notch-sensitive than HDPE; stress-cracking resistance is better than HDPE.

MDPE is typically used in gas pipes and fittings, sacks, shrink film, packaging
film, carrier bags, and screw closures.

Linear low-density (LLDPE)[edit]

Main article: Linear low-density polyethylene
LLDPE is defined by a density range of 0.915–0.925 g/cm3. LLDPE is a
substantially linear polymer with significant numbers of short branches,
commonly made by copolymerization of ethylene with short-chain alpha-
olefins (for example, 1-butene, 1-hexene, and 1-octene). LLDPE has higher
tensile strength than LDPE, and it exhibits higher impact and puncture
resistance than LDPE. Lower-thickness (gauge) films can be blown, compared
with LDPE, with better environmental stress cracking resistance, but they are not
as easy to process. LLDPE is used in packaging, particularly film for bags and
sheets. Lower thickness may be used compared to LDPE. It is used for cable
coverings, toys, lids, buckets, containers, and pipe. While other applications are
available, LLDPE is used predominantly in film applications due to its toughness,
flexibility, and relative transparency. Product examples range from agricultural
films, Saran wrap, and bubble wrap to multilayer and composite films.

Low-density (LDPE)[edit]
Main article: Low-density polyethylene
LDPE is defined by a density range of 0.910–0.940 g/cm3. LDPE has a high
degree of short- and long-chain branching, which means that the chains do not
pack into the crystal structure as well. It has, therefore, less strong intermolecular
forces as the instantaneous-dipole induced-dipole attraction is less. This results
in a lower tensile strength and increased ductility. LDPE is created by free-radical
polymerization. The high degree of branching with long chains gives molten
LDPE unique and desirable flow properties. LDPE is used for both rigid
containers and plastic film applications such as plastic bags and film wrap.

The radical polymerization process used to make LDPE does not include a
catalyst that "supervises" the radical sites on the growing PE chains. (In HDPE
synthesis, the radical sites are at the ends of the PE chains, because the catalyst
stabilizes their formation at the ends.) Secondary radicals (in the middle of a
chain) are more stable than primary radicals (at the end of the chain), and tertiary
radicals (at a branch point) are more stable yet. Each time an ethylene monomer
is added, it creates a primary radical, but often these will rearrange to form more
stable secondary or tertiary radicals. Addition of ethylene monomers to the
secondary or tertiary sites creates branching.

Very-low-density (VLDPE)[edit]
VLDPE is defined by a density range of 0.880–0.915 g/cm3. VLDPE is a
substantially linear polymer with high levels of short-chain branches, commonly
made by copolymerization of ethylene with short-chain alpha-olefins (for
example, 1-butene, 1-hexene and 1-octene). VLDPE is most commonly
produced using metallocene catalysts due to the greater co-monomer
incorporation exhibited by these catalysts. VLDPEs are used for hose and tubing,
ice and frozen food bags, food packaging and stretch wrap as well as impact
modifiers when blended with other polymers.

Much research activity has focused on the nature and distribution of long chain
branches in polyethylene. In HDPE, a relatively small number of these branches,
perhaps one in 100 or 1,000 branches per backbone carbon, can significantly
affect the rheological properties of the polymer.

Copolymers[edit]
In addition to copolymerization with alpha-olefins, ethylene can be copolymerized
with a wide range of other monomers and ionic composition that creates ionized
free radicals. Common examples include vinyl acetate (the resulting product
is ethylene-vinyl acetate copolymer, or EVA, widely used in athletic-shoe sole
foams) and a variety of acrylates. Applications of acrylic copolymer include
packaging and sporting goods, and superplasticizer, used in cement production.

Types of polyethylenes[edit]
The particular material properties of "polyethylene" depend on its molecular
structure. Molecular weight and crystallinity are the most significant factors;
crystallinity in turn depends on molecular weight and degree of branching. The
less the polymer chains are branched, and the lower the molecular weight, the
higher the crystallinity of polyethylene. Crystallinity ranges from 35% (PE-LD/PE-
LLD) to 80% (PE-HD). Polyethylene has a density of 1.0 g/cm3 in crystalline
regions and 0.86 g/cm3 in amorphous regions. An almost linear relationship
exists between density and crystallinity.[19]

The degree of branching of the different types of polyethylene can be

schematically represented as follows:[19]

PE-HD

PE-LLD

PE-LD

The figure shows polyethylene backbones, short-chain branches and side-chain

branches. The polymer chains are represented linearly.

Chain branches[edit]
The properties of polyethylene are highly dependent on type and number of
chain branches. The chain branches in turn depend on the process used: either
the high-pressure process (only PE-LD) or the low-pressure process (all other PE
grades). Low-density polyethylene is produced by the high-pressure process by
radical polymerization, thereby numerous short chain branches as well as long
chain branches are formed. Short chain branches are formed
by intramolecular chain transfer reactions, they are always butyl or ethyl chain
branches because the reaction proceeds after the following mechanism:

Environmental issues[edit]

A recyclable bag manufactured from polyethylene, resin

identification code Say no to polythene. Sign. Nako,

Himachal Pradesh, India.
See also: Plastic pollution
The widespread usage of polyethylene poses potential difficulties for waste
management because it is not readily biodegradable.

In Japan, getting rid of plastics in an environmentally friendly way was the

major problem discussed until the Fukushima nuclear disaster in 2011
became a larger issue. It was listed as a US$90 billion market for solutions.
Since 2008, Japan has rapidly increased the recycling of plastics, but still has
a large amount of plastic wrapping which goes to waste. [26]
• Article describing the discovery of Sphingomonas as a biodegrader
of plastic bags