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CHAPTER 10

PROPERTIES OF SOLUTIONS

Solution Review
1 mol C3 H 7 OH
585 g C3 H 7 OH 
60.09 g C3 H 7 OH
11. = 9.74 M
1.00 L

0.100 mol 134 .00 g

12. 0.250 L   = 3.35 g Na2C2O4
L mol

0.040 mol HCl 1L

13. 1.00 L × = 0.040 mol HCl; 0.040 mol HCl  = 0.16 L
L 0.25 mol HCl
= 160 mL

1 mol CaCl 2 1L 1000 mL

14. 1.28 g CaCl2 ×   = 19.9 mL
110 .98 g CaCl 2 0.580 mol CaCl 2 L

3.0 mol Na 2 CO 3
15. Mol Na2CO3 = 0.0700 L × = 0.21 mol Na2CO3
L

Na2CO3(s)  2 Na+(aq) + CO32(aq); mol Na+ = 2(0.21) = 0.42 mol

1.0 mol NaHCO 3

Mol NaHCO3 = 0.0300 L × = 0.030 mol NaHCO3
L

NaHCO3(s)  Na+(aq) + HCO3(aq); mol Na+ = 0.030 mol

total mol Na  0.42 mol  0.030 mol 0.45 mol

M Na     = 4.5 M Na+
total volume 0.0700 L  0.030 L 0.1000 L

16. a. HNO3(l)  H+(aq) + NO3(aq) b. Na2SO4(s)  2 Na+(aq) + SO42(aq)

c. Al(NO3)3(s)  Al3+(aq) + 3 NO3(aq) d. SrBr2(s)  Sr2+(aq) + 2 Br(aq)

e. KClO4(s)  K+(aq) + ClO4(aq) f. NH4Br(s)  NH4+(aq) + Br(aq)

g. NH4NO3(s)  NH4+(aq) + NO3(aq) h. CuSO4(s)  Cu2+(aq) + SO42(aq)

i. NaOH(s)  Na+(aq) + OH(aq)

385
386 CHAPTER 10 PROPERTIES OF SOLUTIONS

Questions
17. As the temperature increases, the gas molecules will have a greater average kinetic energy. A
greater fraction of the gas molecules in solution will have a kinetic energy greater than the
attractive forces between the gas molecules and the solvent molecules. More gas molecules are
able to escape to the vapor phase, and the solubility of the gas decreases.

18. Henry’s law is obeyed most accurately for dilute solutions of gases that do not dissociate in or
react with the solvent. NH3 is a weak base and reacts with water by the following reaction:

NH3(aq) + H2O(l) → NH4+(aq) + OH(aq)

O2 will bind to hemoglobin in the blood. Due to these reactions in the solvent, NH3(g) in water
and O2(g) in blood do not follow Henry’s law.

19. Because the solute is volatile, both the water and solute will transfer back and forth between
the two beakers. The volume in each beaker will become constant when the concentrations of
solute in the beakers are equal to each other. Because the solute is less volatile than water, one
would expect there to be a larger net transfer of water molecules into the right beaker than the
net transfer of solute molecules into the left beaker. This results in a larger solution volume in
the right beaker when equilibrium is reached, i.e., when the solute concentration is identical in
each beaker.

20. Solutions of A and B have vapor pressures less than ideal (see Figure 10-13 of the text), so this
plot shows negative deviations from Rault’s law. Negative deviations occur when the
intermolecular forces are stronger in solution than in pure solvent and solute. This results in
an exothermic enthalpy of solution. The only statement that is false is e. A substance boils
when the vapor pressure equals the external pressure. Because B = 0.6 has a lower vapor
pressure at the temperature of the plot than either pure A or pure B, one would expect this
solution to require the highest temperature in order for the vapor pressure to reach the external
pressure. Therefore, the solution with B = 0.6 will have a higher boiling point than either pure
A or pure B. (Note that because P°B > P°A, B is more volatile than A, and B will have a lower
boiling point temperature than A).

21. No, the solution is not ideal. For an ideal solution, the strengths of intermolecular forces in
solution are the same as in pure solute and pure solvent. This results in ΔHsoln = 0 for an ideal
solution. ΔHsoln for methanol-water is not zero. Because ΔHsoln < 0 (heat is released), this
solution shows a negative deviation from Raoult’s law.

22. The micelles form so that the ionic ends of the detergent molecules, the SO4 ends, are exposed
to the polar water molecules on the outside, whereas the nonpolar hydrocarbon chains from the
detergent molecules are hidden from the water by pointing toward the inside of the micelle.
Dirt, which is basically nonpolar, is stabilized in the nonpolar interior of the micelle and is
washed away. See the illustration on the following page.
CHAPTER 10 PROPERTIES OF SOLUTIONS 387

= detergent
molecule

= SO 4-

= nonpolar
hydrocarbon

= dirt

23. Normality is the number of equivalents per liter of solution. For an acid or a base, an equivalent
is the mass of acid or base that can furnish 1 mole of protons (if an acid) or accept 1 mole of
protons (if a base). A proton is an H+ ion. Molarity is defined as the moles of solute per liter of
solution. When the number of equivalents equals the number of moles of solute, then normality
= molarity. This is true for acids which only have one acidic proton in them and for bases that
accept only one proton per formula unit. Examples of acids where equivalents = moles solute
are HCl, HNO3, HF, and HC2H3O2. Examples of bases where equivalents = moles solute are
NaOH, KOH, and NH3. When equivalents  moles solute, then normality  molarity. This is
true for acids that donate more than one proton (H2SO4, H3PO4, H2CO3, etc.) and for bases that
react with more than one proton per formula unit [Ca(OH)2, Ba(OH)2, Sr(OH)2, etc.].

24. It is true that the sodium chloride lattice must be broken in order to dissolve in water, but a lot
of energy is released when the water molecules hydrate the Na+ and Cl ions. These two
processes have relatively large values for the amount of energy associated with them, but they
are opposite in sign. The end result is they basically cancel each other out resulting in a Hsoln
 0. So energy is not the reason why ionic solids like NaCl are so soluble in water. The answer
lies in nature’s tendency toward the higher probability of the mixed state. Processes, in general,
are favored that result in an increase in disorder because the disordered state is the easiest (most
probable) state to achieve. The tendency of processes to increase disorder will be discussed in
Chapter 16 when entropy, S, is introduced.

25. Only statement b is true. A substance freezes when the vapor pressure of the liquid and solid
are the same. When a solute is added to water, the vapor pressure of the solution at 0°C is less
than the vapor pressure of the solid, and the net result is for any ice present to convert to liquid
in order to try to equalize the vapor pressures (which never can occur at 0°C). A lower
temperature is needed to equalize the vapor pressure of water and ice, hence, the freezing point
is depressed.
388 CHAPTER 10 PROPERTIES OF SOLUTIONS

For statement a, the vapor pressure of a solution is directly related to the mole fraction of
solvent (not solute) by Raoult’s law. For statement c, colligative properties depend on the
number of solute particles present and not on the identity of the solute. For statement d, the
boiling point of water is increased because the sugar solute decreases the vapor pressure of the
water; a higher temperature is required for the vapor pressure of the solution to equal the
external pressure so boiling can occur.

26. This is true if the solute will dissolve in camphor. Camphor has the largest Kb and Kf constants.
This means that camphor shows the largest change in boiling point and melting point as a solute
is added. The larger the change in T, the more precise the measurement and the more precise
the calculated molar mass. However, if the solute won’t dissolve in camphor, then camphor is
no good and another solvent must be chosen which will dissolve the solute.

27. Isotonic solutions are those which have identical osmotic pressures. Crenation and hemolysis
refer to phenomena that occur when red blood cells are bathed in solutions having a mismatch
in osmotic pressures inside and outside the cell. When red blood cells are in a solution having
a higher osmotic pressure than that of the cells, the cells shrivel as there is a net transfer of
water out of the cells. This is called crenation. Hemolysis occurs when the red blood cells are
bathed in a solution having lower osmotic pressure than that inside the cell. Here, the cells
rupture as there is a net transfer of water to into the red blood cells.

28. Ion pairing is a phenomenon that occurs in solution when oppositely charged ions aggregate
and behave as a single particle. For example, when NaCl is dissolved in water, one would
expect sodium chloride to exist as separate hydrated Na+ ions and Cl ions. A few ions,
however, stay together as NaCl and behave as just one particle. Ion pairing increases in a
solution as the ion concentration increases (as the molality increases).

Exercises
Solution Composition
29. Because the density of water is 1.00 g/mL, 100.0 mL of water has a mass of 100. g.

mass 10.0 g H 3 PO 4  100 . g H 2 O

Density =  = 1.06 g/mL = 1.06 g/cm3
volume 104 mL

1 mol
Mol H3PO4 = 10.0 g × = 0.102 mol H3PO4
97.99 g

1 mol
Mol H2O = 100. g × = 5.55 mol H2O
18.02 g

0.102 mol H 3 PO 4
Mole fraction of H3PO4 = = 0.0180
(0.102  5.55) mol

χ H 2O = 1.000 – 0.0180 = 0.9820

CHAPTER 10 PROPERTIES OF SOLUTIONS 389

0.102 mol H 3 PO 4
Molarity = = 0.981 mol/L
0.104 L

0.102 mol H 3 PO 4
Molality = = 1.02 mol/kg
0.100 kg

40.0 g C 2 H 6 O 2 1000 g 1 mol C 2 H 6 O 2

30. Molality =   = 10.7 mol/kg
60.0 g H 2 O kg 62.07 g

40.0 g C 2 H 6 O 2 1.05 g 1000 cm3 1 mol C 2 H 6 O 2

Molarity =  3
  = 6.77 mol/L
100.0 g solution cm L 62.07 g

1 mol 1 mol
40.0 g C2H6O2 × = 0.644 mol C2H6O2; 60.0 g H2O × = 3.33 mol H2O
62 .07 g 18.02 g

0.644
χ EG  = 0.162 = mole fraction ethylene glycol (C2H6O2)
3.33  0.644

31. Hydrochloric acid (HCl):

38 g HCl 1.19 g soln 1000 cm3 1 mol HCl

molarity =    = 12 mol/L
100. g soln cm3 soln L 36.5 g

38 g HCl 1000 g 1 mol HCl

molality =   = 17 mol/kg
62 g solvent kg 36.5 g

1 mol 1 mol
38 g HCl × = 1.0 mol HCl; 62 g H2O × = 3.4 mol H2O
36 .5 g 18.0 g
1 .0
mole fraction of HCl = χ HCl  = 0.23
3 .4  1 .0

Nitric acid (HNO3):

70. g HNO3 1.42 g soln 1000 cm3 1 mol HNO3

   = 16 mol/L
100 . g soln cm3 soln L 63.0 g

70. g HNO 3 1000 g 1 mol HNO 3

  = 37 mol/kg
30. g solvent kg 63.0 g

1 mol 1 mol
70. g HNO3 × = 1.1 mol HNO3; 30. g H2O × = 1.7 mol H2O
63 .0 g 18.0 g

1 .1
χ HNO3  = 0.39
1 .7  1 .1
390 CHAPTER 10 PROPERTIES OF SOLUTIONS

Sulfuric acid (H2SO4):

95 g H 2SO 4 1.84 g soln 1000 cm3 1 mol H 2SO 4

 3
  = 18 mol/L
100 . g soln cm soln L 98.1 g H 2SO 4

95 g H 2SO 4 1000 g 1 mol

  = 194 mol/kg  200 mol/kg
5 g H 2O kg 98.1 g

1 mol 1 mol
95 g H2SO4 × = 0.97 mol H2SO4; 5 g H2O × = 0.3 mol H2O
98.1 g 18.0 g

0.97
χ H 2SO 4  = 0.76
0.97  0.3

Acetic acid (CH3CO2H):

99 g CH 3CO 2 H 1.05 g soln 1000 cm3 1 mol

 3
  = 17 mol/L
100 . g soln cm soln L 60.05 g

99 g CH 3CO 2 H 1000 g 1 mol

  = 1600 mol/kg  2000 mol/kg
1 g H 2O kg 60.05 g

1 mol 1 mol
99 g CH3CO2H × = 1.6 mol CH3CO2H; 1 g H2O × = 0.06 mol H2O
60.05 g 18.0 g

1.6
χ CH 3CO 2 H  = 0.96
1.6  0.06

Ammonia (NH3):

28 g NH3 0.90 g 1000 cm3 1 mol

 3
  = 15 mol/L
100 . g soln cm L 17.0 g

28 g NH 3 1000 g 1 mol
  = 23 mol/kg
72 g H 2 O kg 17.0 g

1 mol 1 mol
28 g NH3 × = 1.6 mol NH3; 72 g H2O × = 4.0 mol H2O
17.0 g 18.0 g

1 .6
χ NH3  = 0.29
4 .0  1 .6

32. a. If we use 100. mL (100. g) of H2O, we need:

2.0 mol KCl 74.55 g

0.100 kg H2O ×  = 14.9 g = 15 g KCl
kg mol KCl
CHAPTER 10 PROPERTIES OF SOLUTIONS 391

Dissolve 15 g KCl in 100. mL H2O to prepare a 2.0 m KCl solution. This will give us
slightly more than 100 mL, but this will be the easiest way to make the solution. Because
we don’t know the density of the solution, we can’t calculate the molarity and use a
volumetric flask to make exactly 100 mL of solution.

b. If we took 15 g NaOH and 85 g H2O, the volume probably would be less than 100 mL. To
make sure we have enough solution, let’s use 100. mL H2O (100. g H2O). Let x = mass of
NaCl.

x
Mass % = 15 = × 100, 1500 + 15x = (100.)x, x = 17.6 g  18 g
100 .  x

Dissolve 18 g NaOH in 100. mL H2O to make a 15% NaOH solution by mass.

c. In a fashion similar to part b, let’s use 100. mL CH3OH. Let x = mass of NaOH.

0.79 g
100. mL CH3OH × = 79 g CH3OH
mL
x
Mass % = 25 = × 100, 25(79) + 25x = (100.)x, x = 26.3 g  26 g
79  x

Dissolve 26 g NaOH in 100. mL CH3OH.

d. To make sure we have enough solution, let’s use 100. mL (100. g) of H2O. Let x = mol
C6H12O6.

1 mol H 2 O
100. g H2O × = 5.55 mol H2O
18.02 g

x
χ C6H12O6 = 0.10 = , (0.10)x + 0.56 = x, x = 0.62 mol C6H12O6
x  5.55

180 .2 g
0.62 mol C6H12O6 × = 110 g C6H12O6
mol

Dissolve 110 g C6H12O6 in 100. mL of H2O to prepare a solution with χ C6H12O6 = 0.10.

0.63 g 0.63 g 1 mol

33. 25 mL C5H12 × = 16 g C5H12; 25 mL ×  = 0.22 mol C5H12
mL mL 72.15 g

0.66 g 0.66 g 1 mol

45 mL C6H14 × = 30. g C6H14; 45 mL ×  = 0.34 mol C6H14
mL mL 86 .17 g

mass pentane 16 g
Mass % pentane = × 100 = × 100 = 35%
total mass 16 g  30. g
392 CHAPTER 10 PROPERTIES OF SOLUTIONS

mol pentane 0.22 mol

χpentane = = = 0.39
total mol 0.22 mol  0.34 mol

mol pentane 0.22 mol

Molality = = = 7.3 mol/kg
kg hexane 0.030 kg

mol pentane 0.22 mol 1000 mL

Molarity = =  = 3.1 mol/L
L solution 25 mL  45 mL 1L

0.867 g 0.874 g
34. 50.0 mL toluene × = 43.4 g toluene; 125 mL benzene × = 109 g benzene
mL mL
mass of toluene 43.4 g
Mass % toluene = × 100 = × 100 = 28.5%
total mass 43.4 g  109 g

43.4 g toluene 1000 mL 1 mol toluene

Molarity =   = 2.69 mol/L
175 mL soln L 92.13 g toluene

43.4 g toluene 1000 g 1 mol toluene

Molality =   = 4.32 mol/kg
109 g benzene kg 92.13 g toluene

1 mol
43.4 g toluene × = 0.471 mol toluene
92.13 g

1 mol benzene 0.471

109 g benzene × = 1.40 mol benzene; toluene = = 0.252
78.11 g benzene 0.471  1.40

35. If we have 100.0 mL of wine:

0.789 g 1.00 g
12.5 mL C2H5OH × = 9.86 g C2H5OH and 87.5 mL H2O × = 87.5 g H2O
mL mL
9.86 g
Mass % ethanol = × 100 = 10.1% by mass
87 .5 g  9.86 g

9.86 g C 2 H 5 OH 1 mol
Molality =  = 2.45 mol/kg
0.0875 kg H 2 O 46.07 g

1.00 mol acetone 1 mol

36. = 1.00 molal; 1.00 × 103 g C2H5OH × = 21.7 mol C2H5OH
1.00 kg ethanol 46 .07 g

1.00
χacetone = = 0.0441
1.00  21.7

58.08 g CH 3COCH 3 1 mL
1 mol CH3COCH3 ×  = 73.7 mL CH3COCH3
mol CH 3COCH 3 0.788 g
CHAPTER 10 PROPERTIES OF SOLUTIONS 393

1 mL
1.00 × 103 g ethanol × = 1270 mL; total volume = 1270 + 73.7 = 1340 mL
0.789 g

1.00 mol
Molarity = = 0.746 M
1.34 L

37. If we have 1.00 L of solution:

192 .12 g
1.37 mol citric acid × = 263 g citric acid (H3C6H5O7)
mol
1.10 g
1.00 × 103 mL solution × = 1.10 × 103 g solution
mL
263 g
Mass % of citric acid = × 100 = 23.9%
1.10  10 3 g

In 1.00 L of solution, we have 263 g citric acid and (1.10 × 103  263) = 840 g of H2O.
1.37 mol citric acid
Molality = = 1.6 mol/kg
0.84 kg H 2 O

1 mol 1.37
840 g H2O × = 47 mol H2O; χ citric acid  = 0.028
18.02 g 47  1.37

Because citric acid is a triprotic acid, the number of protons citric acid can provide is three
times the molarity. Therefore, normality = 3 × molarity:

normality = 3 × 1.37 M = 4.11 N

38. When expressing concentration in terms of normality, equivalents per liter are determined. For
acid-base reactions, equivalents are equal to the moles of H+ an acid can donate or the moles
of H+ a base can accept. For monoprotic acids like HCl, the equivalents of H+ furnished equals
the moles of acid present. Diprotic acids like H2SO4 furnish two equivalents of H+ per mole of
acid, whereas triprotic acids like H3PO4 furnish three equivalents of H+ per mole of acid. For
the bases in this problem, the equivalents of H+ accepted equals the number of OH anions
present in the formula (H+ + OH  H2O). Finally, the equivalent mass of a substance is
the mass of acid or base that can furnish or accept 1 mole of protons (H+ ions).

0.250 mol HCl 1 equivalent 0.250 equivalent s

a. Normality   
L mol HCl L

Equivalent mass = molar mass of HCl = 36.46 g

0.105 mol H 2SO 4 2 equivalent s 0.210 equivalent s

b. Normality   
L mol H 2SO 4 L

Equivalent mass = 1/2(molar mass of H2SO4) = 1/2(98.09) = 49.05 g

394 CHAPTER 10 PROPERTIES OF SOLUTIONS

5.3  10 2 mol H 3 PO 4 3 equivalent s 0.16 equivalent s

c. Normality   
L mol H 3 PO 4 L
Equivalent mass = 1/3(molar mass of H3PO4) = 1/3(97.09) = 32.66 g

0.134 mol NaOH 1 equivalent 0.134 equivalent s

d. Normality   
L mol NaOH L

Equivalent mass = molar mass of NaOH = 40.00 g

0.00521 mol Ca (OH ) 2 2 equivalent s 0.0104 equivalent s

e. Normality   
L mol Ca (OH ) 2 L

Equivalent mass = 1/2[molar mass of Ca (OH ) 2 ] = 1/2(74.10) = 37.05 g

Energetics of Solutions and Solubility

39. Using Hess’s law:

NaI(s)  Na+(g) + I(g) ΔH = ΔHLE = (686 kJ/mol)

Na (g) + I(g)  Na+(aq) + I(aq)
+
ΔH = ΔHhyd = 694 kJ/mol
NaI(s)  Na+(aq) + I(aq) ΔHsoln = 8 kJ/mol

ΔHsoln refers to the heat released or gained when a solute dissolves in a solvent. Here, an
ionic compound dissolves in water.

40. a. CaCl2(s)  Ca2+(g) + 2 Cl(g) ΔH = ΔHLE = (2247 kJ)

Ca2+(g) + 2 Cl(g)  Ca2+(aq) + 2 Cl(aq) ΔH = ΔHhyd
CaCl2(s)  Ca2+(aq) + 2 Cl(aq) ΔHsoln = –46 kJ

46 kJ = 2247 kJ + ΔHhyd, ΔHhyd 2293 kJ

CaI2(s)  Ca2+(g) + 2 I(g) ΔH = ΔHLE = (2059 kJ)

Ca (g) + 2 I(g)  Ca2+(aq) + 2 I(aq)
2+
ΔH = ΔHhyd
CaI2(s)  Ca2+(aq) + 2 I(aq) ΔHsoln = 104 kJ

104 kJ = 2059 kJ + ΔHhyd, ΔHhyd = –2163 kJ

b. The enthalpy of hydration for CaCl2 is more exothermic than for CaI2. Any differences
must be due to differences in hydration between Cl and I. Thus the chloride ion is more
strongly hydrated than the iodide ion.

41. Both Al(OH)3 and NaOH are ionic compounds. Since the lattice energy is proportional to the
charge of the ions, the lattice energy of aluminum hydroxide is greater than that of sodium
hydroxide. The attraction of water molecules for Al3+ and OH cannot overcome the larger
CHAPTER 10 PROPERTIES OF SOLUTIONS 395

lattice energy, and Al(OH)3 is insoluble. For NaOH, the favorable hydration energy is large
enough to overcome the smaller lattice energy, and NaOH is soluble.

42. The dissolving of an ionic solute in water can be thought of as taking place in two steps. The
first step, called the lattice-energy term, refers to breaking apart the ionic compound into
gaseous ions. This step, as indicated in the problem, requires a lot of energy and is unfavorable.
The second step, called the hydration-energy term, refers to the energy released when the
separated gaseous ions are stabilized as water molecules surround the ions. Because the
interactions between water molecules and ions are strong, a lot of energy is released when ions
are hydrated. Thus the dissolution process for ionic compounds can be thought of as consisting
of an unfavorable and a favorable energy term. These two processes basically cancel each other
out, so when ionic solids dissolve in water, the heat released or gained is minimal, and the
temperature change is minimal.

43. Water is a polar solvent and dissolves polar solutes and ionic solutes. Carbon tetrachloride
(CCl4) is a nonpolar solvent and dissolves nonpolar solutes (like dissolves like). To predict the
polarity of the following molecules, draw the correct Lewis structure and then determine if the
individual bond dipoles cancel or not. If the bond dipoles are arranged in such a manner that
they cancel each other out, then the molecule is nonpolar. If the bond dipoles do not cancel
each other out, then the molecule is polar.

a. KrF2, 8 + 2(7) = 22 e b. SF2, 6 + 2(7) = 20 e

nonpolar; soluble in CCl4 polar; soluble in H2O

c. SO2, 6 + 2(6) = 18 e d. CO2, 4 + 2(6) = 16 e

+ 1 more

polar; soluble in H2O nonpolar; soluble in CCl4

e. MgF2 is an ionic compound so it is soluble in water.

f. CH2O, 4 + 2(1) + 6 = 12 e g. C2H4, 2(4) + 4(1) = 12 e

H H
C C
H H

polar; soluble in H2O nonpolar (like all compounds made up of

only carbon and hydrogen); soluble in CCl4
396 CHAPTER 10 PROPERTIES OF SOLUTIONS

44. Water is a polar solvent and dissolves polar solutes and ionic solutes. Hexane (C6H14) is a
nonpolar solvent and dissolves nonpolar solutes (like dissolves like).

a. Water; Cu(NO3)2 is an ionic compound.

b. C6H14; CS2 is a nonpolar molecule. c. Water; CH3OH is polar.

d. C6H14; the long nonpolar hydrocarbon chain favors a nonpolar solvent (the molecule
is mostly nonpolar).

e. Water; HCl is polar. f. C6H14; C6H6 is nonpolar.

45. Water exhibits H-bonding in the pure state and is classified as a polar solvent. Water will
dissolve other polar solutes and ionic solutes.

a. NH3; NH3 is capable of H-bonding, unlike PH3.

b. CH3CN; CH3CN is polar, while CH3CH3 is nonpolar.

c. CH3CO2H; CH3CO2H is capable of H-bonding, unlike the other compound.

46. For ionic compounds, as the charge of the ions increases and/or the size of the ions decreases,
the attraction to water (hydration) increases.

a. Mg2+; smaller size, higher charge b. Be2+; smaller size

c. Fe3+; smaller size, higher charge d. F; smaller size

e. Cl; smaller size f. SO42; higher charge

47. As the length of the hydrocarbon chain increases, the solubility decreases. The ‒OH end of the
alcohols can hydrogen-bond with water. The hydrocarbon chain, however, is basically nonpolar
and interacts poorly with water. As the hydrocarbon chain gets longer, a greater portion of the
molecule cannot interact with the water molecules, and the solubility decreases; i.e., the effect
of the ‒OH group decreases as the alcohols get larger.

48. The main intermolecular forces are:

hexane (C6H14): London dispersion; chloroform (CHCl3): dipole-dipole, London

dispersion; methanol (CH3OH): H-bonding; and H2O: H-bonding (two places)

There is a gradual change in the nature of the intermolecular forces (weaker to stronger). Each
preceding solvent is miscible in its predecessor because there is not a great change in the
strengths of the intermolecular forces from one solvent to the next.

8.21  10 4 mol
49. C = kP, = k × 0.790 atm, k = 1.04 × 10 3 mol/L•atm
L
CHAPTER 10 PROPERTIES OF SOLUTIONS 397

1.04  10 4 mol
C = kP, C = × 1.10 atm = 1.14 × 10 3 mol/L
L atm

1.3  10 3 mol 1 atm

50. C = kP = × 120 torr × = 2.1 × 104 mol/L
L atm 760 torr

Vapor Pressures of Solutions

1 mol
51. Mol C3H8O3 = 164 g × = 1.78 mol C3H8O3
92.09 g

0.992 g 1 mol
Mol H2O = 338 mL ×  = 18.6 mol H2O
mL 18.02 g

18.6 mol
Psoln   H2O PHo 2O = × 54.74 torr = 0.913 × 54.74 torr = 50.0 torr
(1.78  18.6) mol

moles of C 2 H 5 OH
52. Psoln = χ C2H5OHPCo2H5OH ; χ C2H5OH =
total moles in solution

1 mol C 3 H 8 O 3
53.6 g C3H8O3 × = 0.582 mol C3H8O3
92.09 g

1 mol C 2 H 5 OH
133.7 g C2H5OH × = 2.90 mol C2H5OH; total mol = 0.582 + 2.90
46.07 g
= 3.48 mol
2.90 mol
113 torr =  PCo2 H5OH , PCo2 H 5OH = 136 torr
3.48 mol

53. The normal boiling point of a substance is the boiling point at 1 atm pressure. So for this
problem, P° = 760. torr at 34.5°C (the normal boiling point of diethyl ether).

P = χP°; 698 torr = χ(760. torr), χ = 0.918 = mole fraction of diethyl ether

54. PB   B PBo ,  B  PB / PBo = 0.900 atm/0.930 atm = 0.968

mol benzene 1 mol

0.968 = ; mol benzene = 78.11 g C6H6 × = 1.000 mol
total mol 78.11 g

1.000 mol
Let x = mol solute, then: χB = 0.968 = , 0.968 + (0.968)x = 1.000, x = 0.033 mol
1.000  x

10.0 g
Molar mass = = 303 g/mol  3.0 × 102 g/mol
0.033 mol
398 CHAPTER 10 PROPERTIES OF SOLUTIONS

1 mol 1 mol
55. 25.8 g CH4N2O × = 0.430 mol; 275 g H2O × = 15.3 mol
60.06 g 18.02 g
15.3
χ H 2O =  0.973; Psoln = χ H 2O PHo 2O = 0.973(23.8 torr) = 23.2 torr at 25°C
15.3  0.430

Psoln = 0.973(71.9 torr) = 70.0 torr at 45°C

56. 19.6 torr = χ Η Ο (23.8 torr), χ Η Ο = 0.824; χ solute = 1.000 – 0.824 = 0.176

0.176 is the mol fraction of all the solute particles present. Because NaCl dissolves to pro-
duce two ions in solution (Na+ and Cl), 0.176 is the mole fraction of Na+ and Cl ions present
(assuming complete dissociation of NaCl).

At 45°C, PH 2O = 0.824(71.9 torr) = 59.2 torr

0.63 g 1 mol
57. a. 25 mL C5H12 ×  = 0.22 mol C5H12
mL 72.15 g
0.66 g 1 mol
45 mL C6H14 ×  = 0.34 mol C6H14; total mol = 0.22 + 0.34 = 0.56 mol
mL 86 .17 g

mol pentane in solution 0.22 mol

 pen
L
  = 0.39, χ Lhex = 1.00 – 0.39 = 0.61
total mol in solution 0.56 mol

Ppen  χ Lpen Ppen

o
= 0.39(511 torr) = 2.0 × 102 torr; Phex = 0.61(150. torr) = 92 torr

Ptotal  Ppen  Phex = 2.0 × 102 + 92 = 292 torr = 290 torr

b. From Chapter 8 on gases, the partial pressure of a gas is proportional to the number of
moles of gas present (at constant volume and temperature). For the vapor phase:
mol pentane in vapor Ppen 2.0  10 2 torr
χ Vpen    = 0.69
total mol vapor Ptotal 290 torr
Note: In the Solutions Guide, we added V or L superscripts to the mole fraction symbol to
emphasize for which value we are solving. If the L or V is omitted, then the liquid phase is
assumed.
0.0300 mol CH 2 Cl 2
58. Ptotal = PCH 2Cl 2  PCH 2 Br2 ; P  χ L P o ; χ CH
L
2 Cl 2
 = 0.375
0.0800 mol total

Ptotal = 0.375(133 torr) + (1.000  0.375)(11.4 torr) = 49.9 + 7.13 = 57.0 torr
PCH 2Cl 2 49.9 torr
In the vapor: χ CH
V
2 Cl 2
  = 0.875; χ CH
V
2 Br2
= 1.000 – 0.875 = 0.125
Ptotal 57.0 torr

Note: In the Solutions Guide, we added V or L superscripts to the mole fraction symbol to
emphasize for which value we are solving. If the L or V is omitted, then the liquid phase is
assumed.
CHAPTER 10 PROPERTIES OF SOLUTIONS 399

59. Ptotal = Pmeth + Pprop, 174 torr = χ Lmeth (303 torr )  χ Lprop (44.6 torr); χ Lprop  1.000  χ Lmeth

129
174 = 303 χ Lmeth  (1.000  χ Lmeth )44.6 torr ,  χ Lmeth  0.500
258

χ Lprop  1.000  0.500  0.500

60. Ptol  χ LtolPtol

o
, Ppen  χ Lben Pben
o
; for the vapor, χ VA = PA/Ptotal. Because the mole fractions of
benzene and toluene are equal in the vapor phase, Ptol  Pben .

χ LtolPtol
o
 χ Lben Pben
o
 (1.00  χ Ltol )Pben
o
, χ Ltol (28 torr )  (1.00  χ Ltol ) 95 torr

123 χ Ltol  95, χ Ltol  0.77; χ Lben = 1.00 – 0.77 = 0.23

61. Compared to H2O, solution d (methanol-water) will have the highest vapor pressure since
methanol is more volatile than water (PHo 2O = 23.8 torr at 25°C). Both solution b (glucose-
water) and solution c (NaCl-water) will have a lower vapor pressure than water by Raoult's
law. NaCl dissolves to give Na+ ions and Cl ions; glucose is a nonelectrolyte. Because there
are more solute particles in solution c, the vapor pressure of solution c will be the lowest.

62. Solution d (methanol-water); methanol is more volatile than water, which will increase the
total vapor pressure to a value greater than the vapor pressure of pure water at this tempera-
ture.

63. The first diagram shows positive deviation from Raoult's law. This occurs when the solute-
solvent interactions are weaker than the interactions in pure solvent and pure solute. The
second diagram illustrates negative deviation from Raoult's law. This occurs when the solute-
solvent interactions are stronger than the interactions in pure solvent and pure solute. The third
diagram illustrates an ideal solution with no deviation from Raoult's law. This occurs when
the solute-solvent interactions are about equal to the pure solvent and pure solute interactions.

a. These two molecules are named acetone (CH3COCH3) and water. As discussed in section
10-4 on nonideal solutions, acetone-water solutions exhibit negative deviations from
Raoult’s law. Acetone and water have the ability to hydrogen bond with each other, which
gives the solution stronger intermolecular forces as compared to the pure states of both
solute and solvent. In the pure state, acetone cannot Hbond with itself. So the middle
diagram illustrating negative deviations from Raoult’s law is the correct choice for acetone-
water solutions.

b. These two molecules are named ethanol (CH3CH2OH) and water. Ethanol-water solutions
show positive deviations from Raoult’s law. Both substances can hydrogen bond in the
pure state, and they can continue this in solution. However, the solute-solvent interactions
are somewhat weaker for ethanol-water solutions due to the significant nonpolar part of
ethanol (CH3CH2 is the nonpolar part of ethanol). This nonpolar part of ethanol weakens
the intermolecular forces in solution. So the first diagram illustrating positive deviations
from Raoult’s law is the correct choice for ethanol-water solutions.
400 CHAPTER 10 PROPERTIES OF SOLUTIONS

c. These two molecules are named heptane (C7H16) and hexane (C6H14). Heptane and hexane
are very similar nonpolar substances; both are composed entirely of nonpolar CC bonds
and relatively nonpolar CH bonds, and both have a similar size and shape. Solutions of
heptane and hexane should be ideal. So the third diagram illustrating no deviation from
Raoult’s law is the correct choice for heptane-hexane solutions.

d. These two molecules are named heptane (C7H16) and water. The interactions between the
nonpolar heptane molecules and the polar water molecules will certainly be weaker in
solution as compared to the pure solvent and pure solute interactions. This results in
positive deviations from Raoult’s law (the first diagram).

64. a. An ideal solution would have a vapor pressure at any mole fraction of H2O between that
of pure propanol and pure water (between 74.0 and 71.9 torr). The vapor pressures of the
various solutions are not between these limits, so water and propanol do not form ideal
solutions.

b. From the data, the vapor pressures of the various solutions are greater than if the solutions
behaved ideally (positive deviation from Raoult’s law). This occurs when the
intermolecular forces in solution are weaker than the intermolecular forces in pure solvent
and pure solute. This gives rise to endothermic (positive) ΔHsoln values.

c. The interactions between propanol and water molecules are weaker than between the pure
substances because the solutions exhibit a positive deviation from Raoult’s law.

d. At χ H 2O = 0.54, the vapor pressure is highest as compared to the other solutions. Because
a solution boils when the vapor pressure of the solution equals the external pressure, the
χ H 2O = 0.54 solution should have the lowest normal boiling point; this solution will have
a vapor pressure equal to 1 atm at a lower temperature as compared to the other solutions.

Colligative Properties

mol solute 27.0 g N 2 H 4 CO 1000 g 1 mol N 2 H 4 CO

65. Molality = m =    = 3.00 molal
kg solvent 150.0 g H 2 O kg 60.06 g N 2 H 4 CO

0.51 C
ΔTb = Kbm = × 3.00 molal = 1.5°C
molal

The boiling point is raised from 100.0 to 101.5°C (assuming P = 1 atm).

ΔTb 1.35C
66. ΔTb = 77.85°C  76.50°C = 1.35°C; m =  = 0.268 mol/kg
Kb 5.03 C kg / mol

0.268 mol hydrocarbon

Mol biomolecule = 0.0150 kg solvent × = 4.02 × 10 3 mol
kg solvent
CHAPTER 10 PROPERTIES OF SOLUTIONS 401

From the problem, 2.00 g biomolecule was used that must contain 4.02 × 10 3 mol
biomolecule. The molar mass of the biomolecule is:

2.00 g
= 498 g/mol
4.02  10 3 mol

1.86 C
67. ΔTf = Kfm, ΔTf = 1.50°C = × m, m = 0.806 mol/kg
molal
0.806 mol C 3 H 8O 3 92.09 g C 3 H 8O 3
0.200 kg H2O ×  = 14.8 g C3H8O3
kg H 2 O mol C 3 H 8O 3

0.91 C
68. ΔTf = 25.50°C  24.59°C = 0.91°C = Kfm, m = = 0.10 mol/kg
9.1 C / molal

0.10 mol H 2 O 18.02 g H 2 O

Mass H2O = 0.0100 kg t-butanol   = 0.018 g H2O
kg t - butanol mol H 2 O

50.0 g C 2 H 6 O 2 1000 g 1 mol

69. Molality = m =   = 16.1 mol/kg
50.0 g H 2 O kg 62.07 g

ΔTf = Kfm = 1.86°C/molal × 16.1 molal = 29.9°C; Tf = 0.0°C  29.9°C = –29.9°C

ΔTb = Kbm = 0.51°C/molal × 16.1 molal = 8.2°C; Tb = 100.0°C + 8.2°C = 108.2°C

Tf 25.0 C
70. m=  = 13.4 mol C2H6O2/kg
Kf 1.86 C kg / mol

Because the density of water is 1.00 g/cm3, the moles of C2H6O2 needed are:
1.00 kg H 2 O 13.4 mol C 2 H 6 O 2
15.0 L H2O ×  = 201 mol C2H6O2
L H 2O kg H 2 O

62.07 g 1 cm3
Volume C2H6O2 = 201 mol C2H6O2 ×  = 11,200 cm3 = 11.2 L
mol C 2 H 6 O 2 1.11 g

0.51 C
ΔTb = Kbm = × 13.4 molal = 6.8°C; Tb = 100.0°C + 6.8°C = 106.8°C
molal

Tf 2.63o C 6.6  10 2 mol reserpine

71. ΔTf = Kfm, m   
Kf 40. o C kg/mol kg solvent

The moles of reserpine present is:

6.6  10 2 mol reserpine
0.0250 kg solvent × = 1.7 × 103 mol reserpine
kg solvent
402 CHAPTER 10 PROPERTIES OF SOLUTIONS

From the problem, 1.00 g reserpine was used, which must contain 1.7 × 103 mol reserpine.
The molar mass of reserpine is:

1.00 g
= 590 g/mol (610 g/mol if no rounding of numbers)
1.7  10 3 mol

Tb 0.55 o C
72. m    0.32 mol/kg
Kb 1.71 o C kg/mol
0.32 mol hydrocarbon
Mol hydrocarbon = 0.095 kg solvent × = 0.030 mol hydrocarbon
kg solvent

From the problem, 3.75 g hydrocarbon was used, which must contain 0.030 mol hydrocarbon.
The molar mass of the hydrocarbon is:

3.75 g
= 130 g/mol (120 g/mol if no rounding of numbers)
0.030 mol

1.0 g protein 1 mol

73. a. M =  = 1.1 × 10 5 mol/L; π = MRT
L 9.0  10 g
4

1.1  10 5 mol 0.08206 L atm 760 torr

At 298 K: π =  × 298 K × , π = 0.20 torr
L K mol atm

Because d = 1.0 g/cm3, 1.0 L solution has a mass of 1.0 kg. Because only 1.0 g of protein
is present per liter of solution, 1.0 kg of H2O is present to the correct number of signifi-
cant figures, and molality equals molarity.
1.86 C
ΔTf = Kfm = × 1.1 × 10 5 molal = 2.0 × 10 5 °C
molal

b. Osmotic pressure is better for determining the molar mass of large molecules. A tem-
perature change of 10 5 °C is very difficult to measure. A change in height of a column
of mercury by 0.2 mm (0.2 torr) is not as hard to measure precisely.

ΔT 0.406 o C
74. m=  = 0.218 mol/kg
Kf 1.86 o C/molal

 = MRT, where M = mol/L; we must assume that molarity = molality so that we can calculate
the osmotic pressure. This is a reasonable assumption for dilute solutions when 1.00 kg of water
 1.00 L of solution. Assuming NaCl exists as Na+ and Cl– ions in solution, a 0.218 m solution
corresponds to 6.37 g NaCl dissolved in 1.00 kg of water. The volume of solution may be a
little larger than 1.00 L but not by much (to three sig. figs.). The assumption that molarity =
molality will be good here.

 = (0.218 M)(0.08206 L atm/K • mol)(298 K) = 5.33 atm

CHAPTER 10 PROPERTIES OF SOLUTIONS 403

1 atm
0.745 torr 
π 760 torr
75. M=  = 3.98 × 105 mol/L
RT 0.08206 L atm
 300 . K
K mol

3.98  10 5 mol
1.00 L × = 3.98 × 105 mol catalase
L
10.00 g
Molar mass = = 2.51 × 105 g/mol
3.98  10 5 mol

1 atm 0.08206 L atm

76. π = MRT, π = 18.6 torr × =M× × 298 K, M = 1.00 × 103 mol/L
760 torr K mol

1.00  10 3 mol protein

Mol protein = 0.0020 L × = 2.0 × 106 mol protein
L
0.15 g
Molar mass = 6
= 7.5 × 104 g/mol
2.0  10 mol

 15 atm
77. π = MRT, M =  = 0.62 M
RT 0.08206 L atm
 295 K
K mol

0.62 mol 342 .30 g

 = 212 g/L  210 g/L
L mol C12H 22O11

Dissolve 210 g of sucrose in some water and dilute to 1.0 L in a volumetric flask. To get 0.62
±0.01 mol/L, we need 212 ±3 g sucrose.

 15 atm
78. M=  = 0.62 M solute particles
RT 0.08206 L atm
 295 K
K mol
This represents the total molarity of the solute particles. NaCl is a soluble ionic compound that
breaks up into two ions, Na+ and Cl. Therefore, the concentration of NaCl needed is 0.62/2 =
0.31 M; this NaCl concentration will produce a 0.62 M solute particle solution assuming
complete dissociation.

0.31 mol NaCl 58.44 g NaCl

1.0 L ×  = 18.1  18 g NaCl
L mol NaCl
Dissolve 18 g of NaCl in some water and dilute to 1.0 L in a volumetric flask. To get 0.31
±0.01 mol/L, we need 18.1 g ±0.6 g NaCl in 1.00 L solution.
404 CHAPTER 10 PROPERTIES OF SOLUTIONS

Properties of Electrolyte Solutions

79. Na3PO4(s)  3 Na+(aq) + PO43(aq), i = 4.0; CaBr2(s)  Ca2+(aq) + 2 Br(aq), i = 3.0

KCl(s)  K+(aq) + Cl(aq), i = 2.0

The effective particle concentrations of the solutions are (assuming complete dissociation):

4.0(0.010 molal) = 0.040 molal for the Na3PO4 solution; 3.0(0.020 molal) = 0.060 molal
for the CaBr2 solution; 2.0(0.020 molal) = 0.040 molal for the KCl solution; slightly
greater than 0.020 molal for the HF solution because HF only partially dissociates in water
(it is a weak acid).

a. The 0.010 m Na3PO4 solution and the 0.020 m KCl solution both have effective particle
concentrations of 0.040 m (assuming complete dissociation), so both of these solutions
should have the same boiling point as the 0.040 m C6H12O6 solution (a nonelectrolyte).

b. P = χP°; as the solute concentration decreases, the solvent’s vapor pressure increases
because χ increases. Therefore, the 0.020 m HF solution will have the highest vapor
pressure because it has the smallest effective particle concentration.

c. ΔT = Kfm; the 0.020 m CaBr2 solution has the largest effective particle concentration, so
it will have the largest freezing point depression (largest ΔT).

80. The solutions of C12H22O11, NaCl, and CaCl2 will all have lower freezing points, higher boiling
points, and higher osmotic pressures than pure water. The solution with the largest particle
concentration will have the lowest freezing point, the highest boiling point, and the highest
osmotic pressure. The CaCl2 solution will have the largest effective particle concentration
because it produces three ions per mole of compound.

a. pure water b. CaCl2 solution c. CaCl2 solution

d. pure water e. CaCl2 solution

5.0 g NaCl 1 mol

81. a. m =  = 3.4 molal; NaCl(aq)  Na+(aq) + Cl−(aq), i = 2.0
0.025 kg 58.44 g

ΔTf = iKfm = 2.0 × 1.86°C/molal × 3.4 molal = 13°C; Tf = 13°C

ΔTb = iKbm = 2.0 × 0.51°C/molal × 3.4 molal = 3.5°C; Tb = 103.5°C

2.0 g Al ( NO 3 ) 3 1 mol
b. m=  = 0.63 mol/kg
0.015 kg 213 .01 g

Al(NO3)3(aq)  Al3+(aq) + 3 NO3−(aq), i = 4.0

ΔTf = iKfm = 4.0 × 1.86°C/molal × 0.63 molal = 4.7°C; Tf = 4.7°C

ΔTb = iKbm = 4.0 × 0.51°C/molal × 0.63 molal = 1.3°C; Tb = 101.3°C

Another random document with
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 THE LIFE OF JEAN HENRI FABRE
[1]
CHAPTER I
 THE SÉRIGNAN JUBILEE
In a few days’ time 1 naturalists, poets, and
philosophers will repair in company to Sérignan, in
the neighbourhood of Orange. What is calling them
from every point of the intellectual horizon, from the
most distant cities and capitals, to a little Provençal
village? Moussu Fabré, they would tell you yonder, in
a tone of respectful sympathy.

But who is the Moussu Fabré thus cherished by the

simplest as well as by the most cultivated minds? He
is a sturdy old man of all but ninety years, who has
spent almost the whole of his life in the company of
Wasps, Bees, Gnats, Beetles, Spiders, and Ants, and
has described the doings of these tiny creatures in a
most wonderful fashion in ten large volumes entitled
Souvenirs Entomologiques or Etudes sur l’Instinct et
les Mœurs des Insectes. 2 [2]

One might say of this achievement what the author of

Lettres Persanes said of his book: Proles sine matre.
It is a child without a mother. It is, in short,
unprecedented. 3 It has not its fellow, either in the
Machal of Solomon, or the apologues of the old
fabulists, or the treatises on natural history written by
our modern scientists. The fabulists look to find man
in the animal, which for them is little more than a
pretext for comparisons and moral narratives, and
the scientists commonly confine their curiosity to the
dissection of the insect’s organs, the analysis of its
functions, and the classification of species. We might
even say that the insect is the least of their cares, for,
like Solomon, [3]they delight in holding forth upon all
the creatures upon the earth or in the heavens
above, and all the plants “from the cedar tree that is
in Lebanon even unto the hyssop that springeth out
of the wall” (1 Kings iv: 32–33).

Fabre, on the contrary, has eyes only for the insect.

He observes it by and for itself, in the most trivial
manifestations of its life: the living, active insect, with
its labours and its habits, is the thing that interests
him before all else, guiding his investigation of the
infinite host of these tiny lives, which claim his
attention on every hand; and in this world of insects
wealth of artifice and capacities of the mental order
seem to be in an inverse ratio to beauty of form and
brilliance of colour. For this reason Fabre learns to
disdain the magnificent Butterfly, applying himself by
preference to the modest Fly: the two-winged Flies,
which are relatives of our common House-fly, or the
four-winged Flies, the numerous and infinitely various
cousins of the Wasps and Bees; the Spiders, ugly
indeed, but such skilful spinners, and even the Dung-
beetles and Scarabæidæ of every species, those
wonderful agents of terrestrial purification.

In this singular world, which affords him [4]the society

which he prefers, he has gathered an ample harvest
of unexpected facts and highly perplexing actions on
the part of these little so-called inferior animals. No
one has excelled him in detecting their slightest
movements, and in surprising all the secrets of their
lives. Darwin declared, and many others have
repeated his words, that Fabre was “an incomparable
observer.” The verdict is all the more significant in
that the French entomologist did not scruple to
oppose his observations to the theories of the
famous English naturalist.

Not only in the certainty and the detailed nature of his

facts, but also in the colour and reality of his
descriptions is his mastery revealed. In him the
naturalist is reduplicated by a man of letters and a
poet, who “understands how to cast over the naked
truth the magic mantle of his picturesque language,” 4
making each of his humble protagonists live again
before our eyes, each with its characteristic
achievements. So striking is this power of his that
Victor Hugo described him as “the insects’ Homer,”
while one of the most accomplished of our
[5]scientists, Mr. Edmond Perrier, Director of the

Museum of Natural History, not content with saluting

him as “one of the princes of natural history,” speaks
of his literary work in the following terms:

The ten volumes of his Souvenirs Entomologiques will remain

one of the most intensely interesting works which have ever
been written concerning the habits of insects, and also one of
the most remarkable records of the psychology of a great
observer of the latter part of the nineteenth century. In them
the author depicts to the life not only the habits and the
instincts of the insects; he gives us a full-length portrait of
himself. He makes us share his busy life, amid the subjects of
observation which incessantly claim his attention. The world
of insects hums and buzzes about him, obsesses him, calling
his attention from all directions, exciting his curiosity; he does
not know which way to turn. Overwhelmed by the
innumerable winged army of the drinkers of nectar who, on
the fine summer days, invade his field of observation, he calls
to his aid his whole household: his daughters, Claire, Aglaé,
and Anna, his son Paul, his workmen, and above all his man-
servant Favier, an old countryman who has spent his life in
the barracks of the French colonies, a man of a thousand
expedients, who watches his master with an incredulous yet
admiring eye, listening to him but refusing to be convinced,
and shocking him by [6]the assertion, which nothing will
induce him to retract, that the bat is a rat which has grown
wings, the slug an old snail which has lost its shell, the night-
jar a toad with a passion for milk, which has sprouted feathers
the better to suck the goats’ udders at night, and so forth. The
cats and the dog join the company at times, and one almost
regrets that one is not within reach of the sturdy old man, so
that one might respond to his call.
 See him lying on the sand where everything is grilling in the
burning rays of the sun, watching some wasp that is digging
its burrow, noting its least movement, trying to divine its
intentions, to make it confess the secret of its actions,
following the labours of the innumerable Scarabaei that clean
the surface of the soil of all that might defile it—the droppings
of large animals, the decomposing bodies of small birds,
moles, or water-rats; putting unexpected difficulties in their
way, slily giving these tiny life-companions of his problems of
his own devising to solve. 5

That is well-expressed, and it gives us a fairly correct

idea of the vital and poetic charm of the Souvenirs.

The same writer asks, speaking of the well-defined

tasks performed by all these little creatures beloved
of the worthy biologist of [7]Sérignan: “Who has taught
each one its trade, to the exclusion of any other, and
allotted the parts which they fill, as a rule with a
completeness unequalled, save by ‘their absolute
unconsciousness of the goal at which they are
aiming?’ This is a very important problem: it is the
problem of the origin of things. Henri Fabre has no
desire to grapple with it. Living in perpetual
amazement, amid the miracles revealed by his
genius, he observes, but he does not explain.”
For the moment we can no longer subscribe to the
assertions of the learned Academician, 6 nor to his
fashion of writing history, which is decidedly too free.
The truth is that Fabre, who delights in the pageant
of the living world, does not always confine himself to
recording it; he readily passes from the smallest
details of observation to the wide purviews of reason,
and he is at times as much a philosopher as a poet
and a naturalist. The truth is that he often considers
the question of the origins of life, and he answers it
unequivocally like the believer that he is. It is enough
to cite one passage among others, a passage which
testifies to a brief uplifting of the heart that
presupposes many [8]others: “The eternal question, if
one does not rise above the doctrine of dust to dust:
how did the insect acquire so discerning an art?” And
the following lines from the close of the same
chapter: “The pill-maker’s work confronts the
reflective mind with a serious problem. It offers us
these alternatives: either we must grant the flattened
cranium of the Dung-beetle the distinguished honour
of having solved for itself the geometrical problem of
the alimentary pill, or we must refer it to a harmony
that governs all things beneath the eye of an
Intelligence which, knowing all things, has provided
for all?” 7
And indeed, when we consider closely, with the
author of the Souvenirs, all the prodigies of art, all
the marks of ingenuity displayed by these sorry
creatures, so inept in other respects, then, whatever
hypothesis we may prefer as to the formation of
species, whether with Fabre we believe them fixed
and unchanging, or whether with Gaudry 8 [9]we
believe in their evolution, we cannot refrain from
proclaiming the necessity of a sovereign Mind, the
creator and instigator of order and harmony, and we
are quite naturally led to repeat, to the glory of God
the Creator, the beautiful saying of Saint Augustine:
“Fecit in cœlis angelos et in terris vermiculos, nec
major in illis nec minor in istis.”

Now this venerable nonagenarian whom naturalists,

poets, and philosophers are so justly about to honour
in Sérignan, because his brow is radiant with the
purest rays of science, poetry, and philosophy: this
entomologist of real genius, he whom Edmond
Perrier ranks among “the princes of natural history,”
he whom Victor Hugo called “the insects’ Homer,” he
whom Darwin proclaimed “an incomparable
observer”: who is there in Aveyron, knowing that he
was born beneath our skies and that he has dwelt
upon our soil, but will rejoice to feel that he belongs
to us by his birth and the whole of his youth? [10]
1 The great entomologist’s jubilee was celebrated on the April 3, 1910.—
Author’s Note. ↑
2 Paris, Delagrave. The Souvenirs, translated by Alexander Teixeira de Mattos,
are in course of publication [2]by Messrs. Hodder and Stoughton in England and
Messrs. Dodd, Mead and Co. in the United States. The arrangement of the essays
has been altered in the English series. See also The Life and Love of the Insect,
translated by Alexander Teixeira de Mattos (A. and C. Black), Social Life in the
Insect World, translated by Bernard Miall (T. Fisher Unwin), and Wonders of
Instinct, translated by Alexander Teixeira de Mattos and Bernard Miall (T. Fisher
Unwin).—B. M. ↑
3 It must in justice be admitted that Fabre had certain precursors, among whom
mention must be made of the famous Réaumur and Léon Dufour, a physician
who lived in the Landes (died 1865), and who was the occasion and the subject of
his first entomological publication. This does not alter the fact that his great work is
not only absolutely original, but an achievement sui generis which cannot be
compared with the mere sketches of his predecessors. ↑
4 Souvenirs, Series VI., p. 65, The Life of the Fly, chap. vi., “My Schooling.” This
is Fabre’s verdict upon another naturalist, Moquin-Tandon. ↑
5 Souvenirs, VI., pp. 76–97; The Glow-worm and Other Beetles, chap, ix., “Dung-
beetles of the Pampas.” ↑
6 M. E. Perrier is a Member of the Institut de France. ↑
7 Souvenirs, VI., pp. 76, 97; The Glow-worm, chap. ix. ↑
8 M. Albert Gaudry is a sometime professor of palæontology in the Museum of
Natural History, who, by virtue of his palæontological discoveries and works,
has acquired a great authority in the scientific world. His Enchaînements du
Monde Animal dans les Temps Géologiques is especially valued and often cited.
Gaudry, who is a good Catholic as well as a scientist of the first rank, [9]very
definitely accepts the evolution of species; but for him, as for Fabre, the activity of
the animal kingdom, like that of the world in general, is inconceivable apart from a
sovereign mind which has foreseen all things and provided for all things. ↑
[Contents]
CHAPTER II
 THE URCHIN OF MALAVAL
Jean-Henri Fabre was born at Saint-Léons, the
market-town and administrative centre of the canton
of Vezins. In witness of which behold this extract
from the register of baptisms, a certified copy
transcribed by the Abbé Lafon, curé of Saint-Léons:

In the year 1823, on the 22nd September, was baptised Jean-

Henri-Casimir Fabre, of the aforesaid Saint-Léons, the
legitimate son of Antoine Fabre and Victoire Salgues,
inhabitants of the same place:—His godfather was Pierre
Ricard, primary schoolmaster. In proof of which—Fabre,
vicar. 1

Jean-Henri Casimir’s mother, by birth Victoire

Salgues, was the daughter of the bailiff of Saint-
Léons. His father, Antoine Fabre, was born in a little
mas in the parish of Lavaysse, Malaval, where his
parents were still cultivating the old family property
[11]which since then has passed to the head of the

Vaissière family.

It was thus at Malaval that the future entomologist

“passed his earliest childhood,” as he told me when
writing to me ten years ago. 2 There was no wallowing
in abundance at Saint-Léons. In order to relieve the
poor household of one mouth, he was confided to the
care of his grandmother and sent to Malaval. “There,
in solitude, amid the geese, the calves, and the
sheep, my mind first awoke to consciousness. What
went before is for me shrouded in impenetrable
darkness.”

The spot which was the scene of this first awakening

deserves description. When one follows the road
from Laissac to Vezins, a short distance after passing
Vaysse-Rodié, just as one has almost reached the
crest of the height which by reason of its rocky
helmet is called the puech del Roucas, on the line of
the watershed dividing the limestone basin of the
Aveyron from the granitic basin [12]of the Viaur, on
turning sharply to the right one sees before one the
austere Malavallis, dominated on the one hand by
the height of Lavaysse with its ancient church, and
enlivened a little on the other side by the tiny hamlet
of Malaval, which consists, to-day, of two farm-
houses; one whiter, more cheerful-looking, and on
lower ground; the other standing higher, greyer in
hue, and more difficult to discover in the shade of the
oak-trees and thickets of broom and blackthorn
which form a dense mantle of green about it. It was
there, amid these trees, in this house, three thousand
feet above the sea, in sight of the sturdy belfry of
Lavaysse, that Jean-Henri Fabre was “born into the
true life,” the life of the mind. Here, on this hillside,
which directly faces the east, he made his earliest
discoveries; here, one fine morning, as he will
presently tell us, he discovered the sun; here, he saw
not only the dawn of day, but also “that inward dawn,
so far swept clear of the clouds of unconsciousness
as to leave him a lasting memory.”

Nothing could take the place of the picturesqueness

and sincerity of the narrative in which he has related
these earliest impressions of his childhood: [13]

My grandparents 3 were people whose quarrel with

the alphabet was so great that they had never
opened a book in their lives; and they kept a lean
farm on the cold granite ridge of the Rouergue
[14]table-land. The house, standing alone amidst the

heath and broom, with no neighbour for many a mile

around and visited at intervals by the wolves, was to
them the hub of the universe. But for a [15]few
surrounding villages, whither the calves were driven
upon fair-days, the rest was only very vaguely known
by hearsay. In this wild solitude, the mossy fens, with
their quagmires oozing with iridescent pools,
supplied the cows, the principal source of wealth,
with plentiful pasture. In summer, on the short sward
of the slopes, the sheep were penned day and night,
protected from beasts of prey by a fence of hurdles
propped up with pitchforks. When the grass was
cropped close at one spot, the fold was shifted
elsewhither. In the centre was the shepherd’s rolling
hut, a straw cabin. Two watch-dogs, equipped with
spiked collars, were answerable for tranquillity if the
thieving wolf appeared in the night from out the
neighbouring woods.

Padded with a perpetual layer of cow-dung, in which

I sank to my knees, broken up shimmering puddles
of dark-brown liquid manure, the farmyard also
boasted a numerous population. Here the lambs
skipped, the geese trumpeted, the fowls scratched
the ground, and the sow grunted with her swarm of
little pigs hanging to her dugs.

The harshness of the climate did not give husbandry

the same chances. In a propitious season they would
set fire to a stretch of moorland bristling with gorse
and send the swing-plough across the ground
enriched by the cinders from the fire. This yielded a
few acres of rye, oats, and potatoes. The best
corners were kept for hemp, which furnished the
distaffs and spindles of the house with [16]the material
for cloth, and was looked upon as grandmother’s
private crop.
Grandfather, therefore, was, before all, a herdsman
versed in the love of cows and sheep, but completely
ignorant of aught else. How dumbfounded he would
have been to learn that, in the remote future, one of
his family would become enamoured of those
insignificant animals to which he had never
vouchsafed a glance in his life! Had he guessed that
that lunatic was myself, the scapegrace seated at the
table by his side, what a smack of the head I should
have caught, what a wrathful look!

“The idea of wasting one’s time with that nonsense!”

he would have thundered.

For the patriarch was not given to joking. I can still

see his serious face, his unclipped head of hair, often
brought back behind his ears with a flick of the thumb
and spreading its ancient Gallic mane over his
shoulders. I see his little three-cornered hat, his
small-clothes buckled at the knees, his wooden
shoes, stuffed with straw, that echoed as he walked.
Ah, no! Once childhood’s games were past, it would
never have done to rear the Grasshopper and
unearth the Dung-beetle from his natural
surroundings.

Grandmother, pious soul, used to wear the eccentric

headdress of the Rouergue Highlanders: a large disk
of black felt, stiff as a plank, adorned in the middle
with a crown a finger’s-breadth high and hardly wider
across than a six-franc piece. A black ribbon
fastened under the chin maintained [17]the equilibrium
of this elegant, but unstable circle. Pickles, hemp,
chickens, curds and whey, butter; washing the
clothes, minding the children, seeing to the meals of
the household: say that and you have summed up
the strenuous woman’s round of ideas. On her left
side, the distaff, with its load of tow; in her right hand,
the spindle turning under a quick twist of her thumb,
moistened at intervals with her tongue: so she went
through life, unweariedly, attending to the order and
the welfare of the house. I see her in my mind’s eye,
particularly on winter evenings, which were more
favourable to family talk. When the hour came for
meals, all of us, big and little, would take our seats
round a long table, on a couple of benches, deal
planks supported by four rickety legs. Each found his
wooden bowl and his tin spoon in front of him. At one
end of the table there always stood an enormous rye-
loaf, the size of a cartwheel, wrapped in a linen cloth
with a pleasant smell of washing, and there it
remained until nothing was left of it. With a vigorous
stroke, grandfather would cut off enough for the
needs of the moment; then he would divide the piece
among us with the one knife which he alone was
entitled to wield. It was now each one’s business to
break up his bit with his fingers and to fill his bowl as
he pleased.

Next came grandmother’s turn. A capacious pot

bubbled lustily and sang upon the flames in the
hearth, exhaling an appetising savour of bacon and
turnips. Armed with a long metal ladle, grandmother
[18]would take from it, for each of us in turn, first the

broth, wherein to soak the bread, and next the ration

of turnips and bacon, partly fat and partly lean, filling
the bowl to the top. At the other end of the table was
the pitcher, from which the thirsty were free to drink
at will. What appetites we had, and what festive
meals those were, especially when a cream-cheese,
home-made, was there to complete the banquet!

Near us blazed the huge fire-place, in which whole

tree-trunks were consumed in the extreme cold
weather. From a corner of that monumental, soot-
glazed chimney, projected, at a convenient height, a
slate shelf, which served to light the kitchen when we
sat up late. On this we burnt slips of pine-wood,
selected among the most translucent, those
containing the most resin. They shed over the room a
lurid red light, which saved the walnut-oil in the lamp.
When the bowls were emptied and the last crumb of
cheese scraped up, grandam went back to her
distaff, on a stool by the chimney-corner. We
children, boys and girls, squatting on our heels and
putting out our hands to the cheerful fire of furze,
formed a circle round her and listened to her with
eager ears. She told us stories, not greatly varied, it
is true, but still wonderful, for the wolf often played a
part in them. I should have very much liked to see
this wolf, the hero of so many tales that made our
flesh creep; but the shepherd always refused to take
me into his straw hut, in the middle of the fold, at
night. [19]When we had done talking about the horrid
wolf, the dragon, and the serpent, and when the
resinous splinters had given out their last gleams, we
went to sleep the sweet sleep that toil gives. As the
youngest of the household, I had a right to the
mattress, a sack stuffed with oat-chaff. The others
had to be content with straw.

I owe a great deal to you, dear grandmother: it was in

your lap that I found consolation for my first sorrows.
You have handed down to me, perhaps, a little of
your physical vigour, a little of your love of work; but
certainly you were no more accountable than
grandfather for my passion for insects.