ML_LAB

EE3CO47 (P) Machine Learning with Python Lab
Experiment No: -01 Implement and demonstrate the FIND-S

algorithm for finding the most specific hypothesis Page 1 of 49
based on a given set of training data samples.
Read the training data from a .CSV file.
Aim: Implement and demonstrate the FIND-S algorithm for finding the most specific
hypothesis based on a given set of training data samples. Read the training data from a .CSV
file.
Software Required: Python IDE or Google Collab
Theory:
FIND-S Algorithm:
The FIND-S algorithm is a machine learning algorithm used for finding the most specific
hypothesis in the hypothesis space based on a given set of training data. The algorithm belongs
to the category of concept learning algorithms, particularly in the context of learning from
examples.
Hypothesis Representation:
In the FIND-S algorithm, a hypothesis is represented as a conjunction of literals, where each
literal corresponds to an attribute-value pair. The algorithm starts with the most specific
hypothesis, which is initialized to the first positive example in the training data. The
hypothesis is then refined as it iterates over the positive examples, adjusting attribute values to
cover all positive instances.
Algorithm:
FIND-S Algorithmn
1. Initialize h to the most specific hypothesis in H
2. For each positive training instance x
For each attribute constraint ai in h
If the constraint ai is satisfied by x
Then do nothing
Else replace ai in h by the next more general constraint that is satisfied by x
3. Output hypothesis h
Training Example:
Example Sky AirTemp Humidity Wind Water Forecast EnjoySport

Department of Electrical Engineering
Faculty of Engineering
Medi-Caps University
1
1 sunny warm normal strong warm same yes

2 sunny warm high strong warm same yes
3 rainy cold high strong warm change no
4 sunny warm high strong cool change yes
Program:
import csv
with open('tennis.csv', 'r') as f:

reader = csv.reader(f)
your_list = list(reader)
h = ['0', '0', '0', '0', '0']
for i in your_list:
print(i)
if i[-1] == "True":
j=0
for x in i:
if x != "True":
if x != h[j] and h[j] == '0':
h[j] = x
elif x != h[j] and h[j] != '0':
h[j] = '?'
else:
pass
j += 1
print("Most specific hypothesis is:")

print(h)
Data Set:
sunny warm normal strong warm same yes

sunny warm high strong warm same yes
rainy cold high strong warm change no
sunny warm high strong cool change yes
Output:

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'Sunny', 'Warm', 'Normal', 'Strong', 'Warm', 'Same',True

'Sunny', 'Warm', 'High', 'Strong', 'Warm', 'Same',True
'Rainy', 'Cold', 'High', 'Strong', 'Warm', 'Change',False
'Sunny', 'Warm', 'High', 'Strong', 'Cool','Change',True
Maximally Specific set

[['Sunny', 'Warm', '?', 'Strong', '?', '?']]
Find S: Finding a Maximally Specific Hypothesis
For Training Example No:0 the hypothesis is

['sunny', 'warm', 'normal', 'strong', 'warm', 'same']

['sunny', 'warm', '?', 'strong', 'warm', 'same']

'sunny', 'warm', '?', 'strong', 'warm', 'same']

'sunny', 'warm', '?', 'strong', '?', '?']
The Maximally Specific Hypothesis for a given Training Examples:

['sunny', 'warm', '?', 'strong', '?', '?']
Conclusion:
Aim: Demonstration of Candidate-Elimination algorithm

Theory:
The Candidate-Elimination algorithm is a concept learning algorithm used in machine learning
for learning a hypothesis space. It maintains a set of hypotheses that are consistent with the
observed training examples and updates this set as new examples are encountered. The goal is
to find the most specific and general hypothesis that is consistent with the training data.
Here's a step-by-step theoretical overview of the Candidate-Elimination algorithm:
Initialize Hypotheses:
The algorithm starts with two hypotheses sets: S (most specific hypothesis) and G (most
general hypothesis).
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Initially, set S to the most specific hypothesis in the hypothesis space (e.g., a hypothesis that
covers no examples), and set G to the most general hypothesis (e.g., a hypothesis that covers
all possible examples).
Process Training Examples:
For each training example (x, y), where x is the input and y is the output (label):
If y is positive (example is positive), update S by generalizing it to include x and updating G
to exclude any inconsistent hypotheses.
If y is negative (example is negative), update G by specializing it to exclude x and updating S
to exclude any inconsistent hypotheses.
Output Hypotheses:
The final output consists of the hypothesis space represented by the sets S and G.
S represents the most specific hypothesis consistent with the observed positive examples.
G represents the most general hypothesis consistent with the observed negative examples.
Algorithm:
Program:
class Holder:
factors = {} # Initialize an empty dictionary
attributes = () # Declaration of dictionaries parameters with an arbitrary length
def __init__(self, attr):

# self.attributes = attr
for i in attr:
self.factors[i] = []
def add_values(self, factor, values):

self.factors[factor] = values
class CandidateElimination:
Positive = {}
Negative = {}
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def __init__(self, data, fact):

self.num_factors = len(data[0][0])
self.factors = fact.factors
self.attr = fact.attributes
self.dataset = data
def run_algorithm(self):
# Initialize specific and general boundaries
G = self.initializeG()
S = self.initializeS()
# Loop through the dataset

for trial_set in self.dataset:
if self.is_positive(trial_set):
G = self.remove_inconsistent_G(G, trial_set[0])
S_new = S[:]
for s in S:
if not self.consistent(s, trial_set[0]):
S_new.remove(s)
generalization = self.generalize_inconsistent_S(s, trial_set[0])
generalization = self.get_general(generalization, G)
if generalization:
S_new.append(generalization)
S = S_new[:]
S = self.remove_more_general(S)
else:
S = self.remove_inconsistent_S(S, trial_set[0])
G_new = G[:]
for g in G:
if self.consistent(g, trial_set[0]):
G_new.remove(g)
specializations = self.specialize_inconsistent_G(g, trial_set[0])
specializations = self.get_specific(specializations, S)
if specializations:
G_new += specializations
G = G_new[:]
G = self.remove_more_specific(G)
def initializeS(self):
"""Initialize the specific boundary."""
S = tuple(['-' for _ in range(self.num_factors)]) # 6 constraints in the vector
return [S]
def initializeG(self):
"""Initialize the general boundary."""
G = tuple(['?' for _ in range(self.num_factors)]) # 6 constraints in the vector
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return [G]
# ... (rest of the methods)
# Example usage
dataset = [(('sunny', 'warm', 'normal', 'strong', 'warm', 'same'), 'Y'),
(('sunny', 'warm', 'high', 'strong', 'warm', 'same'), 'Y'),
(('rainy', 'cold', 'high', 'strong', 'warm', 'change'), 'N'),
(('sunny', 'warm', 'high', 'strong', 'cool', 'change'), 'Y')]
attributes = ('Sky', 'Temp', 'Humidity', 'Wind', 'Water', 'Forecast')

f = Holder(attributes)
f.add_values('Sky', ('sunny', 'rainy', 'cloudy'))
f.add_values('Temp', ('cold', 'warm'))
f.add_values('Humidity', ('normal', 'high'))
f.add_values('Wind', ('weak', 'strong'))
f.add_values('Water', ('warm', 'cold'))
f.add_values('Forecast', ('same', 'change'))
a = CandidateElimination(dataset, f)
a.run_algorithm()
Data Set:
Sky AirTemp Humidity Wind Water Forecast EnjoySpot

sunny warm normal strong warm same yes
sunny warm high strong warm same yes
rainy cold high strong warm change no
sunny warm high strong cool change yes
Output:
[('sunny', 'warm', 'normal', 'strong', 'warm', 'same')]
[('sunny', 'warm', 'normal', 'strong', 'warm','same')]
[('sunny', 'warm', '?', 'strong', 'warm', 'same')]
[('?', '?', '?', '?', '?', '?')]
[('sunny', '?', '?', '?', '?', '?'), ('?', 'warm', '?', '?', '?', '?'), ('?', '?', '?', '?', '?', 'same')]
[('sunny', 'warm', '?', 'strong', 'warm', 'same')]
[('sunny', 'warm', '?', 'strong', '?', '?')]

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[('sunny', 'warm', '?', 'strong', '?', '?')] [('sunny']
Conclusion:
Aim: : Demonstration of ID3 algorithm.

Theory:
Decision trees are powerful tools in machine learning and data analysis for making decisions
based on the attributes of a dataset. The ID3 (Iterative Dichotomiser 3) algorithm is one of the
earliest and widely used algorithms for constructing decision trees. It was introduced by Ross
Quinlan.
The ID3 algorithm builds a decision tree by recursively selecting the best attribute to split the
data at each node. It uses the information gain criterion to determine the most informative
attribute. The decision tree represents a set of rules that can be followed to make decisions.
Each internal node of the tree represents a decision based on an attribute, each branch
represents an outcome of that decision, and each leaf node represents a class label.
Program:
import numpy as np
import math
from data_loader import read_data
class Node:
def __init__(self, attribute):
self.attribute = attribute
self.children = []
self.answer = ""
def __str__(self):
return str(self.attribute)
def subtables(data, col, delete):

dictionary = {}
items = np.unique(data[:, col])
count = np.zeros((items.shape[0], 1), dtype=np.int32)
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for x in range(items.shape[0]):
for y in range(data.shape[0]):
if data[y, col] == items[x]:
count[x] += 1
dictionary[items[x]] = np.empty((int(count[x]), data.shape[1]), dtype="|S32")
pos = 0
for y in range(data.shape[0]):
if data[y, col] == items[x]:
dictionary[items[x]][pos] = data[y]
pos += 1
if delete:
dictionary[items[x]] = np.delete(dictionary[items[x]], col, 1)
return items, dictionary
def entropy(S):
items = np.unique(S)
if items.size == 1:
return 0
counts = np.zeros((items.shape[0], 1))

sums = 0
counts[x] = sum(S == items[x]) / (S.size * 1.0)
for count in counts:

sums += -1 * count * math.log(count, 2)
return sums
def gain_ratio(data, col):

items, dictionary = subtables(data, col, delete=False)
total_size = data.shape[0]
entropies = np.zeros((items.shape[0], 1))
intrinsic = np.zeros((items.shape[0], 1))
ratio = dictionary[items[x]].shape[0] / (total_size * 1.0)
entropies[x] = ratio * entropy(dictionary[items[x]][:, -1])
intrinsic[x] = ratio * math.log(ratio, 2)
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total_entropy = entropy(data[:, -1])

iv = -1 * sum(intrinsic)
for x in range(entropies.shape[0]):
total_entropy -= entropies[x]
return total_entropy / iv
def create_node(data, metadata):

if (np.unique(data[:, -1])).shape[0] == 1:
node = Node("")
node.answer = np.unique(data[:, -1])[0]
return node
gains = np.zeros((data.shape[1] - 1, 1))

for col in range(data.shape[1] - 1):
gains[col] = gain_ratio(data, col)
split = np.argmax(gains)
node = Node(metadata[split])
metadata = np.delete(metadata, split, 0)
items, dictionary = subtables(data, split, delete=True)
child = create_node(dictionary[items[x]], metadata)
node.children.append((items[x], child))
return node
def empty(size):
s = ""
for x in range(size):
s += " "
return s
def print_tree(node, level):

if node.answer != "":
print(empty(level), node.answer)
return
print(empty(level), node.attribute)
for value, n in node.children:
print(empty(level + 1), value)
print_tree(n, level + 2)
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metadata, traindata = read_data("tennis.csv")

data = np.array(traindata)
node = create_node(data, metadata)
print_tree(node, 0)
Input Data (Tennis.csv):
outlook,temperature,humidity,wind,answer
sunny,hot,high,weak,no
sunny,hot,high,strong,no
overcast,hot,high,weak,yes
rain,mild,high,weak,yes
rain,cool,normal,weak,yes
rain,cool,normal,strong,no
overcast,cool,normal,strong,yes
sunny,mild,high,weak,no
sunny,cool,normal,weak,yes
rain,mild,normal,weak,yes
sunny,mild,normal,strong,yes
overcast,mild,high,strong,yes
overcast,hot,normal,weak,yes
rain,mild,high,strong,no
Output:
outlook
overcastb'yes'
rain
wind
b'strong'b'no'
b'weak' b'yes'
sunny
humidity
b'high'b'no'
b'normal'b'yes'
Conclusion:
Aim: To solve the real-world problems using the machine learning methods. Linear
Regression and Logistic Regression
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Theory:
a) Linear Regression:
Exercise: Predicting House Prices
Theory:
Linear Regression models the relationship between features (e.g., square footage, bedrooms) and
continuous target variable (house prices).
Coefficients (θ) are learned to minimize the difference between predicted and actual prices.
Gradient Descent optimizes coefficients.
Evaluation metrics: Mean Squared Error, R-squared.
b) Logistic Regression:
Exercise: Customer Churn Prediction
Theory:
Logistic Regression for binary classification (churn or no churn).
Models probability of churn using the logistic function.
Log Loss cost function measures prediction accuracy.
Gradient Descent adjusts parameters.
Evaluation metrics: Accuracy, precision, recall, F1-score.
Program:
a) Linear Regression:
import pandas as pd
from sklearn import linear_model
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
from sklearn.metrics import mean_squared_error
from sklearn.model_selection import train_test_split
# Read the data from CSV

data = pd.read_csv(r"E:\sudhakar\std_marks.csv")
# Display the first 5 rows of the data

print('First 5 rows of the data set are:')
print(data.head())
# Dimensions of the data

dim = data.shape
print('Dimensions of the data set are', dim)
# Descriptive statistics of the data

print('Statistics of the data are:')
print(data.describe())

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# Correlation matrix of the data

print('Correlation matrix of the data set is:')
print(data.corr())
# Feature selection
x_set = data[['internal']]
print('First 5 rows of the feature set are:')
print(x_set.head())
# Target variable
y_set = data[['external']]
print('First 5 rows of the target set are:')
print(y_set.head())
# Split the data into training and testing sets

x_train, x_test, y_train, y_test = train_test_split(x_set, y_set, test_size=0.3)
# Create a linear regression model

model = linear_model.LinearRegression()
# Train the model

model.fit(x_train, y_train)
# Display the regression coefficients and intercept

print('Regression coefficient is', float(model.coef_))
print('Regression intercept is', float(model.intercept_))
# Predict using the test set

y_pred = model.predict(x_test)
# Convert the predicted values to a list

y_preds = [float(i) for i in y_pred]
# Display predicted values

print('Predicted values for test data are:')
print(y_preds)
# Calculate and display mean squared error

print('Mean squared error is', mean_squared_error(y_test, y_pred))
# Plotting the regression line

plt.scatter(x_test, y_test, color='blue', label='Actual y values')
plt.plot(x_test, y_pred, color='red', linewidth=3, label='Predicted regression line')
plt.ylabel('y value')
plt.xlabel('x value')
plt.title('Simple Linear Regression')
plt.legend(loc='best')
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plt.show()
Output:
b) Logistic Regression:
import warnings
warnings.filterwarnings("ignore")
import pandas as pd
import seaborn as sns
from sklearn.linear_model import LogisticRegression
from sklearn.metrics import confusion_matrix, classification_report, accuracy_score, recall_score,
precision_score
from sklearn.preprocessing import StandardScaler
data = pd.read_csv(r"E:\sudhakar\heart.csv")
print('The first 5 rows of the data set are:')

print(data.head())
dim = data.shape
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print(data.corr())
class_labels = data['target'].unique().astype(str)
print('Class labels are:')
print(class_labels)
sns.countplot(data['target'])
col_names = data.columns
feature_names = col_names[:-1].tolist()
print('Feature names are:')
print(feature_names)
x_set = data.drop(['target'], axis=1)

print('First 5 rows of features set are:')
print(x_set.head())
y_set = data[['target']]
print('First 5 rows of target set are:')
print(y_set.head())
scaler = StandardScaler()
scaler.fit(x_train)
x_train = scaler.transform(x_train)
model = LogisticRegression()
x_test = scaler.transform(x_test)
print('Predicted class labels for test data are:')

print(y_pred)
print("Accuracy:", accuracy_score(y_test, y_pred))

print("Precision:", precision_score(y_test, y_pred))
print("Recall:", recall_score(y_test, y_pred))
print(classification_report(y_test, y_pred, target_names=class_labels))
cm = confusion_matrix(y_test, y_pred)
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df_cm = pd.DataFrame(cm, columns=class_labels, index=class_labels)

df_cm.index.name = 'Actual'
df_cm.columns.name = 'Predicted'
sns.set(font_scale=1.5)
sns.heatmap(df_cm, annot=True, cmap="Blues", fmt='d')
Output:
Conclusion:
Aim: Implement a program for Bias, Variance and cross-validation

Theory:

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Bias, Variance, and Cross-Validation are important concepts in machine learning for
evaluating and improving the performance of models. Let's first discuss the theory behind Bias
and Variance, and then we'll explore the concept of Cross-Validation.
Bias and Variance:
Bias:
Bias refers to the error introduced by approximating a real-world problem, which may be
complex, by a simplified model. High bias can lead to underfitting, where the model is too
simple to capture the underlying patterns in the data.
Variance:
Variance is the amount by which a model's predictions would change if it were trained on a
different dataset. High variance can lead to overfitting, where the model is too complex and
captures noise in the training data.
Bias-Variance Tradeoff:
The goal in machine learning is to find a balance between bias and variance. Increasing the
complexity of a model typically reduces bias but increases variance, and vice versa. The
challenge is to find the optimal level of complexity that minimizes both bias and variance.
Cross-Validation:
Cross-validation is a technique used to assess how well a model will generalize to an
independent dataset. The basic idea is to split the dataset into multiple subsets, train the model
on some subsets, and test it on the remaining subsets. This process is repeated multiple times,
and the average performance is used to evaluate the model.
K-Fold Cross-Validation:
One common method is K-Fold Cross-Validation, where the dataset is divided into K subsets
(folds). The model is trained K times, each time using K-1 folds for training and the remaining
fold for testing. This process ensures that the model is evaluated on different subsets of the
data, providing a more robust assessment of its performance.
Program:
import pandas as pd
from sklearn.model_selection import cross_val_score
from sklearn import linear_model

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from statistics import mean, stdev
data = pd.read_csv(r"E:\machine learning\datasets\winequality.csv")

dim = data.shape
print('Dimensions of the dataset are', dim)
print('First 5 rows of the dataset are:')

print(data.head())
col_names = list(col_names)
print('Attribute names are:')
print(col_names)
feature_names = col_names[:-1]
print('Feature names are:', feature_names)
x_set = data.drop('quality', axis=1)

y_set = data['quality']
scores = cross_val_score(model, x_set, y_set, cv=10)
k_list = range(2, 200)

bias = []
variance = []
for k in k_list:
scores = cross_val_score(model, x_set, y_set, cv=k)
bias.append(mean(scores))
variance.append(stdev(scores))
plt.plot(k_list, bias, 'b', label='Bias of model')

plt.plot(k_list, variance, 'r', label='Variance of model')
plt.xlabel('k value')
plt.title('Bias-Variance Tradeoff')
plt.legend(loc='best')
plt.show()
# From the graph, the best value is about 85

best_k = 85
scores = cross_val_score(model, x_set, y_set, cv=best_k)
bias = mean(scores)
variance = stdev(scores)
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print('Bias of the model is', bias)

print('Variance of the model is', variance)
Output:
Bias of the model is 0.21036992445788824

Variance of the model is 0.20439342232832935
Conclusion:
Aim: To implement Categorical Encoding, One-hot Encoding.

Theory:
Categorical Encoding: We convert the 'Category' column to categorical type and then use the
cat.codes attribute to get the encoded values.

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One-Hot Encoding: We use pd.get_dummies to perform One-Hot Encoding. It creates binary

columns for each category, indicating the presence or absence of the category.
This is a basic example, and in real-world scenarios, you might need to handle more complex datasets
and encoding requirements.
Program:
import pandas as pd
# Sample data
data = {
'Category': ['A', 'B', 'A', 'C', 'B', 'C', 'A', 'B', 'C']
}
# Create a DataFrame
df = pd.DataFrame(data)
# Categorical Encoding
df['Category_Coded'] = df['Category'].astype('category').cat.codes
# One-Hot Encoding
df_one_hot = pd.get_dummies(df['Category'], prefix='Category')
# Display the original DataFrame

print("Original DataFrame:")
print(df)
# Display DataFrame after Categorical Encoding

print("\nDataFrame after Categorical Encoding:")
print(df)
# Display DataFrame after One-Hot Encoding

print("\nDataFrame after One-Hot Encoding:")
print(df_one_hot)
Output:
Original DataFrame:
Category
0 A
1 B
2 A

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3 C
4 B
5 C
6 A
7 B
8 C
DataFrame after Categorical Encoding:

Category Category_Coded
0 A 0
1 B 1
2 A 0
3 C 2
4 B 1
5 C 2
6 A 0
7 B 1
8 C 2
DataFrame after One-Hot Encoding:

Category_A Category_B Category_C
0 1 0 0
1 0 1 0
2 1 0 0
3 0 0 1
4 0 1 0
5 0 0 1
6 1 0 0
7 0 1 0
8 0 0 1
Conclusion:
Aim: Demonstration of Artificial neural network using back propagation algorithm

Theory:
Building an Artificial Neural Network (ANN) with the Backpropagation algorithm involves
the following steps:
Initialization: Randomly initialize weights and biases.

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Forward Pass: Propagate input data through the network to compute outputs.
Calculate Error: Compare predicted outputs with actual targets using a loss function.
Backward Pass: Compute gradients of the loss function with respect to weights and biases.
Gradient Descent: Update weights and biases to minimize the error.
Repeat: Iterate through steps 2-5 for multiple epochs.
To test the ANN, use datasets like MNIST, CIFAR-10, or IMDB Movie Reviews, splitting data
into training and testing sets for evaluation. This process trains the network efficiently using
Backpropagation and validates its performance on real-world data.
Program:
import numpy as np
X = np.array(([2, 9], [1, 5], [3, 6]), dtype=float)

y = np.array(([92], [86], [89]), dtype=float)
X = X / np.amax(X, axis=0) # maximum of X array longitudinally

y = y / 100 # Sigmoid Function
def sigmoid(x):
return 1 / (1 + np.exp(-x))
# Derivative of Sigmoid Function

def derivatives_sigmoid(x):
return x * (1 - x)
# Variable initialization
epoch = 7000 # Setting training iterations
lr = 0.1 # Setting learning rate
inputlayer_neurons = 2 # number of features in the dataset

hiddenlayer_neurons = 3 # number of hidden layers neurons
output_neurons = 1 # number of neurons at the output layer
# weight and bias initialization

wh = np.random.uniform(size=(inputlayer_neurons, hiddenlayer_neurons))
bh = np.random.uniform(size=(1, hiddenlayer_neurons))
wout = np.random.uniform(size=(hiddenlayer_neurons, output_neurons))
bout = np.random.uniform(size=(1, output_neurons))
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# draws a random range of numbers uniformly of dim x*y

for i in range(epoch):
# Forward Propagation
hinp1 = np.dot(X, wh)
hinp = hinp1 + bh
hlayer_act = sigmoid(hinp)
outinp1 = np.dot(hlayer_act, wout)
outinp = outinp1 + bout
output = sigmoid(outinp)
# Backpropagation
EO = y - output
outgrad = derivatives_sigmoid(output)
d_output = EO * outgrad
EH = d_output.dot(wout.T)
hiddengrad = derivatives_sigmoid(hlayer_act)
d_hiddenlayer = EH * hiddengrad
wout += hlayer_act.T.dot(d_output) * lr
bout += np.sum(d_output, axis=0, keepdims=True) * lr
wh += X.T.dot(d_hiddenlayer) * lr
bh += np.sum(d_hiddenlayer, axis=0, keepdims=True) * lr
print("Input: \n" + str(X))

print("Actual Output: \n" + str(y))
print("Predicted Output: \n", output)
Input:
[[ 0.66666667 1. ]
[ 0.33333333 0.55555556]
[ 1. 0.66666667]]
Actual Output:
[[0.92]]
[0.86]
[0.89]
Predicted Output:
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[[0.089559591]]
[0.88142869]
[0.8928407]]
Conclusion:
Aim: To implement k-Nearest Neighbor algorithm

Theory:
The k-Nearest Neighbor (k-NN) algorithm is a simple and effective classification algorithm
based on instance-based learning. Here's a brief overview:
Training Phase: Store all training examples.
Prediction Phase: For a new input, find the k nearest neighbors in the training set based on a
distance metric (e.g., Euclidean distance).
Assign the majority class among these neighbors as the predicted class for the input.
Hyperparameter k: The choice of k affects the model's performance.
Smaller values of k can lead to overfitting, while larger values can lead to underfitting.
Distance Metric: Common distance metrics include Euclidean distance, Manhattan distance,
and Minkowski distance.
Evaluation: Accuracy is commonly used to evaluate k-NN models.
By implementing and testing the k-Nearest Neighbor algorithm on datasets like Iris, you can
classify data points based on their nearest neighbors and observe both correct and incorrect
predictions to assess the model's performance.
Program:
import csv
import random
import math
import operator
def loadDataset(filename, split, trainingSet=[], testSet=[]):

with open(filename, 'r') as csvfile:

23
lines = csv.reader(csvfile)
dataset = list(lines)
for x in range(len(dataset)-1):
for y in range(4):
dataset[x][y] = float(dataset[x][y])
if random.random() < split:
trainingSet.append(dataset[x])
else:
testSet.append(dataset[x])
def euclideanDistance(instance1, instance2, length):

distance = 0
for x in range(length):
distance += pow((instance1[x] - instance2[x]), 2)
return math.sqrt(distance)
def getNeighbors(trainingSet, testInstance, k):

distances = []
length = len(testInstance)-1
for x in range(len(trainingSet)):
dist = euclideanDistance(testInstance, trainingSet[x], length)
distances.append((trainingSet[x], dist))
distances.sort(key=operator.itemgetter(1))
neighbors = []
for x in range(k):
neighbors.append(distances[x][0])
return neighbors
def getResponse(neighbors):
classVotes = {}
for x in range(len(neighbors)):
response = neighbors[x][-1]
if response in classVotes:
classVotes[response] += 1
else:
classVotes[response] = 1
sortedVotes = sorted(classVotes.items(), key=operator.itemgetter(1), reverse=True)

return sortedVotes[0][0]
def getAccuracy(testSet, predictions):

correct = 0
for x in range(len(testSet)):
if testSet[x][-1] == predictions[x]:
correct += 1
return (correct/float(len(testSet))) * 100.0

24
def main():
# prepare data
trainingSet = []
testSet = []
split = 0.67
loadDataset('knndat.data', split, trainingSet, testSet)

print('Train set: ' + repr(len(trainingSet)))
print('Test set: ' + repr(len(testSet)))
# generate predictions
predictions = []
k=3
for x in range(len(testSet)):
neighbors = getNeighbors(trainingSet, testSet[x], k)
result = getResponse(neighbors)
predictions.append(result)
print('> predicted=' + repr(result) + ', actual=' + repr(testSet[x][-1]))
accuracy = getAccuracy(testSet, predictions)

print('Accuracy: ' + repr(accuracy) + '%')
main()
Output:
Confusion matrix is as follows [[11 0 0]

[0 9 1]
[0 1 8]]
Accuracy metrics0 1.00 1.00 1.00 11

1 0.90 0.90 0.90 10
2 0.89 0.89 0,89 9
Avg/Total 0.93 0.93 0.93 30
Conclusion:
Aim: Demonstration of -parametric Locally Weighted Regression algorithm

Theory:

25
Locally Weighted Regression is a non-parametric learning algorithm that fits data points by
giving more weight to nearby points during prediction. Here are key points about this
algorithm:
Non-Parametric Algorithm: Locally Weighted Regression does not assume a fixed
functional form for the relationship between inputs and outputs.
Working Principle: It predicts the output for a new data point by giving more weight to
nearby training points and less weight to distant ones.
No Training Phase: Unlike parametric models that require a training phase to learn
parameters, Locally Weighted Regression retains the training data during prediction.
Weight Calculation: The weight assigned to each training point is determined by a kernel
function that decreases with distance from the test point.
Tau Parameter: The bandwidth parameter (tau) controls the width of the kernel and
influences how much each training point contributes to the prediction.
By implementing Locally Weighted Regression and fitting data points using this algorithm,
you can observe how it adapts to local patterns in the data and provides flexible predictions
based on neighboring points.
Program:
from numpy import *

import operator
from os import listdir
import matplotlib
import pandas as pd
import numpy as np
def kernel(point, xmat, k):

m, n = np.shape(xmat)
weights = np.mat(eye(m))
for j in range(m):
diff = point - xmat[j]
weights[j, j] = np.exp(diff * diff.T / (-2.0 * k**2))
return weights
def localWeight(point, xmat, ymat, k):

wei = kernel(point, xmat, k)
W = (xmat.T * (wei * xmat)).I * (xmat.T * (wei * ymat.T))
return W
26
def localWeightRegression(xmat, ymat, k):

m, n = np.shape(xmat)
ypred = np.zeros(m)
for i in range(m):
ypred[i] = xmat[i] * localWeight(xmat[i], xmat, ymat, k)
return ypred
# Load data points

data = pd.read_csv('data10.csv')
bill = np.array(data.total_bill)
tip = np.array(data.tip)
# Preparing and add 1 in bill

mbill = np.mat(bill)
mtip = np.mat(tip)
m = np.shape(mbill)[1]
one = np.mat(np.ones(m))
X = np.hstack((one.T, mbill.T))
# Set k here
ypred = localWeightRegression(X, mtip, 2)
SortIndex = X[:, 1].argsort(0)

xsort = X[SortIndex][:, 0]
# Print or use ypred as needed

print(ypred)
Output:

27
Conclusion:
Aim: Classification of set of documents using Naive Bayesian classification.

Theory:
The Naive Bayes Classifier is a probabilistic model that assumes feature independence. It
calculates the posterior probability for each class and predicts the class with the highest
probability. Evaluate performance using accuracy, precision, and recall.
Program:
import pandas as pd
from sklearn.feature_extraction.text import CountVectorizer
from sklearn.naive_bayes import MultinomialNB
from sklearn import metrics
# Load the dataset

msg = pd.read_csv('naivetext1.csv', names=['message', 'label'])

28
print('The dimensions of the dataset', msg.shape)
msg['labelnum'] = msg.label.map({'pos': 1, 'neg': 0})

X = msg.message
y = msg.labelnum
print(X)
print(y)
# Split the dataset into train and test data

xtrain, xtest, ytrain, ytest = train_test_split(X, y)
print(xtest.shape)
print(xtrain.shape)
print(ytest.shape)
print(ytrain.shape)
# Output of count vectorizer is a sparse matrix

count_vect = CountVectorizer()
xtrain_dtm = count_vect.fit_transform(xtrain)
xtest_dtm = count_vect.transform(xtest)
print(count_vect.get_feature_names())
df = pd.DataFrame(xtrain_dtm.toarray(), columns=count_vect.get_feature_names())
print(df)
# Tabular representation
print(xtrain_dtm)
# Training Naive Bayes (NB) classifier on training data

clf = MultinomialNB().fit(xtrain_dtm, ytrain)
predicted = clf.predict(xtest_dtm)
# Printing accuracy metrics

print('Accuracy metrics')
print('Accuracy of the classifier is', metrics.accuracy_score(ytest, predicted))
print('Confusion matrix')
print(metrics.confusion_matrix(ytest, predicted))
print('Recall and Precision')
print(metrics.recall_score(ytest, predicted))
print(metrics.precision_score(ytest, predicted))
# Example predictions
docs_new = ['I love this sandwich', 'This is an amazing place']
X_new_counts = count_vect.transform(docs_new)
predicted_new = clf.predict(X_new_counts)
for doc, category in zip(docs_new, predicted_new):

29
print('%s -> %s' % (doc, category))
Output:
['about', 'am', 'amazing', 'an', 'and', 'awesome', 'beers', 'best', 'boss', 'can', 'deal',
'do', 'enemy', 'feel', 'fun', 'good', 'have', 'horrible', 'house', 'is', 'like', 'love', 'my',
'not', 'of', 'place', 'restaurant', 'sandwich', 'sick', 'stuff', 'these', 'this', 'tired', 'to',
'today', 'tomorrow', 'very', 'view', 'we', 'went', 'what', 'will', 'with', 'work']about am
amazing an and awesome beers best boss can ... today \
0 10 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 ... 0
1 00 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 ... 0
2 00 1100 0 0 0 0 ... 0
3 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ... 1
4 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ... 0
5 01 001 0 0 0 0 0 ... 0
6 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 ... 0
7 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ... 0
8 01 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ... 0
9 00 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 ... 0
10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ... 0
11 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 ... 0
12 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 ... 0
Conclusion:
Aim: : Implementation of EM algorithm to cluster a Heart Disease Data Set .

Theory:
30
The Expectation-Maximization (EM) algorithm and k-Means algorithm are commonly used for
clustering data. EM is a probabilistic algorithm that iteratively estimates parameters with latent
variables, often applied with Gaussian Mixture Models for probabilistic clustering. On the other hand,
k-Means is a centroid-based algorithm that partitions data into k clusters by minimizing the sum of
squared distances to cluster centroids.
When comparing the results of EM and k-Means clustering on the Heart Disease Data Set, it's
essential to consider several factors:
Algorithm Differences:
EM Algorithm: Capable of capturing complex cluster shapes through probabilistic modeling but
sensitive to initialization.
k-Means Algorithm: Efficient and straightforward, but may struggle with non-linear cluster
boundaries and requires careful initialization.
Cluster Quality Evaluation:
Metrics like Davies-Bouldin Index, Rand Index, Purity, Sensitivity, Precision, F1 Score, and
Accuracy can be used to evaluate clustering quality.
These metrics help assess how well the clusters represent underlying patterns in the data and how
distinct they are from each other.
Comment on Clustering Quality:
Compare the results of EM and k-Means based on cluster shape, initialization sensitivity, and overall
clustering performance.
Consider factors like cluster compactness, separation, and how well they align with the underlying
structure of the data.
By analyzing the clustering results using both algorithms on the Heart Disease Data Set and
evaluating them using appropriate metrics, you can provide insights into the strengths and limitations
of each algorithm in terms of clustering quality and performance.
Program:
import numpy as np
from sklearn.datasets.samples_generator import make_blobs
from sklearn.mixture import GaussianMixture
from matplotlib.patches import Ellipse
X, y_true = make_blobs(n_samples=100, centers=4, cluster_std=0.60, random_state=0)

X = X[:, ::-1] # flip axes for better plotting
gmm = GaussianMixture(n_components=4).fit(X)
labels = gmm.predict(X)
plt.scatter(X[:, 0], X[:, 1], c=labels, s=40, cmap='viridis')

plt.show()
probs = gmm.predict_proba(X)
print(probs[:5].round(3))
size = 50 * probs.max(1) ** 2
31
plt.scatter(X[:, 0], X[:, 1], c=labels, cmap='viridis', s=size)

plt.show()
def draw_ellipse(position, covariance, ax=None, **kwargs):

"""Draw an ellipse with a given position and covariance"""
ax = ax or plt.gca()
# Convert covariance to principal axes

if covariance.shape == (2, 2):
U, s, Vt = np.linalg.svd(covariance)
angle = np.degrees(np.arctan2(U[1, 0], U[0, 0]))
width, height = 2 * np.sqrt(s)
else:
angle = 0
width, height = 2 * np.sqrt(covariance)
# Draw the Ellipse

for nsig in range(1, 4):
ax.add_patch(Ellipse(position, nsig * width, nsig * height, angle, **kwargs))
def plot_gmm(gmm, X, label=True, ax=None):

ax = ax or plt.gca()
labels = gmm.fit(X).predict(X)
if label:
ax.scatter(X[:, 0], X[:, 1], c=labels, s=40, cmap='viridis', zorder=2)
else:
ax.scatter(X[:, 0], X[:, 1], s=40, zorder=2)
ax.axis('equal')
w_factor = 0.2 / gmm.weights_.max()

for pos, covar, w in zip(gmm.means_, gmm.covariances_, gmm.weights_):
draw_ellipse(pos, covar, alpha=w * w_factor)
gmm = GaussianMixture(n_components=4, random_state=42)

plot_gmm(gmm, X)
plt.show()
gmm = GaussianMixture(n_components=4, covariance_type='full', random_state=42)

plot_gmm(gmm, X)
plt.show(
)
Output:

32
[[1 ,0, 0, 0]
[0 ,0, 1, 0]
[1 ,0, 0, 0]
[1 ,0, 0, 0]
[1,0,0,]]
K-Means:
from sklearn.cluster import KMeans
import numpy as np
import pandas as pd
data = pd.read_csv("kmeansdata.csv")
df1 = pd.DataFrame(data)
print(df1)
f1 = df1['Distance_Feature'].values
f2 = df1['Speeding_Feature'].values
X = np.matrix(list(zip(f1, f2)))
plt.plot()
plt.xlim([0, 100])
plt.ylim([0, 50])
plt.title('Dataset')
plt.ylabel('Speeding_Feature')
plt.xlabel('Distance_Feature')
plt.scatter(f1, f2)
plt.show()
# create new plot and data

plt.plot()
colors = ['b', 'g', 'r']
markers = ['o', 'v', 's']
# KMeans algorithm
#K=3
kmeans_model = KMeans(n_clusters=3).fit(X)
plt.plot()
33
for i, l in enumerate(kmeans_model.labels_):
plt.plot(f1[i], f2[i], color=colors[l], marker=markers[l], ls='None')
plt.xlim([0, 100])
plt.ylim([0, 50])
plt.show()
Output:
Driver_ID,Distance_Feature,Speeding_Feature :
3423311935,71.24,28
3423313212,52.53,25
3423313724,64.54,27
3423311373,55.69,22
3423310999,54.58,25
3423313857,41.91,10
3423312432,58.64,20
3423311434,52.02,8
3423311328,31.25,34
3423312488,44.31,19
3423311254,49.35,40
3423312943,58.07,45
3423312536,44.22,22
3423311542,55.73,19
3423312176,46.63,43
3423314176,52.97,32
3423314202,46.25,35
3423311346,51.55,27
3423310666,57.05,26
3423313527,58.45,30
3423312182,43.42,23
3423313590,55.68,37
3423312268,55.15,18

34
Conclusion:
Aim: : Exploratory data analysis for classification using pandas and Matplotlib

Theory:
Exploratory Data Analysis (EDA) is a crucial step in data analysis, involving the analysis and
visualization of data to uncover patterns and insights. It includes techniques like data cleaning,
transformation, and visualization using tools like Pandas and Matplotlib. EDA helps in understanding
data, identifying trends, patterns, and making informed decisions for further analysis. Common EDA
techniques include summary statistics, data visualization, handling missing values, outlier detection,
and correlation analysis. By following key steps like data cleaning, exploration, visualization,
statistical analysis, and drawing conclusions iteratively, EDA provides valuable insights for
classification tasks.
Program:
import pandas as pd
print('pandas version is', pd.__version__)
data = pd.read_csv(r"E:\sudhakar\tae.csv", header=None)

35
col_names = ['native_speaker', 'instructor', 'course', 'semester', 'class_size', 'score']

data.columns = col_names
print('Data type of target variable is:', data['score'].dtype)

print('Converting target variable data type to categorical')
data['score'] = data['score'].astype('category')
print('After conversion, data type of target variable is:', data['score'].dtype)
print('Dimensions of the data set:')

print(data.shape)

print(data.head())
print('The last 5 rows of the data set are:')

print(data.tail())
print('Randomly selected 5 rows of the data set are:')

print(data.sample(5))
print('The columns of the data set are:')

print(data.columns.tolist())
print('Names and data types of attributes are:')

print(data.dtypes)
print('Converting native_speaker data type to categorical')

data['native_speaker'] = data['native_speaker'].astype('category')
print('After conversion, Names and data types of attributes are:')

print(data.dtypes)
print('Information of the data set attributes:')

print(data.info())
print('Statistics of the numerical attributes of the data set are:')

print('Statistics of all attributes of the data set are:')

print(data.describe(include='all'))
print('Correlation matrix of the numerical attributes of the data set is:')

corr = data.corr()
print(corr)
print('Distribution of the target variable is:')

36
print(data['score'].value_counts())
print('Target class distribution w.r.t \'native_speaker\' attribute')

print(pd.crosstab(data.native_speaker, data.score))
print('Target class distribution w.r.t \'native_speaker\' attribute')

print(pd.crosstab(data.native_speaker, data.score, normalize='index'))
print('Target class distribution w.r.t \'native_speaker\' attribute using groupby')

data.groupby('native_speaker').score.value_counts()
print('Checking for null values:')

print(data.isnull().sum())
data.dropna(subset=['instructor'], axis=0, inplace=True)
print('After removal of rows with null values in column \'instructor\'')

print(data.isnull().sum())
print('Unique values in the column named \'score\'')

print(data['score'].unique())
data.plot(kind='scatter', x='semester', y='class_size', color='red')

print('Number of distinct courses semester-wise')
data.groupby('semester')['course'].nunique().plot(kind='bar')
print('Frequency of values in column \'semester\'')

data[['semester']].plot(kind='hist')
data.plot(kind='bar', x='semester', y='course', color='red')

ax = plt.gca() # gca means get current axes
data.plot(kind='line', x='semester', y='class_size', ax=ax)
plt.show()
Output:

37

38
Conclusion:

39
Aim: Demonstrate the diagnosis of heart patients using standard Heart Disease Data
Set.
Theory:
Bayesian Network:
A Bayesian network is a probabilistic graphical model that represents probabilistic relationships
between variables.
It consists of nodes representing variables and directed edges representing dependencies.
Medical Data and Diagnosis:
In medical diagnosis, Bayesian networks can model relationships between symptoms, test results, and
diseases.
Variables like age, sex, cholesterol levels, and ECG results can be crucial in diagnosing heart disease.
Heart Disease Data Set:
The Heart Disease Data Set contains attributes like age, sex, cholesterol levels, and ECG results for
patients.
By constructing a Bayesian network using this data, we can model dependencies between these
variables and heart disease.
Program Implementation:
Load the Heart Disease Data Set and define the structure of the Bayesian network.
Use Maximum Likelihood Estimation to estimate parameters based on the data.
Perform inference with the model to predict heart disease diagnosis based on observed data.
By constructing a Bayesian network with medical data like the Heart Disease Data Set, we can create
a model that aids in diagnosing heart patients by capturing dependencies between variables and
predicting outcomes based on observed information.
Program:
import bayespy as bp
import numpy as np
import csv
from colorama import init
from colorama import Fore, Back, Style
init()
# Define Parameter Enum values

# Age
ageEnum = {'SuperSeniorCitizen': 0, 'SeniorCitizen': 1, 'MiddleAged': 2, 'Youth': 3, 'Teen': 4}
# Gender
genderEnum = {'Male': 0, 'Female': 1}
# FamilyHistory
familyHistoryEnum = {'Yes': 0, 'No': 1}
# Diet(Calorie Intake)
dietEnum = {'High': 0, 'Medium': 1, 'Low': 2}
# LifeStyle
40
lifeStyleEnum = {'Athlete': 0, 'Active': 1, 'Moderate': 2, 'Sedetary': 3}

# Cholesterol
cholesterolEnum = {'High': 0, 'BorderLine': 1, 'Normal': 2}
# HeartDisease
heartDiseaseEnum = {'Yes': 0, 'No': 1}
with open('heart_disease_data.csv') as csvfile:

lines = csv.reader(csvfile)
dataset = list(lines)
data = []
for x in dataset:
data.append([ageEnum[x[0]], genderEnum[x[1]], familyHistoryEnum[x[2]], dietEnum[x[3]],
lifeStyleEnum[x[4]], cholesterolEnum[x[5]], heartDiseaseEnum[x[6]]])
# Training data for machine learning todo: should import from csv
data = np.array(data)
N = len(data)
# Input data column assignment

p_age = bp.nodes.Dirichlet(1.0 * np.ones(5))
age = bp.nodes.Categorical(p_age, plates=(N,))
age.observe(data[:, 0])
p_gender = bp.nodes.Dirichlet(1.0 * np.ones(2))

gender = bp.nodes.Categorical(p_gender, plates=(N,))
gender.observe(data[:, 1])
p_familyhistory = bp.nodes.Dirichlet(1.0 * np.ones(2))

familyhistory = bp.nodes.Categorical(p_familyhistory, plates=(N,))
familyhistory.observe(data[:, 2])
p_diet = bp.nodes.Dirichlet(1.0 * np.ones(3))

diet = bp.nodes.Categorical(p_diet, plates=(N,))
diet.observe(data[:, 3])
p_lifestyle = bp.nodes.Dirichlet(1.0 * np.ones(4))

lifestyle = bp.nodes.Categorical(p_lifestyle, plates=(N,))
lifestyle.observe(data[:, 4])
p_cholesterol = bp.nodes.Dirichlet(1.0 * np.ones(3))

cholesterol = bp.nodes.Categorical(p_cholesterol, plates=(N,))
cholesterol.observe(data[:, 5])
# Prepare nodes and establish edges

p_heartdisease = bp.nodes.Dirichlet(np.ones(2), plates=(5, 2, 2, 3, 4, 3))

41
heartdisease = bp.nodes.MultiMixture([age, gender, familyhistory, diet, lifestyle, cholesterol],

bp.nodes.Categorical, p_heartdisease)
heartdisease.observe(data[:, 6])
p_heartdisease.update()
# Interactive Test
m=0
while m == 0:
print("\n")
res = bp.nodes.MultiMixture([int(input('Enter Age: ' + str(ageEnum))), int(input('Enter Gender: ' +
str(genderEnum))),
int(input('Enter FamilyHistory: ' + str(familyHistoryEnum))), int(input('Enter
dietEnum: ' + str(dietEnum))),
int(input('Enter LifeStyle: ' + str(lifeStyleEnum))), int(input('Enter Cholesterol: '
+ str(cholesterolEnum)))],
bp.nodes.Categorical, p_heartdisease).get_moments()[0]
[heartDiseaseEnum['Yes']]
print("Probability(HeartDisease) = " + str(res))
m = int(input("Enter for Continue: 0, Exit: 1 "))
Output:
Enter Age: {'SuperSeniorCitizen': 0, 'SeniorCitizen': 1, 'MiddleAged': 2, 'Youth': 3, 'Teen':

4}1
Enter Gender: {'Male': 0, 'Female': 1}0
Enter FamilyHistory: {'Yes': 0, 'No': 1}0
Enter dietEnum: {'High': 0, 'Medium': 1, 'Low': 2}2
Enter LifeStyle: {'Athlete': 0, 'Active': 1, 'Moderate': 2, 'Sedetary': 3}2
Enter Cholesterol: {'High': 0, 'BorderLine': 1, 'Normal': 2}1
C:\Anaconda3\lib\site-packages\bayespy\inference\vmp\nodes\categorical.py:43:
FutureWarning: Using a non-tuple sequence for multidimensional indexing is deprecated;
use àrr[tuple(seq)]` instead of àrr[seq]`. In the future this will be interpreted as an array
index, àrr[np.array(seq)]`, which will result either in an error or a different result.
u0[[np.arange(np.size(x)),
np.ravel(x)]] = 1
Probability(HeartDisease) = 0.5
Enter for Continue:0, Exit :1 1
Conclusion:
Aim: To implement Support Vector Machines

42
Theory:
Support Vector Machines:
SVM is a supervised learning algorithm used for classification and regression tasks.
It finds the optimal hyperplane that best separates classes in a high-dimensional space.
Kernel Trick:
SVM can handle non-linearly separable data by mapping it to a higher-dimensional space using kernel
functions like linear, polynomial, or radial basis function (RBF).
Margin:
SVM aims to maximize the margin between the decision boundary and the support vectors, which are
data points closest to the boundary.
Regularization:
SVM uses regularization parameters to control the trade-off between maximizing margin and
minimizing classification errors.
Kernel Selection:
Choosing an appropriate kernel is crucial in SVM to handle different types of data distributions
effectively.
Prediction:
Once trained, SVM can predict the class of new data points based on their position relative to the
decision boundary.
By implementing SVM in Python using libraries like scikit-learn, you can leverage its robustness in
handling complex classification tasks by finding optimal decision boundaries in high-dimensional
spaces.
Program:
import pandas as pd
import seaborn as sns
import numpy as np
from sklearn.metrics import confusion_matrix, classification_report, accuracy_score, recall_score,
precision_score
from sklearn.svm import SVC
data = pd.read_csv(r"E:\sudhakar\haberman.csv", header=None)
# age=age of the patient

# year=Patient's year of operation (year - 1900)
# pos_axil_nodes=Number of positive axillary nodes detected
# survival_status:1 - the patient survived 5 years or longer
# 2 - the patient died within 5 years
col_names = ['age', 'year', 'pos_axil_nodes', 'survival_status']

data.columns = col_names

43
# we removed the attribute year of operation

data = data.drop(['year'], axis=1)

print(data.head())
dim = data.shape
print(data.corr())
class_lbls = data['survival_status'].unique()
class_labels = [str(x) for x in class_lbls]
print('Class labels are:')
print(class_labels)
sns.countplot(data['survival_status'])
feature_names = col_names[:-1]
feature_names = list(feature_names)
print('Feature names are:')
print(feature_names)
x_set = data.drop(['survival_status'], axis=1)

print('First 5 rows of features set are:')
print(x_set.head())
y_set = data['survival_status']
print('First 5 rows of target variable are:')
print(y_set.head())
print('Distribution of Target variable is:')

print(y_set.value_counts())
scaler = StandardScaler()
scaler.fit(x_train)
x_train = scaler.transform(x_train)
model = SVC()
print("Training the model with the train data set")
x_test = scaler.transform(x_test)
44
print('Predicted class labels for test data are:')
print(y_pred)
print("Accuracy:", accuracy_score(y_test, y_pred))

print("Precision:", precision_score(y_test, y_pred))
print("Recall:", recall_score(y_test, y_pred))
print(classification_report(y_test, y_pred, target_names=class_labels))
cm = confusion_matrix(y_test, y_pred)
df_cm = pd.DataFrame(cm, columns=class_labels, index=class_labels)
df_cm.index.name = 'Actual'
df_cm.columns.name = 'Predicted'
sns.set(font_scale=1.5)
sns.heatmap(df_cm, annot=True, cmap="Blues", fmt='d')
plt.scatter(x_train[:, 0], x_train[:, 1], c=y_train, s=30, cmap=plt.cm.Paired)

plt.xlabel('age')
plt.ylabel('pos_axil_nodes')
plt.title('Data points in the training data set')
plt.scatter(x_train[:, 0], x_train[:, 1], c=y_train, s=30, cmap=plt.cm.Paired)

plt.xlabel('age')
plt.ylabel('pos_axil_nodes')
plt.title('Support vectors and decision boundary')
ax = plt.gca()
xlim = ax.get_xlim()
ylim = ax.get_ylim()
# create grid to evaluate model

xx = np.linspace(xlim[0], xlim[1], 30)
yy = np.linspace(ylim[0], ylim[1], 30)
YY, XX = np.meshgrid(yy, xx)
xy = np.vstack([XX.ravel(), YY.ravel()]).T
Z = model.decision_function(xy).reshape(XX.shape)
ax.contour(XX, YY, Z, colors='red', levels=[-1, 0, 1], alpha=0.5, linestyles=['--', '-', '--'])
# plot support vectors

ax.scatter(model.support_vectors_[:, 0], model.support_vectors_[:, 1], s=30, facecolors='green')
plt.show()
Output:

45

46
Conclusion:
Aim: Implement Principle Component Analysis

Theory:
Principal Component Analysis (PCA) is a dimensionality reduction technique used to
transform high-dimensional data into a lower-dimensional form while retaining as much
variance as possible
Steps in PCA:
Standardization:
Standardize the dataset by centering it (subtract the mean) and scaling it (divide by the
standard deviation).
This step ensures that all variables have the same scale.
Covariance Matrix:
Compute the covariance matrix of the standardized dataset.
47
The covariance matrix represents the relationships between variables.

Eigenvalue Decomposition:
Perform eigenvalue decomposition on the covariance matrix.
Obtain eigenvalues and corresponding eigenvectors.
Sort Eigenvectors:
Sort the eigenvectors in descending order based on their corresponding eigenvalues.
Eigenvectors with higher eigenvalues capture more variance in the data.
Select Principal Components:
Select the top k eigenvectors to form the principal components.
k is the desired number of dimensions in the reduced space.
Projection:
Project the original data onto the selected principal components to obtain the reduced-
dimensional representation.
Program:
import numpy as np
import pandas as pd
from sklearn.decomposition import PCA
# Load the dataset

DS = pd.read_csv('Wine.csv')
# Separate the dataset into features "X" and the target variable "Y"
X = DS.iloc[:, 0:13].values
Y = DS.iloc[:, 13].values
# Split the dataset into training and testing sets

X_train, X_test, Y_train, Y_test = train_test_split(X, Y, test_size=0.2, random_state=0)
48
# Standardize the features

SC = StandardScaler()
X_train = SC.fit_transform(X_train)
X_test = SC.transform(X_test)
# Apply Principal Component Analysis (PCA)

PCa = PCA(n_components=1)
X_train = PCa.fit_transform(X_train)
X_test = PCa.transform(X_test)
# Output the explained variance ratio

explained_variance = PCa.explained_variance_ratio_
print("Explained Variance Ratio:", explained_variance)
# Train a Logistic Regression classifier

classifier_1 = LogisticRegression(random_state=0)
classifier_1.fit(X_train, Y_train)
# Output the trained classifier

print(classifier_1)
Output:
LogisticRegression(random.state=0)
Conclusion:

49

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EE3CO47 (P) Machine Learning with Python Lab

Experiment No: -01 Implement and demonstrate the FIND-S

Example Sky AirTemp Humidity Wind Water Forecast EnjoySport

1 sunny warm normal strong warm same yes

with open('tennis.csv', 'r') as f:

h = ['0', '0', '0', '0', '0']

print("Most specific hypothesis is:")

sunny warm normal strong warm same yes

Department of Electrical Engineering

'Sunny', 'Warm', 'Normal', 'Strong', 'Warm', 'Same',True

Maximally Specific set

Find S: Finding a Maximally Specific Hypothesis

For Training Example No:0 the hypothesis is

For Training Example No:1 the hypothesis is

For Training Example No:2 the hypothesis is

For Training Example No:3 the hypothesis is

The Maximally Specific Hypothesis for a given Training Examples:

Aim: Demonstration of Candidate-Elimination algorithm

def __init__(self, attr):

def add_values(self, factor, values):

def __init__(self, data, fact):

# Loop through the dataset

# ... (rest of the methods)

attributes = ('Sky', 'Temp', 'Humidity', 'Wind', 'Water', 'Forecast')

Sky AirTemp Humidity Wind Water Forecast EnjoySpot

[('sunny', 'warm', 'normal', 'strong', 'warm', 'same')]

[('sunny', 'warm', 'normal', 'strong', 'warm','same')]

[('sunny', 'warm', '?', 'strong', 'warm', 'same')]

[('?', '?', '?', '?', '?', '?')]

[('sunny', 'warm', '?', 'strong', 'warm', 'same')]

[('sunny', 'warm', '?', 'strong', '?', '?')]

[('sunny', 'warm', '?', 'strong', '?', '?')] [('sunny']

Aim: : Demonstration of ID3 algorithm.

Software Required: Python IDE or Google Collab

def subtables(data, col, delete):

return items, dictionary

counts = np.zeros((items.shape[0], 1))

for count in counts:

def gain_ratio(data, col):

total_entropy = entropy(data[:, -1])

def create_node(data, metadata):

gains = np.zeros((data.shape[1] - 1, 1))

def print_tree(node, level):

metadata, traindata = read_data("tennis.csv")

Input Data (Tennis.csv):

# Read the data from CSV

# Display the first 5 rows of the data

# Dimensions of the data

# Descriptive statistics of the data

Department of Electrical Engineering

# Correlation matrix of the data

# Split the data into training and testing sets

# Create a linear regression model

# Train the model

# Display the regression coefficients and intercept

# Predict using the test set

# Convert the predicted values to a list

# Display predicted values

# Calculate and display mean squared error

# Plotting the regression line

print('The first 5 rows of the data set are:')

print('Dimensions of the data set are', dim)

x_set = data.drop(['target'], axis=1)

print('Predicted class labels for test data are:')

def init(self, attr):

def init(self, data, fact):