016)
Chlorella vulgaris 64.76% Biosorption Wong et al. (2000)
Scenedesmus 61.2 % Biosorption Wang and Wood (1984)
Chlorella miniate 1367.62 μg/g Biosorption Wong et al. (2000)
V. debaryana 14.9 mg/g Biosorption Shamshad et al. (2020)

dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), can accumulate
in the whole cell system, leading to various bio-processes
such as interaction with organisms, surface sorption, trans-
portation inside and outside the cell, intracellular precipi-
tation, or translocation inside vacuoles. Living organisms
utilize pollutants as sources of nutrition and energy, cata-
lyzing them into less harmful forms. In some cases, micro-
organisms export pollutants outside the cell through efflux
pumps to reduce their toxicity while maintaining cellular
homeostasis. Temperature, pH, moisture, initial metal con-
centration, chemical nature of the pollutant, availability of
nutrients, and microbial community of the contaminated
area are significant factors that can affect the bioremedia-
tion process (Kumar and Dwivedi 2021). Increasing the
pH to 4 has been shown to enhance the removal percentage
of Ni(II) ions, while further increasing the pH causes the
percentage to decrease (Talaee Shoar et al. 2022).
Metal-tolerant microorganisms and plants have the abil-
ity to accumulate high levels of nickel in their cytoplasm
and cell organelles. Bioremediation techniques for nickel
decontamination have included the use of probiotic micro-
organisms (Beglari et al. 2022). The cell walls of plants
and microbes are composed of carbohydrates, proteins, and
lipids, which contain functional groups on their surface
that facilitate the adsorption of contaminants like Ni(II).
Combining the surface functional groups and accumulation
mechanisms of metal-tolerant plants and microbes offers a
promising approach for nickel removal (Han et al. 2020;
Kumar and Dwivedi 2020; Priyadarshanee and Das 2021;
Kumar and Dwivedi 2021).
Wastewater treatment remains a significant challenge in
the pursuit of sustainability (Fig. 5). Various biotechnology-
based wastewater treatment technologies are being devel-
oped, including activated sludge (AS), oxidation ponds,
droplet filters, biofilters, and anaerobic treatments. Biotech-
nology is also utilized in environmental engineering through
processes such as bio-trickling filters, solid composting, and
biosorption. The key to successful treatment lies in finding

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40230
Fig. 5  Schematic representation
of wastewater treatment process
the appropriate microbes capable of degrading heavy met-
als and implementing the treatment measures in the right
conditions. Therefore, review papers focusing on the det-
rimental effects of nickel on the environment, plants, and
human health, as well as the physicochemical techniques
for heavy metal removal and the mechanisms of heavy metal
removal using microorganisms, are crucial for advancing our
understanding of this field.
Activated sludge
Activated sludge (AS) and membrane bioreactors are highly
promising wastewater treatment technologies. Activated
sludge systems provide a cost-effective means of remov-
ing contaminants through physical and chemical adsorption
processes. Activated sludge is a widely adopted and cost-
effective wastewater treatment technology that plays a cru-
cial role in mitigating water pollution. Activated sludge flocs
are predominantly composed of hydrophilic polar materials,
and these flocs contain a substantial amount of contaminants
(Buaisha et al. 2020). When wastewater comes into contact
with activated sludge flocs, various pollutants, including
heavy metals, natural contaminants, and air pollutants, can
be effectively targeted for removal. This removal is accom-
plished through a range of physical and chemical adsorption
processes.
Gravity settling, ion exchange, bonding, non-polar pre-
cipitation, oxide depletion, enzymatic reactions, and elec-
trical adsorption are some of the mechanisms involved in
the physical and chemical adsorption processes associated
with activated sludge treatment (Buaisha et al. 2020). These
mechanisms enable the efficient capture and removal of con-
taminants from wastewater, enhancing the overall treatment
performance.
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Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:40224–40244
Researchers, such as Colussi et al. (2010), have explored
the utilization of anaerobic sludge for nickel sorption and
investigated the impact of nickel removal on methane gen-
eration. Their study demonstrated the potential of anaerobic
sludge in sorbing nickel while shedding light on the rela-
tionship between nickel removal and methane production.
Additionally, Niec and Cha (2000) conducted research on
the biosorption of Ni(II) using industrial anaerobic sludge in
a batch reactor. They discovered the effectiveness of anaero-
bic sludge in removing nickel under specific conditions of
temperature and pH. Niec and Cha further investigated the
effect of anoxic selectors on heavy metal removal by acti-
vated sludge. By comparing the metal binding properties of
activated sludge systems with and without anoxic selectors,
they found that the selection sludge exhibited significantly
higher sorption capacity compared to the control sludge.
These studies highlight the potential of activated sludge sys-
tems in efficiently removing heavy metals and emphasize the
importance of optimizing process parameters for enhanced
contaminant removal.
Membrane bioreactor
Membrane bioreactors (MBR) integrate biological pro-
cesses with membrane separation, offering advantages such
as modularity, ease of measurement, and compatibility with
various applications. Advancements in both activated sludge
and membrane bioreactor technologies hold significant
potential for improving wastewater treatment efficiency and
addressing the challenges associated with water pollution.
The MBR represents a class of water and wastewa-
ter treatment systems that combine biological processes
with membrane separation techniques (Fig. 6). Membrane
technology has gained significant attention in wastewater
Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:40224–40244
Fig. 6  Schematic illustration of membrane bioreactor
treatment due to its modular design, ease of measurement,
minimal footprint, and compatibility with other processes.
The MBR has emerged as an attractive and innovative tech-
nique to overcome challenges associated with conventional
activated sludge processes, including low concentrations of
strong mixed alcohol, poor sludge settling, and biological
instability (Darweesh et al. 2021).
MBRs have demonstrated their capacity to effectively
treat wastewater from various sources, including industrial
and domestic sectors. Although certain existing water treat-
ment systems may currently outperform MBRs in terms of
cost and operational capabilities, projected advancements
in bioreactor design and waste removal efficiency hold the
promise of making the MBR system a viable option for effi-
cient wastewater management in the near future (Khan et al.
2018).
Notably, submerged membrane bioreactor (SMBR) con-
figurations have exhibited remarkable capabilities in the
removal of antibiotics from contaminated sources, thereby
reducing the environmental risks associated with these
pharmaceutical compounds (Xu et al. 2019). Furthermore,
SMBRs have been shown to remove up to 60% of organic
and nutrient-rich waste, underscoring their potential in sus-
tainable wastewater treatment practices. These findings sug-
gest that membrane bioreactors, with their ability to com-
bine biological and membrane separation processes, offer
a promising approach for the effective treatment of diverse
wastewater streams.
Rotating biological contractor
The rotating biological contactor (RBC) is a secondary treat-
ment technique used in wastewater treatment plants after the
primary treatment process. The primary treatment involves
the removal of large solids through screening and settling
of suspended solids. The RBC process utilizes a series of
rotating discs or drums that are partially submerged in the
wastewater. These discs are coated with a biological film,
which serves as a medium for microbial growth.
40231
During the RBC process, the wastewater flows over the
rotating discs, allowing the microorganisms in the biofilm to
come into contact with the pollutants present in the waste-
water. The microorganisms, including bacteria and other
microbes, degrade and assimilate the organic matter and
contaminants, thereby purifying the water.
One of the significant advantages of RBC is its ability
to remove priority pollutants, such as pharmaceuticals and
personal care products, from wastewater. Studies have shown
that the RBC process is effective in the removal of these
pollutants (Hassard et al. 2015). The high-density commu-
nication surface provided by the rotating discs facilitates
the interaction between the pollutants and microorganisms,
enhancing the efficiency of pollutant removal.
After passing through the RBC, the treated wastewater
is transported to a clarifier, where the suspended biological
particles settle as sludge. The sludge can then be further
treated or disposed of properly. RBC offers several advan-
tages, including low cost, simplicity, process durability, and
eco-friendly performance. For example, research by Rana
et al. (2018) demonstrated that the RBC process improved
the efficiency of phenol removal by more than 56%. This
highlights the effectiveness of RBC in treating specific con-
taminants present in wastewater.
Bioleaching or biomining
Bioleaching, also known as biomining, is a process that uti-
lizes microorganisms, such as bacteria or archaea, to extract
valuable metals from low-grade ores. This technique is con-
sidered more efficient and environmentally friendly com-
pared to traditional mining methods. Bioleaching can also
be applied to the remediation of mine tailings and electronic
waste. Figure 7 exhibits the schematic illustration of the pro-
cess of bioleaching.
The bioleaching process can be carried out through dif-
ferent methods, including slope leaching, heap leaching,
and in situ leaching. In slope leaching, the ore is stacked
on a slope and irrigated with a leaching solution, allowing
the microorganisms to interact with the ore and extract the
metals. Heap leaching involves piling the ore in a heap and
percolating it with a leaching solution. In in situ leaching,
the leaching solution is injected directly into the ore deposit.
Bioleaching is effective even at ambient temperatures below
30 °C, making it suitable for various environments (Riek-
kola-Vanhanen 2013). The microorganisms involved in
bioleaching oxidize the sulfide minerals present in the ore,
releasing metal ions that can be solubilized and recovered.
Different metals, including nickel, zinc, cobalt, gold, ura-
nium, silver, and copper, can be extracted through bioleach-
ing. The efficiency of metal extraction depends on various
factors, such as the ore composition, microbial activity, pH,
and temperature. For instance, a study by Cameron et al.
13
40232
Fig. 7  Schematic illustration for
the process of bioleaching
(2009) investigated the technical viability of elevated-pH
bioleaching on a low-grade ultramafic nickel sulfide ore. The
research demonstrated that nickel extraction from pentland-
ite was relatively insensitive to acidity at low pH but sensi-
tive at high pH. The study achieved significant recovery of
nickel, cobalt, and copper through flask and column leaching
processes.
Bioaccumulation
Bioaccumulation refers to the process by which substances,
such as pesticides or toxins, accumulate in an organism
over time. Chemicals can enter an organism through vari-
ous routes, including inhalation, skin absorption, or inges-
tion. Bioconcentration occurs when the concentration of a
chemical within an organism exceeds that of its surrounding
environment, such as air or water. Biomagnification, on the
other hand, refers to the increase in chemical concentration
as it moves up the food chain.
In other words, the steady accumulation of substances
in an organism, such as pesticides or other toxins, is known
as bioaccumulation (Alexander 1999). Chemicals can be
absorbed by an organism through breathing, skin absorption,
or ingestion. Bioconcentration occurs when the concentra-
tion of a chemical within an organism exceeds that of its
surroundings (air or water). Bioaccumulation of chemicals
in the body due to direct detection from the natural matrix
(bioconcentration) and acquisition from food, according
to the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry
(biomagnification).
In the case of heavy metals, bioaccumulation involves
the uptake and accumulation of these metals by organisms,
13
Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:40224–40244
particularly bacteria, through active metabolic processes.
Bacterial cells employ proteins, such as transporters, to
take up heavy metals from their surroundings and seques-
ter them within the cell (Fig. 8). Bioaccumulation occurs
when the absorption rate of contaminants exceeds the rate
of loss. The initial phase is assumed to be the adsorption
of Heavy metals (HMs) onto the cells, and the metal spe-
cies are then carried into the cells, where the HMs can
be sequestered by proteins, the lipid bilayer as an import
system, and peptide ligands as a storage system through
the cell metabolic cycle (Mishra and Malik 2013).
The process of bioaccumulation is influenced by the
rate of absorption of contaminants compared to their
elimination rate. Bacterial cells adsorb heavy metals onto
their surfaces, and the metals are subsequently transported
into the cells. Inside the cells, proteins, lipid bilayers, and
peptide ligands can sequester the heavy metals, leading to
their accumulation (Mishra and Malik 2013).
As a result, this mechanism is reliant on the metabolism
of bacterial cells. According to research by Xujia Wu pub-
lished in 2021, the ability of a marine Brevibacterium sp.
known as X6 to accumulate nickel was examined in order
to determine whether it might be used to bioremediate
­Ni2+ contaminants in marine settings. The maximal ­Ni2+
bioaccumulation and minimum N ­ i2+ inhibitory concen-
tration of X6 were greater than those of most reported
strains, at 1000 mg/L and 100.95 mg/g, respectively. A
bioaccumulation test conducted in different research by
Beglari et al. (2022) yielded an approximate rate of nickel
accumulation inside the strains’ cells. The best nickel
accumulation rate was recorded by L. casei, L. brevis, and
L. mocusae at around 43%, followed by B. infantis.
Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:40224–40244
Fig. 8  Schematic illustration for the bioaccumulation of heavy metals through the food chain
Biotransformation
Biotransformation refers to the biological conversion of one
chemical compound or a mixture of compounds into differ-
ent forms. Microorganisms, including fungi and bacteria, are
capable of carrying out biotransformation processes. These
microorganisms can use whole cells, cell lysates, or purified
enzymes to catalyze the transformation reactions.
Biotransformation plays a crucial role in the breakdown
and elimination of hazardous contaminants in water bodies,
contributing to their remediation. Microorganisms utilize
various metabolic pathways and enzymes to transform toxic
compounds into less harmful and more stable forms. Natural
biotransformation relies on the activity of indigenous micro-
organisms to degrade and eliminate contaminants in water
bodies, restoring them to their original state. The growth
of microorganisms is facilitated by favorable environmen-
tal conditions, and their metabolic processes contribute to
the degradation of pollutants. Environmental biotransfor-
mation approaches can be employed to enhance the natural
biotransformation process. However, these approaches face
challenges due to the complex nature of pollutants and the
need for optimal microbial growth conditions.
Biotransformation is the process of microorganisms such
as fungi, bacteria, and their enzymes converting hazardous
contaminants into less dangerous and lasting forms (Alva-
rino et al. 2018). Natural biotransformation is a process that
uses normal microorganisms to break down and eliminate
toxins in water bodies, restoring them to their original state
(Alvarino et al. 2018). Microorganisms must convert water
pollution into harmless product forms tobio transform, while
natural conditions facilitate and simplify microbial growth.
Natural characteristics should be included to obtain a low
40233
microbial growth rate and a specific quick rate of degenera-
tion. Environmental biotransformation approaches, on the
other hand, have issues.
Plant growth‑promoting bacteria
Plant growth-promoting bacteria (PGPB) are a group of
beneficial microbes associated with plants that play impor-
tant roles in promoting plant growth, development, and
stress resistance (Middleton et al. 2021). These bacteria
have been particularly studied in the context of Ni hyperac-
cumulator species, which are plants capable of accumulat-
ing high levels of nickel. PGPB enhance the growth and
development of plants, including Ni hyperaccumulators,
by various mechanisms (Fig. 4). They can produce com-
pounds that stimulate plant growth, such as indole-3-acetic
acid (IAA), which is a phytohormone involved in root and
shoot development. PGPB can also produce enzymes, such
as 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC) deami-
nase, which helps plants cope with high ethylene concen-
trations that can hinder root growth. Studies have shown
that inoculation with specific PGPB strains can increase the
levels of ACC deaminase and IAA in Ni hyperaccumulator
plants, leading to improved growth and Ni phytoextrac-
tion in polluted soil. For example, Babu et al. (2013) and
Kamran et al. (2016) demonstrated the positive effects of
PGPB inoculation on Ni hyperaccumulators. Specific bac-
terial strains, such as Arthrobacter nicotinovorans SA40
and Bacillus subtilis strain SJ-101, have been found to be
effective in extracting Ni and reducing Ni phytotoxicity,
respectively. The effectiveness of PGPB inoculation for
increased Ni bioremediation needs to be further investi-
gated through field applications.
13
40234
Through increased growth and development (length, dry
biomass of root and shoot, root girth, total chlorophyll, and
N contents of shoots) of heavy metals in hyperaccumula-
tor species including Ni, PGPBs improve metal tolerance
and supports (Ma et al. 2011; Basu et al. 2017). The three
different inoculants were found to increase 1-aminocyclo-
propane-1-carboxylic acid deaminase (ACC deaminase) and
indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) levels in Ni hyperaccumulators
and to improve Ni phytoextraction in polluted soil (Babu
et al. 2013; Kamran et al. 2016). Plant roots are hampered
by high ethylene concentrations; however, ACC deaminase
can hydrolyze ethylene and stimulate the formation of plant
biomass for Ni Bioremediation (Cabello-Conejo et al. 2014),
reported Arthrobacter nicotinovorans SA40 was shown to be
particularly successful at extracting Ni from contaminated
soil. Bacillus subtilis strain SJ-101, according to (Zaidi et al.
2006), reduces Ni phytotoxicity. Plant growth-promoting
bacteria (PGPBs) increased Ni uptake in Alyssum murale,
according to (Abou Shanab et al. 2003). Individual PGPBs
and consortia must be tested for their efficacy in field appli-
cations for increased Ni bioremediation.
Phytoremediation
Phytoremediation is a remediation technique that utilizes
plants to remove, degrade, or immobilize pollutants, par-
ticularly heavy metals, from contaminated soil, water, or
air. Phytoremediation can be divided into different pro-
cesses, including phytostabilization, phytovolatilization,
and phytoextraction. Phytostabilization involves the use
of plants to immobilize or stabilize pollutants in the soil,
preventing their movement or leaching. Plants accumulate
the pollutants in their belowground parts, reducing further
Fig. 9  Schematic illustration for
the phytoremediation of heavy
metals
13
Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:40224–40244
contamination of the surrounding environment. Phytovola-
tilization is a process in which plants absorb pollutants,
such as volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and release
them into the atmosphere through transpiration. However,
phytovolatilization is not effective for Ni cleanup. In the
case of phytoextraction, plants take up pollutants from
the soil and accumulate them in their shoots or leaves.
This process is particularly relevant for heavy metals like
nickel. Certain plant species, such as Pycnandra acumi-
nata (formerly Sebertia acuminata) found in New Caledo-
nia, have the remarkable ability to accumulate high levels
of nickel in their tissues.
Phytoremediation offers a sustainable and environmen-
tally friendly approach to remediate contaminated sites.
However, the effectiveness of phytoremediation depends
on various factors, including plant species selection, pol-
lutant characteristics, and site conditions. Further research
is needed to optimize phytoremediation strategies and
explore the potential of different plant species for specific
contaminants
Phytostabilization stabilizes Ni in the vadose zone
of plants by accumulating/precipitating into the plants’
belowground parts/zone (Bolan et al. 2011), reducing
further Ni pollution in the area (Fig. 9). Heavy metals,
particularly mercury (Hg), are assimilated into volatile
organic compounds (VOCs) by plants and released into
the atmosphere by transpiration (Marques et al. 2009). The
phytovolatilization process is ineffective for Ni clean-up.
According to Jaffrè et al. (2018), a unique tree in New
Caledonia called Pycnandra acuminata (formerly Sebertia
acuminata) has a remarkable capacity to collect nickel in
its blue-green latek since nickel makes up around 25% of
the dry weight of the latek.
Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:40224–40244
Role of microorganisms in the removal
of heavy metals
Microorganisms, including bacteria, fungi, and algae, play
important roles in the removal of heavy metals from various
environments. These microorganisms utilize different mech-
anisms such as bio-precipitation, biosorption, and intracellu-
lar accumulation to sequester and detoxify heavy metal ions.
Harnessing the abilities of microorganisms for bioremedia-
tion purposes offers promising solutions for mitigating heavy
metal pollution and restoring contaminated ecosystems.
Bacteria
Microorganisms, particularly bacteria, play a significant role
in the removal of heavy metals from various environments.
Both Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria have dem-
onstrated high efficacy in removing heavy metals such as
nickel (Ni). For example, Bacillus aryabhattai HU-39 has
been shown to effectively remove Ni(II). In a study, strain
HU-39 achieved a removal efficiency of 89% at an initial
Ni(II) concentration of 250 mg/L and a temperature of 30
°C. The removal of Ni(II) occurs through a process called
bio-precipitation, where Ni(II) is converted into ­NiCO3, a
precipitated form of nickel (Khadim et al. 2019).
Other bacteria such as Bacillus megaterium 1295S and
Sporosarcina pasteurii 586S have also been investigated for
their ability to remove Ni (Gheethi et al. 2017). The mecha-
nisms involved in Ni(II) elimination by these bacteria include
intracellular accumulation and surface sorption, both driven
by the presence of functional groups on the bacterial cell sur-
face (Khadim et al. 2019). These functional groups interact
with Ni(II) ions, facilitating their removal from the environ-
ment (Yang et al. 2011; Wierzba 2017; Wu et al. 2021).
Table 1 provides a list of different bacteria that have
been studied for their involvement in Ni removal. These
bacteria serve as promising candidates for bioremediation
strategies targeting the removal of heavy metals from con-
taminated environments.
Fungi
Fungi are essential components of ecosystems and pos-
sess saprophytic qualities, allowing them to contribute to
the organic cleansing of the environment. They have been
extensively studied for their potential in degrading organic
pollutants and are used in various industries, including food
and beverage production. Fungi possess a wide range of
enzymes that can be harnessed for environmental remedia-
tion purposes (Singh et al. 2019; Singh and Dwivedi 2020).
40235
In addition to their organic pollutant degradation capabili-
ties, fungi also play a role in heavy metal removal (Taran et al.
2015; Sundararaju et al. 2020; Sharma et al. 2022). Various
processes such as heavy metal accumulation, detoxification,
mineralization, and transformation have been reported in
fungi (Table 2). For instance, Phanerochaete chrysosporium
has been studied for its ability to remove Ni through a process
called biosorption. Under well-mixed conditions, P. chrys-
osporium can accumulate up to 16 mg/L of Ni with a high
clearance efficiency (Noormohamadi et al. 2019).
The diverse enzymatic and metabolic activities of fungi
make them promising candidates for bioremediation approaches
aimed at heavy metal removal and environmental cleanup.
Table 2 provides a list of different fungi that have been stud-
ied for their involvement in Ni removal. These fungi serve as
promising candidates for bioremediation strategies targeting
the removal of heavy metals from contaminated environments.
Algae
Algae, with their unique biological characteristics, also
play a significant role in the removal of heavy metals.
Algae exhibit high photosynthetic competency and possess
a simple structure, allowing them to thrive in challenging
ecological settings such as environments with high salin-
ity, heavy metal contamination, nutrient stress, and high
temperatures (Leong and Chang 2020).
In addition to their environmental adaptability, algae have
the ability to accumulate heavy metals and produce biomass.
This dual strategy makes them useful for wastewater treat-
ment and energy production. Algae have been utilized for the
removal of heavy metals such as chromium (Cr) and nickel
(Ni) in both live and dead forms (Table 3). The mechanisms
involved in heavy metal removal by algae include biosorp-
tion, where the heavy metal ions are adsorbed onto the sur-
face of algae, as well as intracellular uptake and accumula-
tion (Ramadoss and Subramaniam 2019).
Algae-based bioremediation approaches have gained atten-
tion due to their eco-friendly nature and potential for sustain-
able applications in heavy metal removal from contaminated
waters and wastewaters. Table 3 provides a list of different
algae that have been served as promising candidates for biore-
mediation strategies targeting the removal of heavy metals
from contaminated environments (Shamshad et al. 2020).
Mechanisms involved in heavy metal
biosorption
The biosorption mechanism is a complex process that uti-
lizes bio-sorbents for binding sorbates into it. Many natural
resources such as microbial biomass (bacterial, fungal, algal
13
40236
biomass), agricultural waste, industrial by-products, etc. are
used as bio-sorbents. Biosorption can remove pollutants even
in a significantly lower concentration and take out heavy met-
als present in even ppb (parts per billion) concentration from
a polluted environment (Ahemad and Kibret 2013). Several
ways are adapted by the bacteria to take up these metals and
classified according to various criteria. Depending on cell
metabolism, biosorption is categorized into metabolism-
dependent and metabolism-independent. According to the
metal absorption/accumulation location, biosorption can be
classified as extracellular precipitation, cell surface sorption,
and intracellular accumulation (Fig. 10). In metabolism-
dependent biosorption, intracellular accumulation of metals
occurs through the cell membrane, carried out by viable cells
only. Metal uptake in metabolism-independent biosorption
occurs by physicochemical interaction between the functional
groups on the surface of bacteria and the metal ions. The
binding of metal ions onto the cell surface of a bacterium in
metabolism-independent biosorption involves various mecha-
nisms such as physical interaction (electrostatic or van der
Waals interaction) or chemical interaction (displacement of
attached metal cations by ion exchange), complexation, dif-
fusion, surface adsorption, or by precipitation. Complexa-
tion involves associating two or more species, i.e., metal ions
and the functional groups present on the bacterial cell sur-
face. It is categorized into two different types: monodentate
and polydentate complex (Kanamarlapudi et al. 2018). In
monodentate complexes, the metal ion binds with the ligands
via covalent bonds. It occupies the ligand's central position,
but in polydentate complexes, more than one metal ion inter-
acts with the ligands. The Fourier-transformed infrared spec-
troscopy (FTIR) analysis of the non-living biomass of Kocu-
ria palustris and Micrococcus luteus showed that carboxylate
ions and functional groups such as amino and phosphate
Fig. 10  Schematic illustration
for the mechanism of biosorp-
tion
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Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:40224–40244
present on the bacterial cell surfaces contribute to Cd bind-
ing by complex formation (Machalová et al. 2015). In the ion
exchange mechanism, the exchange of binary metal cations
occurs with the counter ion residing on the surface of the
biosorbent. An ion exchange process was identified for Pb(II)
adsorption by extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) of
Klebsiella sp. J1 with the counter ions ­K+ and ­Mg2+ (Wei
et al. 2016). The mechanism of metal binding by precipita-
tion occurs through the reaction of metal ions with the func-
tional groups present on the bacterial surface which results
in insoluble organic metal precipitates and remains attached
to the microbial cells. Removal of some of the toxic heavy
metals such as Ni(II), Cd(II), Cr(III), Cr(VI), and Co(II) from
various industrial effluent was carried out by Escherichia coli
C90, that produces alkaline phosphatase to precipitate the
metal cations (Chaudhuri et al. 2013). Physical adsorption of
metals on the microbial surface takes place by van der Waals
forces between the biomass and metal ions. Biosorption of
Cd and Cr ions from metal solutions was effectively done
by applying Bacillus laterosporus and Bacillus licheniformis
(Zouboulis et al. 2004). The transport of heavy metals across
the cell membrane by living bacteria occurs in two steps.
The first step is independent of metabolism, which involves
the attachment of heavy metals to the cell surface. The sec-
ond one is the internalization of metal ions across the cell
membrane (Das et al. 2008b). This mechanism is similar to
the uptake of some essential ions such as N ­ a+, ­K+, ­Ca2+,
etc. by the cells. Thus, the ion channels may be confused by
the metal cations having identical charges and ionic radius
associated with essential ions.
Cells employ various defense mechanisms against high
concentrations of nickel, including nickel efflux. Interest-
ingly, cells also exhibit chemotactic responses to nickel
concentrations in the environment. Englert et al. (2010)
Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:40224–40244
demonstrated that nickel has a chemotactic-repellent effect
mediated by the methyl-accepting chemotaxis protein Tar,
independent of NikA.
Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains known for their nickel
resistance have long been recognized for their ability to
sequester the metal in vacuolar compartments along with
high levels of the amino acid histidine (Joho et al. 1992).
Studies have shown that strains with defective vacuolar
proton ATPase, impairing vacuolar acidification, display
increased nickel toxicity. Genetic investigations have
revealed that histidine auxotrophs exhibit heightened sen-
sitivity not only to nickel but also to various other metals.
Furthermore, knockout mutants of genetic iron importers
in yeast cells have shown increased sensitivity to nickel
(Ruotolo et al. 2008). Genome-wide studies in S. cerevisiae
have identified 149 genes whose deletion enhances nickel
sensitivity, indicating their involvement in nickel resistance
(Arita et al. 2009). These genes include cation transport-
ers, siderophore-iron transporters, diphthamide production
genes, and proton-transporting ATPase-related genes.
Sulfate-reducing bacteria are capable of producing sig-
nificant amounts of sulfide, which can mitigate the toxicity
of metals. For example, a nickel-resistant strain of desulfo-
tomaculum grown in the presence of high nickel concentra-
tions generates a dark-brown, soluble nickel-sulfide product,
effectively reducing the concentration of free nickel ions
(Fortin et al. 1994). In the case of Pseudomonas putida S4,
nickel accumulation occurs in the periplasm, potentially
facilitated by an 18 kDa protein, as a resistance mechanism
against nickel (Tripathi and Srivastava 2006). In contrast,
Table 4  Comparison of techniques for heavy metal removal, including nickel and their pros and cons
Techniques used for removal Advantages
Replacement of soil • Suitable for the remediation of deeply contaminated
soil
Electro remediation • Suitable for quick remediation
• Require low energy
Immobilization techniques • Cost-effective
• Easy to use
• Rapid technique
Washing of soil • Effective for highly contaminated sites
• Quick method
Bioremediation • Cost-effective
• Minimal site disruption
Environmental-friendly
• High efficiency for metal removal
• Very effective for field application with high confi-
dence
• Removes contaminated wastes permanently.
• Highly public acceptance
Phytoextraction • Produce low waste
• Cost-effective technique
40237
Pseudomonas aeruginosa strains accumulate nickel within
their cells, and energy-dispersive X-ray analysis reveals the
presence of metallic nickel (Sar et al. 2001). Moreover, Thio-
capsa roseopersicina, when grown on hydrogen gas, exhibits
reduction of Ni(II) to elemental nickel, which is associated
with increased nickel resistance.
Several factors influence the biosorption mechanisms
involved in the removal of heavy metals, including nickel.
These factors include (i) the properties of the biosorbents,
whether living or non-living; (ii) the characteristics of the
targeted metal; (iii) the type of binding sites involved in
metal sequestration (biological ligands); (iv) various param-
eters of the biosorption process, such as temperature, pH,
contact time, and the amount of sorbent and sorbate; and (v)
the characteristics of the metal solution, including the pres-
ence of competing co-ions. Consideration of these factors is
crucial in designing efficient biosorption strategies for the
removal of heavy metals from contaminated environments.
Merits and demerits of Ni removal approach
The removal of nickel (Ni) from contaminated environments
involves various remediation approaches, each with its own
merits and limitations. In order to better understand the effec-
tiveness and feasibility of these approaches, several studies
(Gong et al. 2018; Yadav et al. 2018) have provided insights
into the advantages and disadvantages associated with differ-
ent techniques for Ni removal. Table 4 summarizes the various
Disadvantages
• Costly
• Loss of fertility from the soil occurs
• Not effective for the soil contaminated from the depth
• Reduces the effectiveness of the soil
• No complete removal
• Change in properties of the soil
• Costly technique
• Downturn in the soil structure
• Time-consuming technique
• Highly specific
• Sensitive to toxins as it releases toxic metabolites
• Time-consuming
• Biomass of plant needs to be disposed
13
40238
techniques used for the removal of heavy metals, including
nickel, along with their respective merits and limitations. It
serves as a comprehensive reference for evaluating the effi-
cacy and practicality of each approach.
The advantages of specific Ni removal techniques can
include high efficiency in metal sequestration, cost-effective-
ness, eco-friendliness, and compatibility with different environ-
mental conditions. For example, certain methods may exhibit
a high removal efficiency for Ni ions, effectively reducing their
concentration to acceptable levels. Other techniques may prove
to be economically viable, requiring less investment or utiliz-
ing readily available materials. Additionally, some approaches
may be environmentally sustainable, ensuring minimal negative
impact on the ecosystem. Furthermore, certain methods may
be adaptable to different environmental settings, making them
applicable in a wide range of scenarios.
However, it is important to consider the limitations and
drawbacks associated with each Ni removal approach. Some
techniques may have lower removal efficiencies or may be
ineffective in treating certain forms of Ni contamination.
Cost considerations, such as the need for expensive equip-
ment or specialized materials, can limit the feasibility of cer-
tain methods, particularly in resource-constrained settings.
Moreover, some approaches may produce by-products or
generate secondary waste streams, potentially posing addi-
tional environmental concerns. The compatibility of a tech-
nique with specific environmental conditions, such as pH or
temperature, may also restrict its applicability.
By evaluating the advantages and disadvantages of differ-
ent Ni removal techniques, researchers, policymakers, and
environmental practitioners can make informed decisions
regarding the most suitable approach for a given situation.
It is essential to weigh the benefits and limitations carefully
in order to select an effective and sustainable method for the
remediation of nickel-contaminated environments.
Conclusions and future prospective
In conclusion, nickel (Ni) is a versatile and essential metal,
but its presence in high concentrations poses significant envi-
ronmental hazards. It plays a crucial role as a micronutrient
for plant growth, but variations in its concentration can dis-
rupt the entire plant cycle. Nickel has the potential to impact
vital environmental components such as soil and water due
to its transition activity. While it is necessary for bacterial
processes, excessive nickel can lead to toxicity by interfering
with enzyme activity and physiological processes, as well as
causing deficiencies in other essential nutrients.
To ensure sustainable food production systems, fur-
ther research is needed, particularly in understanding the
molecular mechanisms of nickel transport and accumulation.
Developing Ni tolerance and homeostasis mechanisms is
13
Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:40224–40244
crucial in addressing this issue. Additionally, investigating
ways to mitigate oxidative stress caused by nickel toxicity
is necessary.
Bioremediation offers a promising solution for the
removal of toxic heavy metals from contaminated water.
Efforts should be focused on decontaminating Ni at differ-
ent trophic levels using various remediation technologies,
including transgenic phytoremediation and phytoextraction.
It is important to elucidate the interactions between micro-
bial consortia and microorganisms involved in Ni phytore-
mediation by screening potential plant species and microbes.
Understanding the functions, activities, and regulation of
enzymes involved in Ni bioremediation, as well as devel-
oping high-throughput Ni removal techniques, is essential.
Furthermore, in-depth investigations are required to
comprehend the biological mechanisms of Ni toxicity in
prokaryotes. It is necessary to conduct immediate research
on Ni toxicity and essentiality in changing environmental
circumstances, such as climate change, to assess the long-
term effectiveness of bioremediation treatments in the
field. Identifying, controlling, and transferring beneficial
traits involved in Ni bioremediation, as well as enhancing
the performance of existing species, will aid in reducing
pollution in the food chain. Establishing regulations and
laws that promote the use of Ni accumulator species as
effective bioremediation techniques is also crucial.
In summary, addressing the challenges associated with
nickel contamination requires multidisciplinary research
efforts, including molecular studies, bioremediation strat-
egies, and regulatory frameworks. By focusing on these
aspects, we can develop sustainable approaches to miti-
gate the environmental and health risks posed by excessive
nickel levels and ensure the integrity of our ecosystems
and food chains.
Acknowledgements The authors are grateful to all research staff that
contributed to the data collection required for this review article.
Author contributions Sonu Sharma, Monu Sharma, Raman Kumar, M.
Sayeed Akhtar, Ahmad Umar, Abdulrab Ahmed M. Alkhanjaf: inves-
tigation, methodology, validation, formal analysis, writing—original
draft, and visualization. Ahmad Umar, Sotirios Baskoutas: writing—
review and editing and data curation. All authors commented on the
manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Funding The Deanship of Scientific Research at Najran University,
Najran, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia provided funding under the Research
Group funding program grant no. NU/RG/MRC/12/2.
Data availability All data collected and reviewed are included in this
article and properly referenced.
Declarations
Ethics approval We certify that the manuscript titled “Bacterial-
assisted bio remedial removal of nickel ions: A Review” (hereinafter
referred to as “the Paper”) is entirely our original work, and it does
Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:40224–40244
not infringe the copyright of any third party. The submission of the
Paper to Environmental Science and Pollution Research implies that
the paper has not been published previously. This work is not under
consideration for publication elsewhere. Its publication is approved
by all authors and, if accepted, it will not be published elsewhere in
the same form, either in English or in any other language, without
the written consent of the Publisher. Copyrights for articles published
in Environmental Science and Pollution Research are retained by the
authors, with first publication rights granted to Environmental Science
and Pollution Research.
Consent to participate We affirm that all authors have participated in
the research work and are fully aware of ethical responsibilities.
Consent for publication We affirm that all authors have agreed for sub-
mission of the Paper to ESPR and are fully aware of ethical respon-
sibilities.
Competing interests The authors declare no competing interests.
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