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 Chapter 6
Energy and Chemical Change

Multiple Choice Questions

Section 6.1
Difficulty Level: easy
1. Which is a unit of energy, but is not the SI unit of energy?

a. joule
b. newton
c. pascal
d. watt
e. calorie

Answer: e

Section 6.1
Difficulty Level: easy
2. Which is a unit of energy?

a. pascal
b. newton
c. joule
d. watt
e. ampere

Answer: c

Section 6.1
Difficulty Level: easy
3. Chemical energy is

a. the kinetic energy resulting from violent decomposition of energetic chemicals.

b. the heat energy associated with combustion reactions.
c. the electrical energy produced by fuel cells.
d. the potential energy which resides in chemical bonds.
e. the energy living plants receive from solar radiation.

Answer: d

6-1
Section 6.1
Difficulty Level: medium
4. Calculate the kinetic energy (KE) of an object which has a mass of 5.00 × 102 g, and is traveling in
a straight line with a speed of 50.0 m s-1.
Hint: 1 J = 1 kg m2s-2.

a. 0.625 kJ
b. 1.25 kJ
c. 2.5 kJ
d. 6.25 kJ
e. 25 kJ

Answer: a

Section 6.1
Difficulty Level: medium
5. Calculate the kinetic energy (KE) of an object which has a mass of 9.00  102 g, and is traveling in
a straight line with a speed of 4.0  101 m s-1.
Hint: 1 J = 1 kg m2s-2

a. 0.72 kJ
b. 1.44 kJ
c. 2.88 kJ
d. 16.2 kJ
e. 18 kJ

Answer: a

Section 6.1
Difficulty Level: medium
6. Calculate the kinetic energy (KE) of an object which has a mass of 1.200  103 g, and is traveling in
a straight line with a speed of 5.0  101 m s-1.
Hint: 1 J = 1 kg m2s-2

a. 1.5 kJ
b. 3.0 kJ
c. 6.0 kJ
d. 36 kJ
e. 300 kJ

Answer: a

6-2
Section 6.1
Difficulty Level: medium
7. Calculate the kinetic energy (KE) of an object which has a mass of 2.45 kg, and is traveling in a
straight line with a speed of 12.0 m s-1.
Hint: 1 J = 1 kg m2s-2

a. 414 J
b. 353 J
c. 36.0 J
d. 176 J
e. 465 J

Answer: d

Section 6.1
Difficulty Level: easy
8. How many kilojoules are equivalent to 8.18 kilocalories?

a. 1.96 kJ
b. 1,955 kJ
c. 8,180 kJ
d. 34,200 kJ
e. 34.2 kJ

Answer: e

Section 6.1
Difficulty Level: easy
9. How many kilocalories are equivalent to 18.9 kilojoules?

a. 79.1 kcal
b. 4.52 kcal
c. 9.03 kcal
d. 7.91 kcal
e. 34.2 kcal

Answer: b

6-3
Section 6.2
Difficulty Level: medium
10. Which statement is true?

a. Molecules in gases possess kinetic energy since they are in constant motion, while
molecules in liquids and solids are not in constant motion, and hence possess no
kinetic energy.
b. Molecules in gases and liquids possess kinetic energy since they are in constant
motion, while molecules in solids are not in constant motion and hence possess no
kinetic energy.
c. Molecules in gases, liquids and solids possess kinetic energy since they are in
constant motion.
d. Polyatomic molecules possess kinetic energy in the liquid and gaseous states since
the atoms can move about in the molecule even if the molecule cannot move.
e. Since solids are rigid, their molecules do not possess kinetic energy unless the solid
is melted.

Answer: c

Section 6.2
Difficulty Level: medium
11. For a chemical reaction, where the internal energy is given the symbol E,

a. Efinal signifies the internal energy of the reactants.

b. Einitial signifies the internal energy of the products.
c. E = Eproducts - Ereactants
d. E is positive if energy is released to the surroundings.
e. E is positive if energy is released by the chemical reaction.

Answer: c

Section 6.2
Difficulty Level: medium
12. Which statement is incorrect?

a. Heat can be considered the energy transferred between objects with different
temperatures.
b. Internal energy is the sum of the energies of all the individual particles in a particular
sample of matter.
c. If a system absorbs energy, its internal energy increases.
d. Kinetic molecular theory is related to the total molecular kinetic energy.
e. If the Kelvin temperature is doubled, the average kinetic energy is also doubled.

Answer: d

6-4
Section 6.2
Difficulty Level: medium
13. Which statement is true?

a. A state function is one whose value for a system depends on the method of preparation of
the reactants and products.
b. A state function is one whose value for a system is determined by the difference in
temperature of the system, and not on the pressure of the system.
c. A state function is one whose value for the system is determined by only the pressure of
the system, and not on the temperature of the system.
d. A state function is one whose value for a system is determined by the temperature of the
system, and not on the composition of the system.
e. A state function is one whose value for a system is determined by the composition of the
system, the volume, the temperature, and the pressure.

Answer: e

Section 6.3
Difficulty Level: medium
14. A freshly baked pie is placed near an open window to cool. Which of the following statements
best describes this situation?

a. The pie is the system and loses heat to the surroundings.

b. The pie is the system and gains heat from the surroundings.
c. The pie is the surroundings and gains heat from the system.
d. The pie is the surroundings and loses heat to the system.
e. The pie is the surroundings and neither gains nor loses heat.

Answer: a

Section 6.3
Difficulty Level: medium
15. A system that does not allow the transfer of mass but does allow the transfer of thermal energy
would best be classified as

a. an open system.
b. a closed system.
c. an isolated system.
d. an adiabatic system.
e. an isobaric system.

Answer: b

6-5
Section 6.3
Difficulty Level: medium
16. A system that allows the transfer of mass and allows the transfer of thermal energy would best be
classified as

a. an open system.
b. a closed system.
c. an isolated system.
d. an adiabatic system.
e. an isobaric system.

Answer: a

Section 6.3
Difficulty Level: medium
17. A certain oil used in industrial transformers has a density of 1.068 g mL-1 and a specific heat of
1.628 J g-1 °C-1. Calculate the heat capacity of one gallon of this oil. (1 gallon = 3.785 liters)

a. 0.3747 kJ °C-1
b. 0.4027 kJ °C-1
c. 2.483 kJ °C-1
d. 5.770 kJ °C-1
e. 6.581 kJ °C-1

Answer: e

Section 6.3
Difficulty Level: medium
18. A certain oil used in industrial transformers has a density of 1.086 g mL-1 and a specific heat of
1.826 J g-1 °C-1. Calculate the heat capacity of one gallon of this oil. (1 gallon = 3.785 liters)

a. 0.4442 kJ °C-1
b. 0.5239 kJ °C-1
c. 2.251 kJ °C-1
d. 6.364 kJ °C-1
e. 7.506 kJ °C-1

Answer: e

6-6
Section 6.3
Difficulty Level: medium
19. A 500.0 gram sample of aluminum is initially at 25.0 °C. It absorbs 32.60 kJ of heat from its sur-
roundings. What is its final temperature, in °C? (specific heat = 0.9930 J g-1 °C-1 for aluminum)

a. 40.4 °C
b. 64.7 °C
c. 65.7 °C
d. 89.7 °C
e. 90.7 °C

Answer: e

Section 6.3
Difficulty Level: medium
20. A 113.25 gram sample of gold is initially at 100.0 °C. It gains 20.00 J of heat from its surroundings.
What is its final temperature? (specific heat of gold = 0.129 J g-1 °C-1)
a. 98.6 °C
b. -98.6 °C
c. 101.4 °C
d. -101.4 °C
e .96.6 °C

Answer: c

Section 6.3
Difficulty Level: medium
21. A 225.0 gram sample of copper absorbs 735 J of heat from its surroundings. What is the
temperature change for copper sample?
(specific heat = 0.387 J g-1 °C-1 for copper)

a. 64.0 °C
b. 8.44 °C
c. 92.2 °C
d. 117.3 °C
e. 156.7 °C

Answer: b

6-7
Section 6.3
Difficulty Level: medium
22. A 350.0 gram sample of copper is initially at 25.0 °C, and it absorbs 12.50 kJ of heat from its sur-
roundings. What is its final temperature?
(specific heat = 0.387 J g-1 °C-1 for copper)

a. 38.8 °C
b. 67.2 °C
c. 92.2 °C
d. 117.3 °C
e. 156.7 °C

Answer: d

Section 6.3
Difficulty Level: medium
23. A bomb calorimeter consists of metal parts with a heat capacity of 850.0 J °C-1 and 1.100 × 103
grams of oil with a specific heat of 2.184 J g-1 °C-1. What is the heat capacity, in joules per degree,
of the entire calorimeter?

a. 1354 J °C-1
b. 1952 J °C-1
c. 2956 J °C-1
d. 3252 J °C-1
e. 4259 J °C-1

Answer: d

Section 6.3
Difficulty Level: hard
24. A bomb calorimeter consists of metal parts with a heat capacity of 925.0 J °C-1 and 1.100  103
grams of oil with a specific heat of 2.814 J g-1 °C-1. What is the heat capacity, in joules per degree,
of the entire calorimeter?

a. 1321 J °C-1
b. 2028 J °C-1
c. 3703 J °C-1
d. 4020 J °C-1
e. 5698 J °C-1

Answer: d

Section 6.3
Difficulty Level: hard

6-8
25. A bomb calorimeter consists of metal parts with a heat capacity of 950.0 J °C-1 and 8.50  102 grams
of oil with a specific heat of 2.418 J g-1 °C-1. Calculate the amount of heat energy required, in kJ, to
raise the temperature of the calorimeter from 25.00 °C to 31.60 °C.

a. 4.91 kJ
b. 11.9 kJ
c. 19.8 kJ
d. 20.8 kJ
e. 28.7 kJ

Answer: c

Section 6.3
Difficulty Level: hard
26. A bomb calorimeter consists of metal parts with a heat capacity of 925.0 J °C-1 and 1.100  103
grams of oil with a specific heat of 2.184 J g-1 °C-1. Calculate the heat required, in kJ, to raise the
temperature of the calorimeter from 24.40 °C to 29.75 °C.

a. 0.827 kJ
b. 7.64 kJ
c. 17.8 kJ
d. 23.7 kJ
e. 99.0 kJ

Answer: c

Section 6.3
Difficulty Level: medium
27. A 113.25 gram sample of gold is initially at 100.0 °C. It loses 20.00 J of heat to its surroundings.
What is its final temperature? (specific heat of gold = 0.129 J g-1 °C-1)
a. 98.6 °C
b. -98.6 °C
c. 94.6 °C
d. -94.6 °C
e .96.6 °C

Answer: a

6-9
Section 6.3
Difficulty Level: hard
28. A 25.00 gram gold ingot and a 30.00 gram block of copper are placed in 100.00 grams of water. If
the initial temperatures of the gold, copper, and water were 95.0 °C, 85.0 °C, and 25.0 °C,
respectively, what would the final temperature of the entire system be? The specific heats of gold,
copper, and liquid water are 0.129, 0.387, and 4.18 J g-1 °C-1, respectively.

a. 26.0 °C
b. 28.2 °C
c. 23.1 °C
d. -27.1 °C
e. 27.1 °C

Answer: e

Section 6.3
Difficulty Level: medium
29. A 25.00 gram pellet of lead (specific heat = 0.128 J g-1 °C-1) at 25 °C is added to 95.3 g of boiling
water (specific heat of 4.18 J g-1 °C-1) at 100 °C in an insulated cup. What is the expected final
temperature of the water?

a. 26.6 °C
b. 62.5 °C
c. 84.4 °C
d. 99.4 °C
e. 100.6 °C

Answer: d

Difficulty Level: medium

30. A 55.00 gram pellet of lead at 25 °C is added to 58.5 g of boiling water (specific heat of 4.18 J g-1
° -1
C ) at 100 °C in an insulated cup. If the final temperature of the water in the cup is 97.9 °C, what is
the specific heat of lead?

a. 17.8 J g-1 °C-1

b. 0.128 J g-1 °C-1
c. 4.17 J g-1 °C-1
d. 22.2 J g-1 °C-1
e. 0.372 J g-1 °C-1

Answer: b

6-10
Section 6.3
Difficulty Level: hard
31. A sample of chromium weighing 254 g was initially at a temperature of 25.88 °C. It required 843
joules of heat energy to increase the temperature to 32.75 °C. What is the molar heat capacity of the
chromium? ______

a. 21.6 J mol-1 °C-1

b. 25.1 J mol-1 °C-1
c. 33.2 J mol-1 °C-1
d. 37.3 J mol-1 °C-1
e. 17.4 J mol-1 °C-1

Answer: b

Section 6.3
Difficulty Level: hard
32. A coffee cup calorimeter contains 480.0 grams of water at 25.00 °C. To it are added:
380.0 grams of water at 53.5 °C
525.0 grams of water at 65.5 °C
Assuming the heat absorbed by the coffee cup is negligible, calculate the expected final temperature
of the water. The specific heat of water is 4.184 J g-1 °C-1.

a. 38.2 °C
b. 48.2 °C
c. 67.6 °C
d. 88.7 °C
e. 94.4 °C

Answer: b

Section 6.3
Difficulty Level: hard
33. A coffee cup calorimeter contains 525.0 grams of water at 25.0 °C. To it are added:
350.0 grams of water at 48.3 °C
480.0 grams of water at 63.8 °C
Neglecting the heat absorbed by the coffee cup, calculate the final temperature of the water. The
specific heat of water is 4.184 J g-1 °C-1.

a. 39.6 °C
b. 45.7 °C
c. 44.8 °C
d. 66.7 °C
e. 92.4 °C

Answer: c

6-11
Section 6.3
Difficulty Level: hard
34. A constant pressure calorimeter consists of metal parts with a heat capacity of 850.0 J °C-1 and
1.050  103 grams of oil with a specific heat of 2.148 J g-1 °C-1. Both are at 24.50 °C. A 5.00  102
g copper slug, at 220.0 °C is added. What is the final temperature? Specific heat of Cu = 0.3874 J
g-1 °C-1.

a. 33.4 °C
b. 36.0 °C
c. 36.8 °C
d. 89.7 °C
e. 120.5 °C

Answer: b

Section 6.3
Difficulty Level: hard
35. A constant pressure calorimeter has metal parts (heat capacity of 850.0 J °C-1) and 1.100  103
grams of oil (specific heat = 2.184 J g-1 °C-1), both at 24.50 °C. Adding a 4.60  102 g slug, at 240.0
°
C, caused the temperature to rise to 32.5 °C. Find the specific heat of the metal.

a. 0.236 J g-1 °C-1

b. 0.273 J g-1 °C-1
c. 0.309 J g-1 °C-1
d. 0.357 J g-1 °C-1
e. 2.28 J g-1 °C-1

Answer: b

Section 6.3
Difficulty Level: hard
36. A constant pressure calorimeter has metal parts (heat capacity of 925.0 J °C-1) and 1.100 103 grams
of oil (specific heat = 2.824 J g-1 °C-1), both at 25.40 °C. Adding a 5.50 102 g slug at 220.0 °C,
caused the temperature to rise to 35.2 °C. Find the specific heat of the metal.

a. 0.365 J g-1 °C-1

b. 0.389 J g-1 °C-1
c. 0.395 J g-1 °C-1
d. 0.551 J g-1 °C-1
e. 1.20 J g-1 °C-1

Answer: b

6-12
Section 6.4
Difficulty Level: medium
37. During an exothermic chemical reaction,

a. a system becomes warmer, and the chemical substances undergo an increase in potential
energy.
b. a system becomes warmer, and the chemical substances undergo a decrease in potential
energy.
c. a system becomes cooler, and the chemical substances undergo an increase in potential
energy.
d. a system becomes cooler, and the chemical substances undergo a decrease in potential
energy.
e. a system becomes warmer, and additional heat is gained from the surroundings.

Answer: b

Section 6.4
Difficulty Level: medium
38. During an endothermic chemical reaction,

a. a system becomes warmer, and the chemical substances undergo an increase in potential
energy.
b. a system becomes warmer, and the chemical substances undergo a decrease in potential
energy.
c. a system becomes cooler, and the chemical substances undergo an increase in potential
energy.
d. a system becomes cooler, and the chemical substances undergo a decrease in potential
energy.
e. a system becomes warmer, and additional heat is gained from the surroundings.

Answer: c

Section 6.4
Difficulty Level: medium
39. Which statement is generally true?

a. A chemical reaction involves only the making of chemical bonds.

b. A chemical reaction involves only the breaking of chemical bonds.
c. Breaking weak chemical bonds require a relatively large amount of energy.
d. When bonds break in chemical reactions, the potential energy of the system tends to
increase.
e. When bonds break in chemical reactions, the potential energy of the system tends to
decrease.

Answer: d

6-13
Section 6.5
Difficulty Level: easy
40. For a change in a system that takes place at constant pressure, which statement below is true?

a. ΔH = ΔE
b. ΔH = qp - P ΔV
c. ΔH = ΔE - qp
d. ΔH = qp
e. ΔE = qp

Answer: d

Section 6.5
Difficulty Level: medium
41. For a chemical reaction taking place at constant pressure, which one of the following is true?

a. ΔHsystem = (Kinetic Energy)system + (Potential Energy)system

b. ΔHsystem = (Kinetic Energy)system - (Potential Energy)system
c. ΔHsystem = ΔEsystem - qp
d. ΔHsystem = ΔEsystem + PΔVsystem
e. ΔHsystem = ΔEsystem + qp

Answer: d

Section 6.5
Difficulty Level: medium
42. An endothermic reaction is one in which there is

a. a positive value for the work done by the system (w > 0 joules).
b. a negative value for the work done by the system (w < 0 joules).
c. a negative value for ΔH (ΔH < 0 joules).
d. a positive value for ΔH (ΔH > 0 joules).
e. a negative value for ΔE (ΔE > 0 joules).

Answer: d

6-14
Section 6.5
Difficulty Level: medium
43. In the course of measuring fuel content values, a reaction for the conversion of crude oil fuel into
water and carbon dioxide is carried out in two steps
Crude fuel oil + oxygen → CO(g) + H2O
CO(g) + oxygen → CO2(g)
The net reaction taking place is: crude fuel oil + oxygen → CO2(g) + H2O. A large fraction of
the raw material is converted in one step, while the second step is to collect the fraction that was
just partially burned the first time. For the overall or net process, which statement below is always
true?

a. ΔH is independent of the time interval between the two steps, but dependent on the frac-
tion which had to be converted in two steps.
b. ΔH is dependent on the time interval between the two steps, but dependent on the fraction
which had to be converted in two steps.
c. ΔH is independent of the time interval between the two steps, and also independent of the
fraction which had to be converted in two steps.
d. ΔH is dependent on the time interval between the two steps, but independent of the frac-
tion which had to be converted in two steps.
e. ΔH is independent of the time interval between the two steps, but dependent on the time
required for completion of the entire process.

Answer: c

Section 6.5
Difficulty Level: medium
44. A chemical reaction took place in a 6 liter cylindrical enclosure fitted with a piston (like the
cylinder in an internal combustion engine). Over the time required for the reaction to be completed,
the volume of the system changed from 0.400 liters to 3.20 liters. Which of the following state-
ments below is true?

a. Work was performed on the system.

b. Work was performed by the system.
c. The internal energy of the system increased.
d. The internal energy of the system decreased.
e. The internal energy of the system remained unchanged.

Answer: b

6-15
Section 6.5
Difficulty Level: medium
45. A chemical reaction took place in a 5 liter cylindrical enclosure fitted with a piston (like the
cylinder in an internal combustion engine). Over the time required for the reaction to be completed,
the volume of the system changed from 1.40 liters to 3.70 liters. Which of the following statements
below is true?

a. The enthalpy of the system remained unchanged.

b. The enthalpy of the system decreased.
c. The enthalpy of the system increased.
d. Work was performed by the system.
e. Work was performed on the system.

Answer: d

Section 6.5
Difficulty Level: medium
46. A closed, uninsulated system was fitted with a movable piston. The introduction of 430 J of heat
caused the system to expand, doing 238 J of work in the process against a constant pressure of 101
kPa (kilopascals). What is the value of ΔE for this process?

a. (430 + 238) joules

b. (430 - 238) joules
c. (238 - 430) joules
d. 430 joules
e. (-238 - 430) joules

Answer: b

Section 6.5
Difficulty Level: medium
47. A closed, uninsulated system was fitted with a movable piston. Introduction of 430 J of heat caused
the system to expand, doing 238 J of work in the process against a constant pressure of 101 kPa
(kilopascals). What is the value of ΔH for this process?

a. (430 + 238) joules

b. (430 - 238) joules
c. (238 - 430) joules
d. 430 joules
e. (-238 - 430) joules

Answer: d

6-16
Section 6.5
Difficulty Level: medium
48. A closed, uninsulated system was fitted with a movable piston. Introduction of 483 J of heat
caused the system to expand, doing 320 J of work in the process against a constant pressure of 101
kPa (kilopascals). What is the value of ΔE for this process?

a. (483 + 320) joules

b. (483 - 320) joules
c. (320 - 483) joules
d. 483 joules
e. (-320 - 483) joules

Answer: b

Section 6.5
Difficulty Level: medium
49. A closed, uninsulated system was fitted with a movable piston. Introduction of 483 J of heat caused
the system to expand, doing 320 J of work in the process against a constant pressure of 101 kPa
(kilopascals). What is the value of ΔH for this process?

a. (483 + 320) joules

b. (483 - 320) joules
c. (320 - 483) joules
d. 483 joules
e. (-320 - 483) joules

Answer: d

Section 6.6
Difficulty Level: medium
50. For the reaction, D2(s) + 2 AX(g) → A2(g) + 2 DX(g) taking place in an insulated system, the
enthalpy of the reactants is lower than that of the products. Which one of the following is true for
the system?

a. The energy of the system decreases as the reactants are converted to products.
b. The energy of the system increases as the reactants are converted to
products.
c. The total energy of the system decreases as the reactants are converted to products.
d. The total mass of the system decreases as the reactants are converted to products.
e. The total mass of the system increases as the reactants are converted to products.

Answer: b

6-17
Section 6.6
Difficulty Level: hard
51. When pure sodium hydroxide is dissolved in water, heat is evolved. In a laboratory experiment to
measure the molar heat of solution of sodium hydroxide, the following procedure was followed. To
a calorimeter containing 3.00  102 g of water at 20.00 °C, 10.65 g of NaOH, also at 20.00 °C was
added. The temperature of the solution, which was monitored by a digital thermometer with
negligible heat capacity, increased to 28.50 °C. If the specific heat of the mixture is 4.184 J g-1 °C-1,
and the small heat capacity of the calorimeter is ignored, what is the heat evolved, per mole of
sodium hydroxide?

a. -37.4 kJ
b. -41.5 kJ
c. -45.5 kJ
d. -90.5 kJ
e. -153 kJ

Answer: b

Section 6.6
Difficulty Level: hard
52. When pure sulfuric acid is dissolved in water, heat is evolved. In a laboratory experiment to
measure the molar heat of solution of sulfuric acid, the following procedure was followed. To a
calorimeter containing 3.00  102 g of water at 20.00 °C, 10.65 g of H2SO4, also at 20.00 °C was
added. The temperature of the solution, which was monitored by a digital thermometer with
negligible heat capacity, increased to 26.55 °C. If the specific heat of the mixture is 4.184 J g-1 °C-1,
and the small heat capacity of the calorimeter is ignored, what is the heat evolved, per mole of
sulfuric acid?

a. -27.4 kJ
b. -72.8 kJ
c. -78.4 kJ
d. -84.6 kJ
e. -292 kJ

Answer: c

6-18
Section 6.6
Difficulty Level: hard
53. When 0.250 moles of LiCl are added to 200.0 g of water in a constant pressure calorimeter a
temperature change of +11.08°C is observed. Given that the specific heat of the resulting solution
is 4.184 J g-1 °C and we can ignore the small amount of energy absorbed by the calorimeter, what is
the molar enthalpy of solution (Hsol) for LiCl?

a. 37.1 kJ/mol
b. -185.4 kJ/mol
c. -37.1 kJ/mol
d. 18.5 kJ/mol
e. -18.5 kJ/mol

Answer: c

Section 6.7
Difficulty Level: easy
54. What would be the “standard state” for acetic acid in solution?

a. A solution with a concentration of 1.000 M.

b. A solution at 1.000 bar of pressure.
c. A solution at 1.000 Pascal of pressure.
d. A solution at 298 K.
e. A solution that is in the solid state.

Answer: a

Section 6.7
Difficulty Level: easy
55. What would be the “standard state” for hydrogen gas at room temperature?

a. A gas sample with a concentration of 1.000 M.

b. A gas sample at 1.000 bar of pressure.
c. A gas sample at 1.000 Pascal of pressure.
d. A liquid solution at 298 K.
e. A liquid solution at 1.000 atm.

Answer: b

6-19
Section 6.7
Difficulty Level: medium
56. When nitrogen gas reacts with hydrogen gas to form ammonia, 92.38 kJ of heat are given off for
each mole of nitrogen gas consumed, under constant pressure and standard conditions. What is the
correct value for the standard enthalpy of reaction in the thermochemical equation below when
0.750 mol of hydrogen reacts?
N2(g) + 3H2(s) → 2 NH3(g)

a. +34.5 kJ
b. -98.3 kJ
c. +59.2 kJ
d. -59.2 kJ
e. -23.1 kJ

Answer: e

Section 6.7
Difficulty Level: medium
57. When aluminum metal reacts with iron(III) oxide to form aluminum oxide and iron metal, 429.6 kJ
of heat are given off for each mole of aluminum metal consumed, under constant pressure and
standard conditions. What is the correct value for the standard enthalpy of reaction in the thermo-
chemical equation below?
2 Al(s) + Fe2O3(s) → 2 Fe(s) + Al2O3(s)

a. +429.6 kJ
b. -429.6 kJ
c. +859.2 kJ
d. -859.2 kJ
e. -1289 kJ

Answer: d

6-20
Another random document with
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from any selected class of known causes? When Newton first
attempted to explain the motions of the moon by the force of gravity,
and failed because the measures to which he referred were
erroneous, would it have been philosophical in him, to insist that the
difference which he found ought to be overlooked, since otherwise
we should be compelled to go to causes other than those which we
usually witness in action? Or was there any praise due to those who
assumed the celestial forces to be the same with gravity, rather than
to those who assimilated them with any other known force, as
magnetism, till the calculation of the laws and amount of these
forces, from the celestial phenomena, had clearly sanctioned such
an identification? We are not to select a conclusion now well proved,
to persuade ourselves that it would have been wise to assume it
anterior to proof, and to attempt to philosophize in the method thus
recommended.

Again, the analogy of Astronomy has been referred to, as

confirming the assumption of perpetual uniformity. The analysis of
the heavenly motions, it has been said, supplies no trace of a
beginning, no promise of an end. But here, also, this analogy is
erroneously applied. Astronomy, as the science of cyclical motions,
has nothing in common with Geology. But look at Astronomy where
she has an analogy with Geology; consider our knowledge of the
heavens as a palætiological science;—as the study of a past
condition, from which the present is derived by causes acting in time.
Is there then no evidence of a beginning, or of a progress? What is
the import of the Nebular Hypothesis? A luminous matter is
condensing, solid bodies are forming, are arranging themselves into
systems of cyclical motion; in short, we have exactly what we are
told, on this analogy, we ought not to have;—the beginning of a
world. I will not, to justify this argument, maintain the truth of the
nebular hypothesis; but if geologists wish to borrow maxims of
philosophizing from astronomy, such speculations as have led to that
hypothesis must be their model.

Or, let them look at any of the other provinces of palætiological

speculation; at the history of states, of civilization, of languages. We
595 may assume some resemblance or connexion between the
principles which determined the progress of government, or of
society, or of literature, in the earliest ages, and those which now
operate; but who has speculated successfully, assuming an identity
of such causes? Where do we now find a language in the process of
formation, unfolding itself in inflexions, terminations, changes of
vowels by grammatical relations, such as characterize the oldest
known languages? Where do we see a nation, by its natural
faculties, inventing writing, or the arts of life, as we find them in the
most ancient civilized nations? We may assume hypothetically, that
man’s faculties develop themselves in these ways; but we see no
such effects produced by these faculties, in our own time, and now in
progress, without the influence of foreigners.

Is it not clear, in all these cases, that history does not exhibit a
series of cycles, the aggregate of which may be represented as a
uniform state, without indication of origin or termination? Does it not
rather seem evident that, in reality, the whole course of the world,
from the earliest to the present times, is but one cycle, yet
unfinished;—offering, indeed, no clear evidence of the mode of its
beginning; but still less entitling us to consider it as a repetition or
series of repetitions of what had gone before?

Thus we find, in the analogy of the sciences, no confirmation of

the doctrine of uniformity, as it has been maintained in Geology. Yet
we discern, in this analogy, no ground for resigning our hope, that
future researches, both in Geology and in other palætiological
sciences, may throw much additional light on the question of the
uniform or catastrophic progress of things, and on the earliest history
of the earth and of man. But when we see how wide and complex is
the range of speculation to which our analogy has referred us, we
may well be disposed to pause in our review of science;—to survey
from our present position the ground that we have passed over;—
and thus to collect, so far as we may, guidance and encouragement
to enable us to advance in the track which lies before us.

Before we quit the subject now under consideration, we may,

however, observe, that what the analogy of science really teaches
us, as the most promising means of promoting this science, is the
strenuous cultivation of the two subordinate sciences, Geological
Knowledge of Facts, and Geological Dynamics. These are the two
provinces of knowledge—corresponding to Phenomenal Astronomy,
and Mathematical Mechanics—which may lead on to the epoch of
the Newton of 596 geology. We may, indeed, readily believe that we
have much to do in both these departments. While so large a portion
of the globe is geologically unexplored;—while all the general views
which are to extend our classifications satisfactorily from one
hemisphere to another, from one zone to another, are still unformed;
while the organic fossils of the tropics are almost unknown, and their
general relation to the existing state of things has not even been
conjectured;—how can we expect to speculate rightly and securely,
respecting the history of the whole of our globe? And if Geological
Classification and Description are thus imperfect, the knowledge of
Geological Causes is still more so. As we have seen, the necessity
and the method of constructing a science of such causes, are only
just beginning to be perceived. Here, then, is the point where the
labors of geologists may be usefully applied; and not in premature
attempts to decide the widest and abstrusest questions which the
human mind can propose to itself.

It has been stated, 111 that when the Geological Society of London
was formed, their professed object was to multiply and record
observations, and patiently to await the result at some future time;
and their favorite maxim was, it is added, that the time was not yet
come for a General System of Geology. This was a wise and
philosophical temper, and a due appreciation of their position. And
even now, their task is not yet finished; their mission is not yet
accomplished. They have still much to do, in the way of collecting
Facts; and in entering upon the exact estimation of Causes, they
have only just thrown open the door of a vast Labyrinth, which it may
employ many generations to traverse, but which they must needs
explore, before they can penetrate to the Oracular Chamber of Truth.
111 Lyell, B. i. c. iv. p. 103.

~Additional material in the 3rd edition.~

I rejoice, on many accounts, to find myself arriving at the

termination of the task which I have attempted. One reason why I am
glad to close my history is, that in it I have been compelled,
especially in the latter part of my labors, to speak as a judge
respecting eminent philosophers whom I reverence as my Teachers
in those very sciences on which I have had to pronounce a
judgment;—if, indeed, even the appellation of Pupil be not too
presumptuous. But I doubt not that such men are as full of candor
and tolerance, as they are of knowledge and thought. And if they
deem, as I did, that such a history of 597 science ought to be
attempted, they will know that it was not only the historian’s privilege,
but his duty, to estimate the import and amount of the advances
which he had to narrate; and if they judge, as I trust they will, that the
attempt has been made with full integrity of intention and no want of
labor, they will look upon the inevitable imperfections of the
execution of my work with indulgence and hope.

There is another source of satisfaction in arriving at this point of

my labors. If, after our long wandering through the region of physical
science, we were left with minds unsatisfied and unraised, to ask,
“Whether this be all?”—our employment might well be deemed
weary and idle. If it appeared that all the vast labor and intense
thought which has passed under our review had produced nothing
but a barren Knowledge of the external world, or a few Arts
ministering merely to our gratification; or if it seemed that the
methods of arriving at truth, so successfully applied in these cases,
aid us not when we come to the higher aims and prospects of our
being;—this History might well be estimated as no less melancholy
and unprofitable than those which narrate the wars of states and the
wiles of statesmen. But such, I trust, is not the impression which our
survey has tended to produce. At various points, the researches
which we have followed out, have offered to lead us from matter to
mind, from the external to the internal world; and it was not because
the thread of investigation snapped in our hands, but rather because
we were resolved to confine ourselves, for the present, to the
material sciences, that we did not proceed onwards to subjects of a
closer interest. It will appear, also, I trust, that the most perfect
method of obtaining speculative truth,—that of which I have had to
relate the result,—is by no means confined to the least worthy
subjects; but that the Methods of learning what is really true, though
they must assume different aspects in cases where a mere
contemplation of external objects is concerned, and where our own
internal world of thought, feeling, and will, supplies the matter of our
speculations, have yet a unity and harmony throughout all the
possible employments of our minds. To be able to trace such
connexions as this, is the proper sequel, and would be the high
reward, of the labor which has been bestowed on the present work.
And if a persuasion of the reality of such connexions, and a
preparation for studying them, have been conveyed to the reader’s
mind while he has been accompanying me through our long survey,
his time may not have been employed on 598 these pages in vain.
However vague and hesitating and obscure may be such a
persuasion, it belongs, I doubt not, to the dawning of a better
Philosophy, which it may be my lot, perhaps, to develop more fully
hereafter, if permitted by that Superior Power to whom all sound
philosophy directs our thoughts.
ADDITIONS TO THE THIRD EDITION.
BOOK VIII.
ACOUSTICS.
 CHAPTER III.

Sound.

The Velocity of Sound in Water.

T HE Science of which the history is narrated in this Book has for

its objects, the minute Vibrations of the parts of bodies such as
those by which Sounds are produced, and the properties of Sounds.
The Vibrations of bodies are the result of a certain tension of their
structure which we term Elasticity. The Elasticity determines the rate
of Vibration: the rate of Vibration determines the audible note: the
Elasticity determines also the velocity with which the vibration travels
through the substance. These points of the subject, Elasticity, Rate
of Vibration, Velocity of Propagation, Audible Note, are connected in
each substance, and are different in different substances.

In the history of this Science, considered as tending to a

satisfactory general theory, the Problems which have obviously
offered themselves were, to explain the properties of Sounds by the
relations of their constituent vibrations; and to explain the existence
of vibrations by the elasticity of the substances in which they
occurred: as in Optics, philosophers have explained the
phenomenon of light and colors by the Undulatory Theory, and are
still engaged in explaining the requisite modulations by means of the
elasticity of the Ether. But the Undulatory Theory of Sound was seen
to be true at an early period of the Science: and the explanation, in a
general way at least, of all kinds of such undulations by means of the
elasticity of the vibrating substances has been performed by a series
of mathematicians of whom I have given an account in this Book.
Hence the points of the subject already mentioned (Elasticity,
Vibrations and their Propagations, 600 and Note), have a known
material dependence, and each may be employed in determining the
other: for instance, the Note may be employed in determining the
velocity of sound and the elasticity of the vibrating substance.

Chladni, 1 and the Webers, 2 had made valuable experimental

inquiries on such subjects. But more complete investigations of this
kind have been conducted with care and skill by M. Wertheim. 3 For
instance, he has determined the velocity with which sound travels in
water, by making an organ-pipe to sound by the passage of water
through it. This is a matter of some difficulty; for the mouthpiece of
an organ-pipe, if it be not properly and carefully constructed,
produces sounds of its own, which are not the genuine musical note
of the pipe. And though the note depends mainly upon the length of
the pipe, it depends also, in a small degree, on the breadth of the
pipe and the size of the mouthpiece.
1 Traité d’Acoustique, 1809.

2 Wellenlehre, 1852.

3 Mémoires de Physique Mécanique. Paris, 1848.

If the pipe were a mere line, the time of a vibration would be the
time in which a vibration travels from one end of the pipe to the
other; and thus the note for a given length (which is determined by
the time of vibration), is connected with the velocity of vibration. He
thus found that the velocity of a vibration along the pipe in sea-water
is 1157 mètres per second.

But M. Wertheim conceived that he had previously shown, by

general mathematical reasoning, that the velocity with which sound
travels in an unlimited expanse of any substance, is to the velocity
with which it travels along a pipe or linear strip of the same
substance as the square root of 3 to the square root of 2. Hence the
velocity of sound in sea-water would be 1454 mètres a second. The
velocity of sound in air is 332 mètres.

M. Wertheim also employed the vibrations of rods of steel and

other metals in order to determine their modulus of elasticity—that is,
the quantity which determines for each substance, the extent to
which, in virtue of its elasticity, it is compressed and expanded by
given pressures or tensions. For this purpose he caused the rod to
vibrate near to a tuning-fork of given pitch, so that both the rod and
the tuning-fork by their vibrations traced undulating curves on a
revolving disk. The curves traced by the two could be compared so
as to give their relative rate, and thus to determine the elasticity of
the substance.
BOOK IX.

PHYSICAL OPTICS.
 Photography.

I HAVE, at the end of Chapter xi., stated that the theory of which I
have endeavored to sketch the history professes to explain only
the phenomena of radiant visible light; and that though we know that
light has other properties—for instance, that it produces chemical
effects—these are not contemplated as included within the domain
of the theory. The chemical effects of light cannot as yet be included
in exact and general truths, such as those which constitute the
undulatory theory of radiant visible light. But though the present age
has not yet attained to a Science of the chemistry of Light, it has
been enriched with a most exquisite Art, which involves the
principles of such a science, and may hereafter be made the
instrument of bringing them into the view of the philosopher. I speak
of the Art of Photography, in which chemistry has discovered the
means of producing surfaces almost as sensitive to the modifications
of light as the most sensitive of organic textures, the retina of the
eye: and has given permanence to images which in the eye are only
momentary impressions. Hereafter, when the laws shall have been
theoretically established, which connect the chemical constitution of
bodies with the action of light upon them, the prominent names in the
Prelude to such an Epoch must be those who by their insight,
invention, and perseverance, discovered and carried to their present
marvellous perfection the processes of photographic Art:—Niepce
and Daguerre in France, and our own accomplished countryman, Mr.
Fox Talbot.

Fluorescence.
 As already remarked, it is not within the province of the undulatory
theory to explain the phenomena of the absorption of light which take
place in various ways when the light is transmitted through various
602 mediums. I have, at the end of Chapter iii., given the reasons
which prevent my assenting to the assertion of a special analysis of
light by absorption. In the same manner, with regard to other effects
produced by media upon light, it is sufficient for the defence of the
theory that it should be consistent with the possibility of the laws of
phenomena which are observed, not that it should explain those
laws; for they belong, apparently, to another province of philosophy.

Some of the optical properties of bodies which have recently

attracted notice appear to be of this kind. It was noticed by Sir John
Herschel, 4 that a certain liquid, sulphate of quinine, which is under
common circumstances colorless, exhibits in certain aspects and
under certain incidences of light, a beautiful celestial blue color. It
appeared that this color proceeded from the surface on which the
light first fell; and color thus produced Sir J. Herschel called epipolic
colors, and spoke of the light as epipolized. Sir David Brewster had
previously noted effects of color in transparent bodies which he
ascribed to internal dispersion: 5 and he conceived that the colors
observed by Sir J. Herschel were of the same class. Professor
Stokes 6 of Cambridge applied himself to the examination of these
phenomena, and was led to the conviction that they arise from a
power which certain bodies possess, of changing the color, and with
it, the refrangibility of the rays of light which fall upon them: and he
traced this property in various substances, into various remarkable
consequences. As this change of refrangibility always makes the
rays less refrangible, it was proposed to call it a degradation of the
light; or again, dependent emission, because the light is emitted in
the manner of self-luminous bodies, but only in dependence upon
the active rays, and so long as the body is under their influence. In
this respect it differs from phosphorescence, in which light is emitted
without such dependence. The phenomenon occurs in a
conspicuous and beautiful manner in certain kinds of fluor spar: and
the term fluorescence, suggested by Professor Stokes, has the
advantage of inserting no hypothesis, and will probably be found the
most generally acceptable. 7
4 Phil. Trans. 1845.

5 Edinb. Trans. 1833.

6 Phil. Trans. 1852 and 1854.

7 Phil. Trans. 1852.

It may be remarked that Professor Stokes rejects altogether the

doctrine that light of definite refrangibility may still be compound, and
maybe analysed by absorption. He says, “I have not overlooked the
remarkable effect of absorbing media in causing apparent changes
603 of color in a pure spectrum; but this I believe to be a subjective
phenomenon depending upon contrast.”
 CHAPTER XIII.

Undulatory Theory.

Direction of the Transverse Vibrations in Polarization.

I N the conclusion of Chapter xiii. I have stated that there is a point

in the undulatory theory which was regarded as left undecided by
Young and Fresnel, and on which the two different opinions have
been maintained by different mathematicians; namely, whether the
vibrations of polarized light are perpendicular to the plane of
polarization or in that plane. Professor Stokes of Cambridge has
attempted to solve this question in a manner which is, theoretically,
exceedingly ingenious, though it is difficult to make the requisite
experiments in a decisive manner. The method may be briefly
described.

If polarized light be diffracted (see Chap. xi. sect. 2), each ray will
be bent from its position, but will still be polarized. The original ray
and the diffracted ray, thus forming a broken line, may be supposed
to be connected at the angle by a universal joint (called a Hooke’s
Joint), such that when the original ray turns about its axis, the
diffracted ray also turns about its axis; as in the case of the long
handle of a telescope and the screw which is turned by it. Now if the
motion of the original ray round its axis be uniform, the motion of the
diffracted ray round its axis is not uniform: and hence if, in a series of
cases, the planes of polarization of the original ray differ by equal
angles, in the diffracted ray the planes of polarization will differ by
unequal angles. Then if vibrations be perpendicular to the plane of
polarization, the planes of polarization in the diffracted rays will be
crowded together in the neighborhood of the plane in which the
diffraction takes place, and will be more rarely distributed in the
neighborhood of the plane perpendicular to this, in which is the
diffracting thread or groove.

On making the experiment, Prof. Stokes conceived that he found,

in his experiments, such a crowding of the planes of diffracted
polarization towards the plane of diffraction; and thus he held that
the 604 hypothesis that the transverse vibrations which constitute
polarization are perpendicularly transverse to the plane of
polarization was confirmed. 8
8 Camb. Trans., vol. ix. part i. 1849.

But Mr. Holtzmann, 9 who, assenting to the reasoning, has made

the experiment in a somewhat different manner, has obtained an
opposite result; so that the point may be regarded as still doubtful.
9 Phil. Mag., Feb. 1857.

Final Disproof of the Emission Theory.

As I have stated in the History, we cannot properly say that there

ever was an Emission Theory of Light which was the rival of the
Undulatory Theory: for while the undulatory theory provided
explanations of new classes of phenomena as fast as they arose,
and exhibited a consilience of theories in these explanations, the
hypothesis of emitted particles required new machinery for every
new set of facts, and soon ceased to be capable even of expressing
the facts. The simple cases of the ordinary reflexion and refraction of
light were explained by Newton on the supposition that the
transmission of light is the motion of particles: and though his
explanation includes a somewhat harsh assumption (that a refracting
surface exercises an attractive force through a fixed finite space), the
authority of his great name gave it a sort of permanent notoriety, and
made it to be regarded as a standard point of comparison between a
supposed “Emission Theory” and the undulation theory. And the way
in which the theories were to be tested in this case was obvious: in
the Newtonian theory, the velocity of light is increased by the
refracting medium; in the undulatory theory, it is diminished. On the
former hypothesis the velocity of light in air and in water is as 3 to 4;
in the latter, as 4 to 3.

But the immense velocity of light made it appear impossible to

measure it, within the limits of any finite space which we can occupy
with refracting matter. The velocity of light is known from
astronomical phenomena;—from the eclipses of Jupiter’s satellites,
by which it appears that light occupies 8 minutes in coming from the
sun to the earth; and from the aberration of light, by which its velocity
is shown to be 10,000 times the velocity of the earth in its orbit. Is it,
then, possible to make apparent so small a difference as that
between its passing through a few yards of air and of water?

Mr. Wheatstone, in 1831, invented a machine by which this could

605 be done. His object was to determine the velocity of the electric
shock. His apparatus consisted in a small mirror, turning with great
velocity about an axis which is in its own plane, like a coin spinning
on its edge. The velocity of spinning may be made so great, that an
object reflected shall change its place perceptibly after an almost
inconceivably small fraction of a second. The application of this
contrivance to measure the velocity of light, was, at the suggestion of
Arago, who had seen the times of the rival theories of light,
undertaken by younger men at Paris, his eyesight not allowing him to