11/15/2023

Week 7-9

1
11/15/2023

2
 11/15/2023

Succession Crisis
• Edward the Confessor dies without any legitimate heir.

• Witan is gathered and they give the throne to Harold Godwinson, the son of Earl Godwin. (military
might)

• This decision was contested by two other claimants:

1. Duke William of Normandy (distant cousin) who claimed that Edward promised the throne to him in
a secret conference

2. Harald Hardrada who reunited the Kingdom of Canute, and believes he is supposed to be the next
monarch of England

• King Harold Godwinson’s England had to prepare for two different invasions simultaneously.

3
11/15/2023

4
11/15/2023

5
11/15/2023

6
 11/15/2023

The Danish Invasion

• Harold Godwinson assumes William’s army will arrive first, begins establishing fortified defenses in the South
near Dover and Hastings. A great storm prevents William from sailing until end of September (end of
campaign season)

• King Harald Hardrada plans to capture a foothold in Northumbria with the help of Harold Godwinson’s
treacherous brother Tostig and spend the winter on English soil. The news of their arrival forces Godwinson to
march north with his army.

• The Norwegians won one battle at Fulford (September 20, 1066) and lost the second at Stamford Bridge
(September 25), where both Harald Hardrada and Tostig were killed.

• Godwinson learns of William’s arrival right after the battle. English army marches south 480 kms in 20 days
to cross paths with William in Hastings.

7
11/15/2023

8
 11/15/2023

William of Normandy
• William was the illegitimate son of Duke Robert I of Normandy.
• He gained his position as his father’s succesor with the support of the clergymen in
Normandy, and the King of France Henry I.
• William employed the help of English earls (including Godwin) in his internal wars to
secure his holdings.
• William was a deft politician; before invading England he gained support of Pope
Alexander II, the King of France, The Holy Roman Emperor, and the King of Sweden.
• He prepared a relatively small army mostly consisting of knights on horses, well-
armoured professional men-at-arms and mercenary archers.

9
11/15/2023

10
11/15/2023

11
 11/15/2023

Battle of Hastings
• Harold Godwinson’s army fights a defensive battle near the town of Hastings to prevent William’s
army from going inlands. (14 October 1066)

• This battle resulted in victory for the Norman Army. Harold Godwinson was killed probably by an
arrow towards the end of a lenghty battle. This broke Anglo-Saxon morale and discipline.

• The remains of the Anglo-Saxon dead and wounded were left on the field unburried for weeks.

• The Norman army introduced a European style military doctrine to England.

• Some of Harold’s theghns resisted further after the battle, but gradually they were defeated and
driven away by William’s army.

12
11/15/2023

13
 11/15/2023

Bayeux Tapestry
• It is 70 meter losng embroidered cloth made to celebrate William’s victory over King
Harold, and to create a narrative for this victory and transition of power.

• Widely accepted to have been made in England as a gift for William, it tells the story
from the point of view of the conquering Normans and for centuries has been
preserved in Normandy.

• It was likely ordered by Bishop Odo of Bayeux in Normandy. (William’s maternal

half-brother)

14
11/15/2023

15
11/15/2023

16
11/15/2023

17
 11/15/2023

Subjugation of England
• The actual conquest was a more protracted process than a single battle. English earls who had
initially supported William rebelled against him; English resistance continued in various regions,
particularly the highlands of the west and north.

• William gave the Saxon lands to his Norman nobles. After each English rebellion there was more
land to give away. His army included Norman and other French landseekers. Over 4.000 Saxon
landlords were replaced by 200 Norman ones.

• William was a leader of immense brutality whose massacres and devastation in the north while
putting down the rebellion of the northern Anglo-Saxon earls Edwin and Morcar after 1071 left a
mark on the region for a century. After years of warfare, William finally crushed the resistance of the
Anglo-Saxon nobility in 1075; the few surviving male Anglo-Saxon aristocrats went into exile.

18
 11/15/2023

Norman Rule in Britain

• The devastation and dislocation that these conflicts brought helped to ensure that the new order created by the
Normans, a warrior people, had a military logic and structure. This structure was demonstrated most clearly by
the construction of numerous castles, as much signs of Norman power as the roads and forts of Roman Britain
and the fortified towns of late Saxon England. The location of castles reflected a number of factors, not only
military imperatives but also local resources and politics. Latin became the language of the Church as well as
the government, and the old Anglo-Saxon bishops were largely replaced by Normans.

• In 1070 William had Stigand deposed as Archbishop of Canterbury and replaced by Lanfranc, the Abbot

• of St. Stephen’s Monastery in Caen, Normandy.

• In the field of Church discipline Lanfranc enforced clerical celibacy. He also supported a program of cathedral
building, which resulted in the construction of basilicas at sites including Canterbury and Winchester.

19
 11/15/2023

The Domesday Book

• Information on England’s condition immediately after conquest is provided by
the Domesday Book (1086), a land survey ordered by William the Conqueror
so that he could ascertain his own resources and those of his tenants, although
what Domesday was for is still highly controversial.
• There is nothing comparable for Ireland, Wales or Scotland. Domesday’s
contents provide a guide to the extent to which English landowners had been
replaced by Normans.

20
11/15/2023

21
11/15/2023

22
11/15/2023

23
 11/15/2023

• William the Conqueror built a mighty stone tower at the centre of his London fortress in the 1070s

• A royal fortress, a palace and the principle residence for all English kings from William II (his son) to
Henry VII.

• It was a multi-functional structure: A royal mint, a royal menagerie, an Arsenal and a repository for the
Crown Jewels.

• It gained its fame for being a prison and a place of execution for political criminals.

• These features made it a symbol of state authority in England.

24
11/15/2023

25
11/15/2023

26
11/15/2023

27
 11/15/2023

The Yeomen Warders (aka Beefeaters)

• These were responsible for looking after

any prisoners in the Tower and safeguarding
the British crown jewels

• They have also conducted guided tours of

the Tower since the Victorian era

28
11/15/2023

29
11/15/2023

30
11/15/2023

31
 11/15/2023

Ravens of the Tower of London

• A group of at least 6 captive ravens are
resident at the Tower of London

• Their presence is traditionally believed to

protect The Crown and the tower.

• A supersititon holds that "if the Tower of

London ravens are lost or fly away, the Crown
will fall and Britain with it’’

32
 11/15/2023

Subjugation of Wales
• Conquest of Wales began in William I’s reign as a response to the support Welsh nobles gave to Saxon
rebellions.

• William I attempted to build forfications on the bordering regions of Welsh territory as starting points for an
invasion.

• Upon his death his sons William II, and Henry I began a long and arduous campaign to chip away Welsh lands.

• Henry I’s campaigns were succesful as he established himself as the suzerain over Welsh nobles.

• In 1284 Edward I united west Wales with England, bringing the English county system to the newly
conquered lands. At a public ceremony at Caernarfon Edward I made his own baby son (later Edward II)
Prince of Wales. From that time the eldest son of the ruling king or queen has usually been made Prince of
Wales.

33
11/15/2023

34
 11/15/2023

Castle Building Campaign

• Castles were royal or private. They were the centres of power, of royal government and
of what has been termed the feudal system.

• Early Norman castles were generally earth-and-timber constructions, for these could be
built quickly, and were thus a flexible means of defence. Such castles as Norwich, built
by 1075, were ‘motte and bailey’ structures: wooden stockades atop earth mounds. As
with the Romans, a process of consolidation led to more imposing and permanent
structures. By 1125 Norwich’s mound was crowned by a strong square stone keep.

35
11/15/2023

36
11/15/2023

37
11/15/2023

38
 11/15/2023

William II (Rufus)
• When William died, in 1087, he left the Duchy ofNormandy to his elder son , Robert. He gave England to his
second son, William, known as "Rufus" (Latin for red) because of his red hair and red face.

• When Robert went to join the Crusades, he left William II (Rufus) in charge

• of Normandy as well.

• Politically and militarily successful, Rufus became unpopular with the Church because of his treatment of it.
By leaving bishoprics vacant, Rufus was able to enjoy their revenues.

• In 1092 he entered Cumbria with an army. The area had been disputed between the kings of the Scots and the
Earls of Northumbria, but Malcolm III of Scotland had been acknowledged as overlord in 1058.

39
11/15/2023

40
 11/15/2023

William II’s Death

• William Rufus died in a hunting accident in 1100, shot dead with an arrow . He had not
married, and therefore had no son to take the crown .

• At the time of William 's death, Robert was on his way home to Normandy from the
Holy Land. Their younger brother Henry knew that if he wanted the English crown he
would have to act very quickly. He had been with William at the time of the accident.
He rode to Winchester and tookcharge of the king's treasury. He then rode
toWestminster. where he was crowned king three days later.

41
11/15/2023

42
 11/15/2023

Henry I
• Henry attempted to gain the favour of the old and the new nobles by portraying his brothers as
tyrants.

• Robert launched an invasion by using the soldiers he gathered from Normandy in 1101. Henry had
to pay a significant amount of money to buy the right to the English throne from his elder brother.
The nobles who teamed up with this invasion were severely punished by Henry.

• Relations between the two brothers remained poor, however, and in 1105 Henry invaded Normandy.
In 1106 he defeated Robert at Tinchebrai and conquered Normandy, imprisoning his brother until
his death in 1134.

43
11/15/2023

44
 11/15/2023

Consolidation of Lands
• It was important to keep England and Normandy together under a single ruler, because so many
barons had lands on both sides of the Channel.

• With a single Anglo-Norman aristocracy, if England and Normandy were separated between two
competing rulers, then the members of the aristocracy would be forced to choose between the two
rulers and lose lands in either domain.

• To address this fundamental tension within the Anglo-Norman state, stability could only be
regained through reunification.

• Henry l's most important aim was to pass on both Normandy and England to a single successor. He
spentthe rest of his life fighting to keep Normandy from other French nobles who tried to take it.

45
 11/15/2023

Loss of an Heir
• In 1119, Louis VI was finally defeated in the war over Normandy and he accepted the
homage of Henry’s son William Adelin as Duke of Normandy.

• However, on the return journey to England in 1120 the White Ship, the vessel carrying
the young prince, was wrecked and Henry’s only legitimate son drowned. For a while
Stephen of Blois, Henry’s nephew, looked likely to succeed. Then in 1125, Henry’s
daughter Matilda, who had married the Holy Roman Emperor Henry V in 1110, was
widowed and returned to England. Henry doted on Matilda and at Christmas 1126 the
Royal Council was made to swear allegiance to her as heir to the throne.

46
11/15/2023

47
11/15/2023

48
 11/15/2023

First Civil War

• Henry I’s nephew, Stephen seized the treasury with the help of his brother Henry of Blois, Bishop of Winchester.

• As before, the nobles in England had to choose between Stcphen, who was in England, and Matilda. who had quarrelled with her
father and who was still in France. Most chose Stephen. He and leading barons renounced their oath to Matilda.

• In 1138, her half-brother, Robert of Gloucester, defected from Stephen’s side and in 1139, she landed at Arundel in an attempt to
unseat Stephen from the throne. Matilda defeated and captured Stephen at Lincoln in 1141. However, Stephen was freed in
exchange for Robert of Gloucester, who was also a captive. After years of damaging warfare, Matilda finally left England in
1148.

• During the civil war, Matilda’s second husband, Geoffrey Plantagenet, Count of Anjou, took towns in Normandy, leading to his
acceptance as Duke of Normandy in 1144.

• Neither side could win, and finally in 1153 Marilda and Stephen agreed that Stephen could keep the throne but only if Matilda's
son, Henry (II), could succeed him .

49
 11/15/2023

Henry II
• Henry II was ruler of far more land than anyprevious king. As lord of Anjou he added
hisfather's lands to the family empire.
• After his marriage to Eleanor of Aquitaine he also ruled the lands south of Anjou. Henry
II's empire stretched from the Scottish border to the Pyrenees.
• Henry II attempted to reclaim the territories lost to the Scottish during the Civil War. He
made two campaigns:
In 1157 he recaptured Cumberland and Northumbria and forced them to peace.
In 1174 he captured the Scottish King William I in battlefield, and forced Scottish nobles
to accept his suzerainity as ransom for the King’s release.

50
11/15/2023

51
 11/15/2023

“The French crown has five

duchies and, if you count them
up, there are three missing.”

FRENCH TROUBADOUR BERTRAN DE BORN, 12TH CENTURY

52
11/15/2023

53
 11/15/2023

Eleanor of Aquitaine (Queen of France)

• Eleanor became the duchess of Aquitaine as the sole heir, and she was sent as a ward in the royal palace of
France in her teenage years.

• King Louis the Fat decided to marry her to the dauphin (crown prince / heir) on his deathbed. Marriage took
place in 1137, and she become queen consort of France while also maintaining her title as Duchess of Aquitaine.

• In 8 years of marriage Louis (younger) and Eleanor had no heirs.

• In 1145 Louis went on a Crusade, and 2 years later she joined him as Duchess of Aquitaine.

• The Crusade in Anatolia and Syria was a disaster. (both for the Crusading armies, and for their marriage)

• In 1152 with the pressure from French nobles, and at Eleanor’s persistence their marriage was annulled by the
Pope Eugene III. Their two daughters were regarded as heirs, and she was stripped of her title as Queen to return
to Aquitaine.

54
 11/15/2023

Eleanor of Aquitaine (Queen of England)

• In late 1152 Eleanor requested prince Henry -her distant cousin- (II) to marry
her.

• In 1554 she became Queen of England by Henry II’s side, and soon gave birth
to a son.

• Over the next 13 years, she bore Henry five sons and three daughters: William,
Henry, Richard, Geoffrey, John, Matilda, Eleanor, and Joan.

55
 11/15/2023

De A more ( T h e Ar t of
C o u r t l y L o v e ) ( 11 8 6 -
1190) by Andreas
Capellanus

56
11/15/2023

57
11/15/2023

58
11/15/2023

59
11/15/2023

60
11/15/2023

61
11/15/2023

62
 11/15/2023

• Thomas Becket (ca. 1118–70) was a chancellor and friend of the first king of the
Angevin dynasty, Henry II, who appointed Becket archbishop of Canterbury in 1162.

• This was a political appointment in the hope that Becket would help Henry II in
controlling and limiting the authority of the Catholic Church and the clergymen.

• Becket and Henry II’s relationship sours over the matters of criminous clergymen over
the years.

• Becket becomes a symbol of the indepence of Church against monarchic authority.

63
 11/15/2023

Issue of Criminous Clerks

• Henry II wanted to transfer jurisdiction over criminal clergy to secular courts, as church courts were
often reluctant to convict guilty clergymen. Becket refused, and a long struggle involving the pope
and the king of France ended with Becket’s murder in Canterbury Cathedral in 1170.

• The murderers were knights carrying out what they thought was the king’s will, although Henry
never gave a formal order. Becket was widely recognized as a saint and martyr across Europe, and
Henry did penance for his part in the murder in 1174, being publicly flogged by monks at
Canterbury.

• Becket’s shrine at Canterbury became a major pilgrimage site not just for English people but for
Europeans, and criminal clergy continued to enjoy lenient ecclesiastical jurisdiction.

64
 11/15/2023

Murder at the Cathedral

• Murdered at the altar steps of Canterbury
Cathedral
• Hence the pilgrimage

65
 11/15/2023

Invasion of Ireland
• Henry II’s territorial ambitions had not been satisfied by his Angevin and

• English inheritance, and as early as 1155 he seems to have planned to conquer

Ireland, having secured a papal bull Laudabiliter from Pope Adrian IV
permitting him to seize it.

• Western parts of the island (around Dublin) were captured, and the remaining
Irish kingdoms were forced to accept Henry II’s authority as an overlord. He
regarded this as a succcessful full conquest.

66
 11/15/2023

Family Rivalries
• Henry’s later years were marred by worsening relations with his sons. By the 1170s, he had planned to
partition his realms between the three eldest, with Henry receiving Anjou, Normandy, and England; Richard
inheriting Aquitaine; and Brittany (which Henry II had acquired in 1166) going to Geoffrey.

• With the support and urging of the French nobility, first Henry (the eldest son), rebelled against his father
multiple times. These rebellions that began in French territorries resulted in bloody conflicts that spread to
both England, and Scotland.

• Prince Henry died in 1183 and Geoffrey in 1186, this left Richard as the primary contender. But Henry II was
not pleased, and preferred leaving the inheritance to his youngest John.

• Richard suspected he was being pushed aside. He rose up in open revolt against his father. Sick and defeated,
Henry died at Chinon castle on July 6, 1189.

67
 11/15/2023

Crusades
• The Crusades began as a result of Pope Urban’s calling in 1095 in order to capture Jerusalem from
the Muslims, and to support the Eastern Roman Empire.

• The First of the Crusades had two waves; one containing mostly peasants and low-class fanatics
gathered by clergymen that began in Germany,and another one led mainly by French aristocracy.

• They achieved their aims after suffering serious losses, and established Latin Kingdom in
Jerusalem, a principality in Antioch, and two counties in Edessa and Tripoli.

• These kingdoms were supported by several religious/military orders of Christianity such as;
Knights Hospitallers, Knights Templar, Knights of Saint Thomas (from Canterbury), and Teutonic
Knights.

68
11/15/2023

69
11/15/2023

70
11/15/2023

71
 11/15/2023

Battle of Hattin
• Unity in the Arab world is created by Salah ad-Din Yusuf ibn Ayyub (Saladin) against
the Crusaders in late 12th century, he becomes the Sultan of Egypt and Syria.

• Saladin’s armies destroy the Crusaders in Hattin, and capture Jerusalem in 1887.

• This conquest results in a call for a new wave of Crusades to take Jerusalem and Syria
back. (The Third Crusade)

• Henry II of England and Philip II of France ended their war with each other in 1188 and
then both took the cross. Both imposed a "Saladin tithe" on their citizens to finance the
venture.

72
11/15/2023

73
 11/15/2023

Richard I (The Lionheart) *Crusader King*

• Henry II died before he began his crusading campaign. His most powerful heir Richard took on this duty after
being crowned in 1889.

• Richard I used the crusading army to settle his disputes with European princes and set sail from Italian coasts
to the Holy Lands.

• Upon his arrival in Acre, Richard I would be Saladin’s main rival in the Third Crusade. After his victories in
Acre and Arsuf, Richard brought Saladin to the negotations. (Discussions included cross-marriage [Saladin’s
brother with Richard’s sister])

• Failure in negotiations resulted in an unrealised attempt by Richard to capture Jerusalem.

• On September 1192, following his defeat at Jaffa, Saladin was forced to finalize a treaty with Richard
providing that Jerusalem would remain under Muslim control, while allowing unarmed Christian pilgrims and
traders to visit the city.

74
11/15/2023

75
11/15/2023

76
11/15/2023

77
11/15/2023

78
11/15/2023

79
 11/15/2023

Ransom & Death

• Upon signing a peace with Saladin, Richard I returns sets sail to Europe in bad weather.
His ships get wrecked near Venice, forcing him to return to his holdings in Normandy by
crossing hostile Austrian lands. (he had a personal issue with Leopold of Austria)
• Richard is captured and sold to the Holy Roman Emperor himself. He was kept for 1 year
as Emperor’s prisoner in Germany before being released in 1194 in return for a hefty
ransom (two to three times the annual income for the English Crown under Richard) which
was paid by his mother Eleanor.
• While in captivity, most of the lands he held were captured by the French King and his
nobles. He spent the next 5 years regaining them, and he died in battle while sieging a
small castle in Limousin after being shot with a crossbow.

80
 11/15/2023

King John
• John took over an economically weakened state, and inherited his brother’s wars with
the French Crown and nobles.
• John was less successful in these wars and lost Normandy and other prestigious lands.
Financing these wars required extorting unreasonable amounts of taxes from his nobles.
• John also had issues with the Papacy over the appointment of Bishops. rdict, which
theoretically forbade the holding of almost all church services in the country. In
November 1209, the Pope excommunicated John, absolving all his subjects—including
the barons—of their oath of allegiance to him.
• Thus, his reign after 1210 was characterised by unrest in the nobility.

81
11/15/2023

82
11/15/2023

83
11/15/2023

84
 11/15/2023

Magna Carta
• In order to prevent an uprising King John was compelled by the majority of
the nobles to sign an agreement in 1215.

• This agreement legalized the relation of homage between the King and the
subservient aristocracy.

• King’s rights over taxation, calling for war, mustering an army, removing
nobility titles were regulated by royal signature.

• Regarded as a very early example democratic reform, and a social contract.

85
11/15/2023

86
11/15/2023

87
 11/15/2023

First Barons’ War

• This document, however was not enough to prevent chaos.

• Civil war erupted as an assembly of barons declared John deposed and invited Louis, son of King Philip II of
France, to take over the English throne.

• The French prince arrived in Kent in May 1216, and he and the rebel barons soon controlled the whole of
southeast England. When John died in October 1216 and his nine-year-old son, Henry III, succeeded him.

• A group of loyalists led by William Marshall, Earl of Pembroke. Marshall secured the support of the papal
legate Guala Bicchieri and won crucial victories at Lincoln in May 1217, and at Dover in August.

• Henry’s regency council acted quickly to restore royal authority, as the barons had seized much royal land and
the King’s revenues had collapsed.

88
 11/15/2023

Henry III

89
11/15/2023

90
 11/15/2023

The Roman Clientage System

• A lesser-freeman becoming the client of a wealthier and politically stronger
man in return for the gifts of money, food and clothing. These men were
expected to non-military service to their patrons.

• In the Merovingian France this system is transformed to a lifelong bondage of

poor men becoming clients for richer and stronger men (mostly warrior class) in
order to gain security and livelihood.

91
 11/15/2023

Benefice Model
• Roman Empire, and its early Barbarian descendants developed a system called
precaria.

• This system relied on the rights of a certain plot of land given by a wealthy
donor (or state itself) to a beneficiary in return for a specific type of service.
(prayer)

• This service could be political, bureaucratic, personal, or military.

• A typical benefice was an agrarian estate including farmland, the necessary

buildings, domestic animals and the people who worked on this land.

92
11/15/2023

93
 11/15/2023

Heroic Society
• Tacitus mentions of a system called comitatus when talking about tribes of Germania. (applies generally to most
of Germanic groups)

• In the warlike society individuals would recieve their identity in the tribe and recognition through martial
prowess. This creates a competitive society that relies on bravery and loyalty to the leader of the tribe.

• The core of the tribe is the chief/warlord (princeps) and his warring companions (comites) who are bound to the
chief by sacred loyalty.

• In return for unflinching loyalty to the chief companions expect arms and armour, food, and a share of the loot.
(royal generosity)

• This creates a small inner circle of a honour-bound of warrior community in the larger society.

94
 11/15/2023

Vassalage
• “A vassal” or “liege subject” is a person regarded as having a mutual obligation
to a lord or monarch.

• The subordinate party is called a vassal, the dominant party is called a suzerain.

• The rights and obligations of a vassal are called vassalage, while the rights and
obligations of a suzerain are called suzerainty.

• The obligations of a vassal often included military support by knights in

exchange for certain privileges, usually including land held as a tenant or fief.

95
 11/15/2023

Homage
• Homage refers to a ceremony.

• To become a vassal, a man (B) had to appear before his future lord (A) and render to him the
service technically called homage and fealty.

• B knelt, placed his hands between those of A, and acknowledged himself A's man, pledging entire
faith as a vassal to his lord against all men who might live or die.

• In equally formal words A accepted B's homage, raised him to his feet, and, as a rule, kissed him.

• Finally, on the Gospels or on sacred relics, B took a solemn oath to confirm his earlier promise.

96
 11/15/2023

Reasons for The Rise of Feudalism

• Unified Kingdoms were too difficult to defend and maintain against many
attackers in central Europe. (Viking and Hungarian threats, as well as internal
disputes)

• Difficulty in bureaucracy and communication makes local rule easier.

• Inheritance laws separating land into multiple families

• Agriculture is the only reliable means of consistent income for beneficiaries

• Better regulation of taxation

97
 11/15/2023

Feudal Titles
• Duke

A title below the King, often used to refer to a person who is controlling a significant amount of territory in a Kingdom (multiple minor holdings). An evolution
of Aeldermen or Earl / Jarl. Aelderman was used to former Kings of the Seven Anglo-Saxon Kingdoms when Kingdom of England was created.

• Marquess / Marchioness

Title given to a person who controls multiple counties in a border region with another kingdom or empire. (This is a significant Martial title)

• Count / Earl

Titles (and land) given to companions of early Kings in return for service. Initially not hereditary, but gradually with stronger feudal contract becomes hereditary.
The terrritory controlled by a count is a county.

• Baron

An often hereditary title refers to a person with often a singular manor. A rank higher than knight, and lower than a count.

98
 11/15/2023

Feudal Titles
• Emperor / Imperator / Caesar / Kaiser / Tzar ***(Padişah, Shansah, Khagan)***

This title refers to a monarch ruling over more than one kingdom or multiple ethnically/linguistically diverse communities. In Europe this title
was continued by Holy Roman Empire in the Catholic world, and Byzantine (Eastern Roman) Empire in the East. Following 1453 there were
two contenders; Ottoman Empire and Russian Tzardom.

• King - Queen / Rex (Roi in French)

This is the highest feudal title, it often refers to a monarch ruling over a singular state consisting of multiple feudal holdings as the suzerain.
Usually (not always) less diverse in ethnicitity and languages.

• Prince

Refers to either the heir of a ruling King/Monarch, or to a sovereign leader. Means “first amongst others”, dominant feudal ruler in a certain
place. Given to the rulers of sovereign states with lesser power compared to a Kingdom. Sometimes used to refer to the husband of a ruling
female monarch.

99
 11/15/2023

Chivalry
• Emerged as a concept in Carolingian France. This term signifies the culture created
around the group of select horsemen of the King who are granted titles and benefits.

• It was a moral system which combined a warrior ethos, knightly piety, and courtly
manners, all combining to establish a notion of honour and nobility.

• This culture was developed and proliferated through medieval literature, especially
poems, romances, and conduct books.

• Works such as Song of Roland, Le Morte D’Arthur, Ars Amore, Sir Gawain and the Great
Knight gave shape to this culture.

100
 11/15/2023

Chivalric Rules
• The Code of Chivalry described in the Song of Roland and an excellent
representation of the Knights Codes of Chivalry are as follows:
To fear God and maintain His Church To guard the honour of fellow knights
To serve the liege lord in valour and faith To eschew unfairness, meanness and deceit
To protect the weak and defenceless To keep faith
To give succour to widows and orphans At all times to speak the truth
To refrain from the wanton giving of offence To persevere to the end in any enterprise begun
To live by honour and for glory To respect the honour of women
To despise pecuniary reward Never to refuse a challenge from an equal
To fight for the welfare of all Never to turn the back upon a foe
To obey those placed in authority

101
 11/15/2023

Courtly Love
• Most marriages were not out of love, BUT for political or economic practicalities.

• Court life style necessiated the lord/king and his entourage to live in very close quarters.

• Exta-marital affairs in the court were usually tolerated as long as it was continued in secrecy.

• Sexuality in extra-marrital affairs were considered as a taboo, avoided according to courtly love convention.

• Chastity (or fidelity) of the the lady is heavily emphasised.

• The love of the knight for his lady was regarded as an ennobling passion, and the relationship was idealised as
long as it was unconsumated.

• Works such as Andreas Cappellanus’ The Art of Courtly Love gave shape to the culture of living in the Courts
of nobility. The origins of the culture can be found in the Duchy of Aquitaine.

102
11/15/2023

103
11/15/2023

104
11/15/2023

105
 11/15/2023

Chivalric Order
• The first orders of knights were religious orders that were founded to protect and guide pilgrims to the Holy
Land. The knightly orders were characterized by an orderly community life in poverty, obedience and chastity.

• They were linked with charitable tasks, armed pilgrimage protection and military action against external and
occasionally internal enemies of Christianity.

• These communities only became orders in the sense of canon law through papal recognition of their own
binding rules of order.

• In addition to the religious orders of knights, courtly orders of knights emerged in many European royal houses
from the middle of the 14th century. This enabled the monarchs and princes to create a reliable household power
independent of the church and to combine their court life with knightly virtues.

106
 11/15/2023

England’s Chivalric Orders

Hospitallers of St Thomas of Order of the Garter
Canterbury at Acre
• Established in 1191, at Acre, after the capture of that city by • An order of chivalry founded by Edward III of England in
Richard I of England and Philip II of France. 1348.
• The purpose of the Order was tending to the sick and wounded, • Appointments are at the Sovereign's sole discretion,
and burying the Christian knights who fell in battle in the Holy typically made in recognition of national contribution,
Land. service to the Crown, or for distinguished personal service
• It was also tasked with raising funds to ransom captives from to the Monarch.
the Muslim armies of Saladin. • Membership of the order is limited to the sovereign, the
• The success of the Order enabled it to establish a church and Prince of Wales, and no more than 24 living members, or
ho sp it al whi ch was ded icat ed t o St Thoma s Becket , Companions.
Archbishop of Canterbury.

107
11/15/2023

108
11/15/2023

109
11/15/2023

110
 11/15/2023

Heraldry

• Refers to the use of certain symbolic practices that are used to describe a certain individual or family.

• A heraldic representation include a coat of arms, a shield, badge, motto, a crest and an animal.

• The aim is to use symbolism to present the core values of the individual and the family it represents.

• Possessing heraldic elements mean that the wielder is either a member of that family, or a direct
servant to the family.

• Heraldry makes it possible to recognise certain individuals in a crowded space, and also to be able to
recognise people while they are wearing armor in the battlefield.

• Along with people, countries, cities, towns and institutions may also have certain heraldic
representation.

111
11/15/2023

112
11/15/2023

113
11/15/2023

114
11/15/2023

115
11/15/2023

116
11/15/2023

117
 11/15/2023

3 Estates
• Medieval society is a class based society that is based on a separation of the
people into three estates.

• The most dominant of these estates is the clergymen of various stature, and it
is called the first estate.

• The second estate is that of the nobility and those who hold military power.

• The third estate includes people of towns and cities, tradesfolk, servants, serfs
on the farmland and other various communities.

118
11/15/2023

119
11/15/2023

120
11/15/2023

121
 11/15/2023

1st Estate
• Relies on the authority of the Catholic Church, protected
by religious laws.
• Consists of clergy members; monks, abbots, bishops, nuns,
cardinals, priests etc.

• Their economic power is deriven from various properties given to the Church control by monarchs. Their
authority to perform confessions, collect indulgence money, and donations provide this class with a
consistent source of income.
• Heavily criticised between 13-17th centuries for severe corruption and abuse of office.

122
 11/15/2023

2nd Estate
• Consists of landed aristocracy, government bureaucrats,
members of the military class.
• Their wealth is deriven from the vast amounts taxation
money collect from the lands they are given by the monarch.

• Their political power is reliant on the soldiers they sustain (knights and personal levies), and their soft-
power and prestige is generated by influential bureaucracts and artists they patronise.
• Through alliances in Civil Wars, this class gained significant concessions from the King in England,
becoming a part of the main body of government.
• Heavily criticised for lavish lifestyle, warlike character, and excessive pride.

123
 11/15/2023

3rd Estates
• Consists of free people; yeomen, farmers, herdsmen, small
shop-owners, and tradesmen (smiths, carpenters, weavers,
masons, cooks etc).
• This class relies on manual labour for their income, serve as the backbone of economy.
• The most numerous of the three estates, the members of the third estate are rarely (if ever) given an
opportunity for social climbing, their rights are limited and they are bound by legal obligations to their
lords and to their church ministers.

124
 11/15/2023

Life of a Nobleman
• A nobleman is expected to administer his property in the name of the King, collect taxes, deliver justice (on non-
capital offences), provide safety an security of the property, and organise the workforce.

• In times of war nobleman are expected to answer to the King’s call by attending to the army with their retinue of
knights and man-at-arms. (Their equipment, maintenance and training is nobleman’s responsibility)

• Most nobleman bring up their male children to become knights. This is performed by an exchange of their sons
with other noblemen as wards.

• Wards receive their education as squires in their host family, learn basics of knighthood and chivalry, help the
host patriarch with his duties, join his wars as his squire and build relationships.

• Due to the succession laws, the largest of the property goes to the eldest son after the patriarchs’ death.

• Younger sons are pushed to various Christian military orders, to mercenary service, or to the monasterial
services.

125
 11/15/2023

Life of a Yeoman/Townsfolk
• Townsfolk mostly consisted of tradesmen such as smiths, carpenters, masons, weavers, bakers etc.

• These people relied on the sale of their produce and other contracted services for their income. Some highly
sought after trades such as masonry, carpentry, smithery and fletchery could make a tradesman relatively well-
off in society.

• Almost all trades had their unique guilds that protected the rights of the tradesmen and regulated the standards of
the work.

• Entering a trade required a certain period of apprenticeship in another tradesman’s shop, and certain
qualification exams performed by the guild.

• Yeomen referred to freemen who own lands without an aristocratic title and serfs. These were mostly free
farmers, and sometimes they were employed as middle-rank servants in aristocratic households.

126
 11/15/2023

Guilds
• The term Guild refers to organisations or brotherhoods of different kinds of merchants or trades.

• Organisations of artists or other tradesmen were formed beginning in the Middle Ages as in today's trade
unions.

• The guilds supervised work conditions, the number of apprentices, and materials used.

• The guild was also an agent in providing materials for the artists to use, such as panels, that had to sometimes
be stamped with the guild's seal before they could be used.

• All artists were required to join a guild unless they were under direct orders of the ruler

127
 11/15/2023

Life of a Serf
• Life of serfs is relatively plain and simple. They are legally bound to the land
they work on, not allowed to leave without permission.

• They are obliged to work a certain number of days for their lords (changes based
on location) in return for protection and allowance to stay on the property. This
is form of rent payment via service.

• Most of the serfs are responsible for agricultural duties.

• Most peasants and serfs would live in cottages near their working land.

128
 11/15/2023

Noblewomen
• Noblewomen were on theory subordinate to their fathers and husbands. They were the
last in line to inheriting property and regnal titles.

• Women had a diplomatic role through arranged marriages.

• In times of war, or in the absence of their husbands/sons/fathers they could act as regents.
(same applies to infant kings)

• In principle they were expected to fulfill domestic tasks and show hospitality.

• If they did not get married until a certain age, or their husband dies they were often taken
into the nunneries. (nuns served a religious role as well as a medical one)

129
 11/15/2023

Commoner Women
• Commoner women had the chance to marry freely. They did not have familial obligations
stemming from property or inheritance.

• They were accepted into some (not all) trades, they could take part in guild activities.

• Having many children was important for economic reasons (and lack of birth control),
thus they had a domestic role.

• Mortality in childbirth was quite common, life-expentancy was very low.

• If their husbands/fathers were not present they could stand for themselves against the law.

130
 11/15/2023

Language, Literature and Culture

• Latin (the language of the Church) was used as main language of learning and diplomacy.

• French served as the language of law because it was the language of the Norman rulers, an amalgamation of Latin, French
and English was the language of the court.

• English became the language of ruling class much later in 14th century due to consistent warfare with France and a rise in
English sentiment.

• French words that entered into English in Norman Invasion were regarded as more polite and sophisticated.

• Literacy grew after the 12th century Renaissance starting in Italy as it began to spread to England in late 13th century.

• Schools of learning and Grammar schools independent of the Church were established.

• Two Schools of higher learning were established at the end of the 12th century: Oxford (ca. 1096) and then Cambridge
(1209)

131
11/15/2023

132
11/15/2023

133
11/15/2023

134
11/15/2023

135
 11/15/2023

Law and Justice

• In Saxon times law was a family matter; every district had its own laws and customs.

• After the Norman Conquest it was conducted by nobles on their lands in villages.

• The Saxon and Norman laws were intermingled; serious crimes (capital offences) were tried at King’s courts

• Henry I introduced an new regulation that viewed crimes even within families are not a family matter but a
breaking of the king's peace;

• Hence, introduced "circuits” (travelling judges who had no training) that would act on behalf of the King to try
and punish the criminals. So, Henry I slowly took over the administration from the nobles.

• Henry II introduced what is called“common law” because it was used everywhere with the same laws.

• The law administered by the travelling judges was known as common law. The original judges did not have a
special training or knowledge. They trusted their common sense. These new judges They administered the
same law everywhere; a standard in administration of law without variation.

136
11/15/2023

137
 11/15/2023

Crusading Culture
• Crusades were an important means to gain prestige, and acquire wealth and new properties for the youth in
noble class.

• For the unlanded serfs, and poor yeomen it was an opportunity to start a new life in the Holy Lands.

• The idea of doing penance in the Crusades, and being able to erase sins (including murder) was appealing for
the knightly class.

• Many males of the noble youth would have no inherited property of their own; thus promise of new lands,
riches, and a career in the religious orders was attractive for those.

• Crusades were romanticised and mythified through literature and presented as ultimate sacrificial heroism.

• Along with the Crusades, trade with the East intensified, old trade connections of the Roman Empire revived.
Gold, silver, spices and a lot of exotic goods arrived in the courts of Western nobility.

138
 11/15/2023

Anti-Semitism
• Even though it is not a part of Roman Catholic dogma, many Christians, including many members of the clergy, have held the
Jewish people collectively responsible for the killing of Jesus, through the so-called blood curse of Pontius Pilate in the Gospels,
among other things

• Local rulers and church officials closed many professions to the Jews, pushing them into marginal occupations considered socially
inferior, such as tax and rent collecting and moneylending, tolerating them as a "necessary evil". Catholic doctrine of the time held
that lending money for interest was a sin, and forbidden to Christians. Not being subject to this restriction, Jews dominated this
business.

• Peasants who were forced to pay their taxes to Jews could personify them as the people taking their earnings while remaining loyal
to the lords on whose behalf the Jews worked. Jews' role as moneylenders was later used against them, part of the justification in
expelling them from England when they lacked the funds to continue lending the king money.

• In the First Crusade, Jewish communities on the Rhine and the Danube were attacked by Crusaders, while others were spared due to
the efforts of the Papacy. In the Second Crusade (1147), the Jews in France suffered especially. Philip II of France treated them
with exceptional severity during the Third Crusade (1188).

139
11/15/2023

140
 11/15/2023

Anglo-Irish Affairs
• Ireland had been conquered by Norman lords in 1169. They had little difficulty in defeating the Irish kings and
tribes.

• Henry II, went to Ireland himself and forced the Irish chiefs and Norman lords to accept his lordship. He did so
with the authority of the pope, who hoped to bring the Irish Celtic Church under his own control.

• Henry II made Dublin, the old Viking town, the capital of his new colony. Much of western Ireland remained in
the hands of Irish chiefs, while Norman lords governed most of the east.

• Edward I took as much money and as many men as he could for his wars against the Welsh and Scots. As a
result Ireland was drained of its wealth. By 1318 it was able to provide the English king with only one-third of
rhe amount it had been able to give in 1272.

• The Norman nobles and Irish chiefs quietly avoided English aut hority as much as possible. As a result, the
English Crown only controlled Dublin (the Pale) while the rest was mostly semi-independent.

141
 11/15/2023

Henry III
• Henry III’s reign was marked by constant struggle between the King and the aristocracy.

• After Henry was declared of age in 1223, and especially after his marriage

• to Eleanor of Provence in 1236, he came to depend on foreign advisors. The barons, feeling excluded, began raise opposition again.

• In 1255, had his son Edmund appointed titular King of Sicily by the Pope. The price that the papacy demanded for this was
exorbitant and the King was forced into new measures to raise funds.

• Henry III was forced to increase taxation rates and introduce new taxes. His authority over this matter was checked by Magna Carta
(1215). This meant that he had to gather the aristocrats together to convince them. Thus he gathered them as “the parliament” 14
times.

• Gradually the lords pressured Henry to accept the authority over the parliament, and have it installed as a permanent institution in
Westminster.

• Henry III sought the help of the French King to deal with these pressures, this resulted in a civil war against the barons led by De
Montfort.

142
11/15/2023

143
 11/15/2023

Creation of The Parliament of England

• At Lewes on May 14, 1264, de Montfort’s forces crushed the royal army, and Henry III and Prince Edward
were imprisoned.

• De Montfort then tried to enlarge his base of support. He had already summoned four knights from each
shire to his Parliament of 1264, widening representation from the previously dominant baronial class.

• In 1265, he summoned burgesses from the towns as well, so that the London Parliament resembled for the
first time the later House of Commons.

• Prince Edward, however, escaped from captivity in May 1265 and three months later, at Evesham, he
trapped de Montfort with a small force. The baronial leader was killed and the rebellious barons melted
away or were hunted down. Although their challenge to the King was temporarily at an end, Parliament,
whose power it had established, became permanent.

144
11/15/2023

145
 11/15/2023

Edward I
• During his reign (1274-1307) Edward I recognised the existence of the
parliament and regularly gathered it when making changes on taxation policies.
He issued a Confirmation of the Charters acknowledging that taxation could
only be levied with Parliament’s approval.

• The main focus of Edward I’s reign was his continous wars in Scotland.

146
11/15/2023

147
 11/15/2023

War in Scotland
• In the 13th century Scottish Kingdom had the chance to establish its central authority over much of the lands in
the North, and it became a significant power.

• In 1286, however, Alexander III was killed by a fall from his horse. His three children had already died, leaving
the only obvious heir his three-year old granddaughter, Margaret, the “Maid of Norway.” The infant Queen was
sent for from Norway, and her planned engagement to Edward I of England’s son Edward of Caernarvon (the
future Edward II) seemed to presage a union of the English and Scottish crowns.

• In September 1290, Margaret died while on her way from Bergen in Norway to Scotland, throwing the Scottish
nobility into disarray. Edward I summoned an Anglo-Scottish parliament on the border at Norham, in May 1291,
and demanded that the Scottish lords acknowledge his right to decide the process by which their next king would
be selected.

148
 11/15/2023

First Resistance
• In November 1292, a commission with 24 jurors and the English King as judge
selected Balliol to rule Scotland, but he was not an independent monarch since
he owed his position entirely to the favor of Edward I.

• John Balliol tried to assert himself, but his refusal to attend Parliaments in York
and his maneuvering for a French alliance brought the wrath of Edward
(“Longshanks” as the Scots came to call him) down upon Scotland. The Scots
were defeated at Dunbar, and he was removed from Scottish throne.

149
 11/15/2023

William Wallace
• Resistance grewstronger over 5 years of occupation and a series of risings broke out in spring
1297, with an able leader emerging in the shape of William Wallace, who defeated the English at
Stirling Bridge in 1297.

• Wallace became a national hero for the Scottish ressistance movement against the English.

• Wallace overreached himself and risked another pitched battle at Falkirk in July 1298, where he
was soundly beaten.

• After this defeat Wallace left on a diplomatic mission to France with the hope of gaining French
King’s support. After his return to Scotland, he was betrayed and handed over to the English. In
1305 he was hanged, drawn, and quartered in London.

150
11/15/2023

151
 11/15/2023

Robert Bruce
• Due to his family’s ties to John Balliol, Robert grew up as a possible contender for the Scottish throne.

• Bruce family sided with the English King Edward I during John Balliol’s resistance. He was sidelined because
of this.

• After William Wallace’s failed resistance, Robert Bruce became a potential leader for the Scottish Resistance
Movement. He capitalised on this by leading them to victories against the very old Edward I in 1306.

• Edward I (The Hammer of Scots) died in 1307 and left the English throne to his incompetent son Edward II.
Robert used this to his advantage and acquired political unity in Scotland.

• Robert’s newly united Scotland defeated the English armies in two successive battles Bannockburn and Stirling
in 1314. This forced the English King and the Pope to accept the independent existence of the Scottish Kingdom
in 1320 (Declaration of Arbroath). In spring 1328, by the Treaty of Edinburgh, Edward III renounced his claim
to lordship over Scotland.

152
11/15/2023

153
11/15/2023

154
 11/15/2023

Hundred Years War

• Charles IV of France died in 1328 with no son, and French law prevented female succession.

• Edward III of England, as grandson of Philippe IV (Charles IV’s father) (through his daughter Isabella), had a
strong claim on the French throne. His holdings in France also made him a very strong member of the French
aristocracy.

• The French nobles turned to Philippe of Valois, a nephew of Philippe IV, who had the advantages of being 35, a
proven leader and, crucially, was the chairman of the council convened to decide the succession.

• Philip of Valois become Edward III’s suzerain due to his lands in Aquitaine. He continuously humiliated Edward
III into eventually declaring war in 1337.

• While there are long periods with no active fighting, there would be no peace treaty signed for 113 years making
this on paper a continuous war.

155
 11/15/2023

French Tactics (chevauchée)

• For most of the following 100 years the French Kings and the French army refused to provide the English
with a decisive battle to end the war.

• French relied on a campaign of attrition by attacking the vulnerable English soldiers and castles and defeating
them piecemeal.

• French knights performed consistent terror attacks on English held French territories, pushing them to drain
their resources.

• English side responded in the same manner after Edward the Black Prince took control of the war affairs in
France. English committed great atrocities in French held lands.

• During the 113 years of warring period there are only three decisive battles -all won by the English- while the
French Kingdom managed to survive without a total defeat.

156
 11/15/2023

The English Longbow

• Longbow was a crucial element in the English way of fighting.

• English armies created special bowmen out of the free-farming class of yeomen.

• These people were tasked with following a precise regimen of constant training and readiness during times
of peace. (specific laws were passed to ensure quality archers)

• Longbow provided a significant range (up to 600 m.) and rate of fire advantage (5-8 aimed arrows per
minute) over the mercenary crossbowmen used by French and German armies.

• Longbow played a defining role in the Hundred Years War, and in the Wars of the Roses.

• Longbow was regarded as an indiscriminate and non-chivalrous weapon resulting in the death of a lot of
knights in Europe.

157
11/15/2023

158
11/15/2023

159
 11/15/2023

Battle of Crecy (26, Aug. 1346)

• In August 1346, the French King’s army managed to entrap the English Army led by Edward III near the
town of Crecy.

• French had a 4 times numerical superiority, relied on their heavy cavalry and Genoese crossbowmen.

• What must have been a very easy victory for the French was prevented by the English longbowmen who
decimated 15 succesive cavalry charges by the French Knights.

• This victory gave the English Army a breathing space, and resulting in the war becoming a prolonged
affair.

• Edward III chose not to risk his army and march to Paris even though he was victorious.

160
11/15/2023

161
11/15/2023

162
 11/15/2023

Battle of Poiters (19 Sept. 1356)

• French forces managed to capture almost all of the English holdings in 10 years
after the Battle of Crecy. (including Aquitaine)
• English armies led by the Black Prince were squeezed into Gascony, and into a
defensive posture.
• Black Prince’s strategy was to provoke the French army to attack them in a good
location by leading a campaign of vicious raiding of French lands.
• English army made good use of the geographical features of Poitiers and their
longbowmen and managed to defeat five successive attacks by the numerically
superior French army.

163
11/15/2023

164
 11/15/2023

Battle of Agincourt (25 Oct 1415)

• After several decades of relative peace, the English led by Henry V resumed the war in 1415 after the failure of
negotiations with the French.

• In the ensuing campaign, many soldiers died from disease, and the English numbers dwindled; they tried to
withdraw to English-held Calais but found their path blocked by a considerably larger French army.

• This was technically a last stand by the English Army and desparate battle. The victory won in Agincourt
prolonged the war for another 40 years, won great fame to Henry V, and was immortalised by William
Shakespeare 200 years later.

• English army was heavily outnumbered (2:1) and had lost most of their armour and heavy equipment.

• Henry V’s tactical genius and the professionalism of English longbowmen won them a victory.

• So many of the French knights died that many of the old aristocratic families were fully wiped out in a single
day.

165
11/15/2023

166
11/15/2023

167
 11/15/2023

Jeanne D’Arc
• Joan was born to a propertied peasant family at Domrémy in northeast France. In 1428, she requested to be taken to Dauphin
Charles, later testifying that she was guided by visions from the archangel Michael, Saint Margaret, and Saint Catherine to help him
save France from English domination.

• Convinced of her devotion and purity, Charles sent Joan, who was about seventeen years old, to the siege of Orléans as part of a
relief army. She wielded her banner and brought hope to the demoralized French army. Nine days after her arrival, the English
abandoned the siege.

• Joan encouraged the French to aggressively attack the English army. She was present in severak key French victories and managed
to have Dauphin Charles crowned as the King of France (Charles VII). These victories boosted French morale, paving the way for
their final triumph in the Hundred Years' War several decades later.

• She was captured by Burgundian troops in 1440. After trying unsuccessfully to escape, she was handed to the English in November.
She was put on trial by Bishop Pierre Cauchon on accusations of heresy, which included blaspheming by wearing men's clothes,
acting upon visions that were demonic, and refusing to submit her words and deeds to the judgment of the church. She was declared
guilty and burned at the stake on 30 May 1431, aged about nineteen.

168
11/15/2023

169
11/15/2023

170
11/15/2023

171
 11/15/2023

The Black Death -Origins-

• The Black Death originated in Central Asia. The pandemic was reportedly first introduced
to Europe during the siege of the Genoese trading port of Kaffa in Crimea by the Golden
Horde army of Jani Beg in 1347. From Crimea, it was most likely carried by fleas living
on the black rats that travelled on Genoese ships, spreading through the Mediterranean
Basin and reaching North Africa, Western Asia, and the rest of Europe via Constantinople,
Sicily, and the Italian Peninsula.

• It reached Italy in 1347 and spread thence through trading links, reaching England, and
Ireland in 1348, Wales in 1349 and Scotland in 1350; although Scotland probably suffered
less severely than England, in part because it was less densely populated.

172
 11/15/2023

The Black Death -Disaster-

• It is the most fatal pandemic recorded in human history, causing the deaths of 75–200 million people,
peaking in Europe from 1347 to 1351. Bubonic plague is caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis
spread by fleas, but during the Black Death it probably also took a secondary form, spread by person-
to-person contact via aerosols, causing pneumonic plague.

• This epidemic killed a third or more of the English population between 1348 and 1351, seriously
disrupted the economy, and contributed to a loss of confidence. With outbreaks in 1361, 1369,
1379–83, 1389–93, 1432–3, 1471 and 1479, plague now became endemic until the seventeenth
century (the last major episode in Scotland was in 1649 and in England in 1665) and held the
population down until about 1500.

173
 11/15/2023

The Black Death -Disaster-

• It is the most fatal pandemic recorded in human history, causing the deaths of 75–200 million people,
peaking in Europe from 1347 to 1351. Bubonic plague is caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis
spread by fleas, but during the Black Death it probably also took a secondary form, spread by person-
to-person contact via aerosols, causing pneumonic plague.

• This epidemic killed a third or more of the English population between 1348 and 1351, seriously
disrupted the economy, and contributed to a loss of confidence. With outbreaks in 1361, 1369,
1379–83, 1389–93, 1432–3, 1471 and 1479, plague now became endemic until the seventeenth
century (the last major episode in Scotland was in 1649 and in England in 1665) and held the
population down until about 1500.

174
11/15/2023

175
11/15/2023

176
11/15/2023

177
 11/15/2023

The Peasants’ Revolt

• At the time of the Black Deat hhe was busy with expensive wars against France and Scotland. The demands he made on merchants and peasants were enormous,
but Edward II handledthese people with skill.

• Edward's grandson, Richard, was less fortunate. He became king on his grandfather's death in 1377 because his father, the Black Prince, had died a few months
earlier.

• Richard II inherited the problems of discontent but had neither the diplomatic skill of his grandfather, nor the popularity of his father.

• He became king when he was only eleven, and so others governed for him. In the year he became king, these advisers introduced a tax payment for every person
over the age of fifteen.

• A popular rebellion emerged amongst the peasants led by Watt Tyler. They declared these advisors as traitors to the Crown.

• On June 14, 1381, the rebels, who had trapped the King and his ministers in the Tower of London, issued a manifesto. It demanded the punishment of traitors to
the Crown, the abolition of serfdom, the establishment of a mandatory rent of 4 pence per acre, and the legalization of negotiations between masters and servants
on contracts.

• King Richard attempted a meeting to negotiate terms, but it turned into a chaotic bloodbath resulting in the death of Watt Tyler. Most of the leaders of the
Rebellion were executed, the remaining rebel peasants dispersed.

• This rebellion frightened the monarchy so much that these requested rights were slowly granted over the next 100 years.

178
11/15/2023

179
 11/15/2023

The Lollards
• Based on the controversial teachings of the Oxford theologian, John Wycliffe, the Lollards challenged the wealth of the
Church, its involvement in the secular world, its doctrine of the Eucharist (the central rite of the Christian Church), and the
exclusive role of the priesthood in the administration of the sacraments.

• Most importantly, to give ordinary people access to, and understanding of, the Bible, Wycliffe and his collaborators made the
first translation of the Bible into English.

• Lollardy subsequently found its way into all levels of society in England.

• In Europe, it influenced the teachings of Jan Hus—the Czech reformer who was condemned to be burned at the stake as a
heretic by the Council of Constance in 1415, and also foreshadowed many of the theological teachings of Martin Luther, and
other later Protestant reformers.

• Wycliffe escaped persecution in his lifetime, but after his death his body was exhumed and burned, and his ashes thrown into
a river.

• Lollards were regarded by the Church, and by the Crown as heretics.

180
11/15/2023

181
 11/15/2023

Change of Dynasty
• Richard II made himself extremely unpopular by his poor choice of advisers. The first sign of this was the Peasants’ Revolt.

• Things escalated in 1387 when certain very powerful members of aristocracy organised a commission and isssued an appeal against
Richard II’s advisers. (Lords Appellant)

• Richard II’s advisers raised an army against the wishes of the parliament, but this army was defeated.

• The army of the Appellant marched on London and a new parliament was gathered. The resulting Merciless Parliament was
dominated by the Lords Appellant and most of Richard’s leading loyalists were sentenced to death.

• Richard survived this rebellion as the King, bided his time and made a counter move 10 years later by getting a new parliament pass
a death warrant for the supporters of 1387 revolt.

• When Richard left for a campaign in Ireland, Duke of York whom he left as a regent joined the rebel cause. Richard’s army was
easily defeated and he was captured.

• Richard was induced to abdicate on September 30, and Parliament passed the Articles of Deposition, which indicted Richard on a
series of misdemeanors, accepted his abdication, and acknowledged King Henry IV who started the new Lancastrian dynasty.

182
11/15/2023

183
 11/15/2023

Wars of the Roses -1-

• The dynastic struggle for the throne of England, waged by two branches of the royal house of Plantagenet, the
houses of Lancaster and York, led to 30 years of rebellions and civil wars. These ended with the victory of
Lancastrian Henry Tudor, who founded the House of Tudor.

• The powerful character of Henry IV and Henry V provided relative stability in the Kingdom. BUT, when Henry
VI succeeded after his at only one years old chaotic times began in 1422.

• The aristocracts summoned Parliament in the King's name and established a regency council to govern until the
King should come of age. One of Henry V's surviving brothers, John, Duke of Bedford, was appointed senior
regent of the realm and was in charge of the ongoing war in France. During Bedford's absence, the government
of England was headed by Henry V's other surviving brother, Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, who was
appointed Lord Protector and Defender of the Realm. His duties were limited to keeping the peace and
summoning Parliament.

184
 11/15/2023

Wars of the Roses -2-

• Henry VI suffered a mental breakdown in 1453. Richard, Duke of York, was appointed Lord Protector of England until the
King regained his wits. As the Yorkist champion, Richard was bitterly opposed by the Lancastrian faction at court and
particularly by Henry’s wife, Margaret of Anjou.

• Once the King’s health returned, Richard was dismissed. Supported by much of the nobility and in particular by the
influential Earl of Warwick, he raised an army and defeated the Lancastrians at the First Battle of St. Albans in 1455, the
first battle of the wars. The Lancastrian leader, the Duke of Somerset, was killed, so Richard resumed his old position as de
facto ruler of the nation, although he did not press his own claim to the throne.

• Richard was deposed 4 years later by Henry VI. It took him a year to return with an army and get rid of Henry VI after a
series of battles against his wife Margaret. This time Richard’s son Edward was crowned as Edward IV of England (first
Yorkist King). Henry VI was put in the Tower of London as a prisoner. Edward defeated the last of the Lancastrian armies in
1461 at the Battle of Towton.

185
 11/15/2023

Wars of the Roses -3-

• King Edward IV’s decision to marry with a commoner named Elizabeth and appointing her relatives into important positions
antagonised most of Edward IV’s supporters in the English aristocracy including the Earl of Warwick.

• In 1469, Warwick deserted the Yorkist cause and joined with his old enemy Margaret of Anjou, who had been raising a fresh
Lancastrian army in France. When she crossed to England, the isolated Edward fled to Flanders. Henry VI, now aged 48, was
reinstated on the throne.

• In 1471, with an army supplied by his brother-in-law, the Duke of Burgundy, he confronted old ally Earl of Warwick at Barnet.
Edward was victorious and Warwick was killed. Edward then defeated Margaret’s troops at Tewkesbury. Captured for a third time,
King Henry was taken to the Tower of London, where he was murdered. His son and heir had also been killed during the battle,
leaving Edward almost unchallenged on the throne. The only remaining Lancastrian with credible aspirations to rule was Henry
Tudor, a distant cousin of the King who was living in exile in Brittany.

186
11/15/2023

187
 11/15/2023

Recommendations about Medieval Warfare

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SOdC3PQ8wPA&t=9s

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zexpH6GCOh8

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5962hQXCLQ4

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MZUgxWLfCwY&t=5s

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JV6lBtMAlso

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9581QHdeR-4

188
11/15/2023

189
 11/15/2023

Features of Romance
• In its broadest usage romance defines any secular text of love and adventure in French and English.

• Most romances were written in verse form as very long narrative poems.

• Earliest English language romances were translations and adaptations from French literature, and they were
anonymous.

• Romance has its roots in the stories produced during the Islamic conquest of Spain. (Charlemagne and his
successors’ period)

• They are implicitly didactic: moral truths given through exemplary stories in the text.

• Employed to reflect the chivalric, religious and social aspects of a knight (serves as a conduct book)

190
 11/15/2023

Romance Tradition
• Matter of France (Charlemagne and his knights: wars in 8-13th centuries in
France)

• Matter of Britain (old British legends, Arthurian stories etc)

• Matter of Rome (Classical stories from Roman Empire)

• Matter of England (More contemporary English stories of kings, wars etc)

• Matter of Orient (stories set in Crusades, stories adapted from Muslim sources)

191
 11/15/2023

Malory’s Le Morte D’Arthur

• One of the latest romance genre examples, and due to its subject matter and cultural significance became very significant.

• Le Morte d'Arthur was completed by Malory around 1470 and was first published in a printed edition in 1485 by William
Caxton. There were continous editions and republications since 1485.

• This is compliation of legends, stories, and other romances about King Arthur and his followers from English and French
sources.

• Written in Anglo-Norman Middle English.

• The work serves a literary biography of the legendary King Arthur, Guinivere, Lancelot and Arthur’s followers. The
historical material about Arthurian legend are reworked into a Medieval context (ideas about chivalry, courtly love,
contemporary politics -Wars of the Roses- were all embedded in the stories) and retold as an authoritative story of
Arthurian Legend.

192
11/15/2023

193
11/15/2023

194
 11/15/2023

King of Tars
• A relatively earlier example of the romance genre set in Antioch.

• Presents a story about the Crusades period and reflects the Crusading culture.

• The main highlights of the work:

• Saracen King of Damascus wants to marry the daughter of King of Tars and lays siege to the city for
that purpose. She reluctantly agrees to the marriage, and reluctantly converts to his “pagan” religion.
They have a woefully disfigured child. Each try praying to their own deities to fix the child, but it
doesn’t work. Finally King of Damascus agrees to get baptized and convert to Christianity to fix the
child. When it works the child is fixed, and he is transformed into a “white” Christian king helping
King of Tars spread Christianity in the Levant.

195
11/15/2023

196
 11/15/2023

Frame Tale
• This is a way of story telling that encapsulates multiple stories within a
larger story. (Arabian Nights, Decameron)

• The use of frame tale enables the author to share his observations about
many different characters inside the same story. Providing commentary
about characters of various backgrounds and of differing personality traits
becomes possible.

197
 11/15/2023

Satire
• Satire is a literary means of providing critism about features of a single person, a group of people, an institution or an entire
society.

• Satire is not a fully-fledged genre in its own, it is mode of writing. It can be presented in poems, as dramatic works, as dream
narratives, as frame tale stories, as novels or various other genre.

• There are three schools of producing satire;

• Horatian: Named for the Roman satirist Horace (65–8 BCE), playfully criticizes some social vice through gentle, mild, and light-
hearted humour. Rather than writing in harsh or accusing tones, he addressed issues with humor and clever mockery.

• Juvenilian: Named for the writings of the Roman satirist Juvenal (late 1st c. – early 2nd c. AD), is more contemptuous and hurting
than the Horatian. Juvenalian satire addresses perceived social evil through scorn, outrage, and savage ridicule. This form is often
pessimistic, characterized by the use of irony, sarcasm, moral indignation and personal assault, with less emphasis on humor.

• Menippean: Named after the philosopher Menippus (3rd century B.C.) these works feature an unrealistic, ahistorical, fantastical
setting. It adresses social issues through behavioural abnormalities of its characters and moral debate.

198
 11/15/2023

Allegory
• The use of indirect means to talk about certain people, groups or phenomena.
• This could be achieved by employing symbols, animals, use of legends, myths,
natural features, references to previous literary works, dreams and various
other methods.
• The usual aims are to escape direct persecution for the written work, to create
entertainment, or to provoke intellectual engagement in the audience.
• Particularly preferred as an approach in satirical works, educational literature
(conduct books, exemplum, textbooks) and political propaganda pieces

199
 11/15/2023

Dream vision
• Dreams (or dreamlike states) are used in literature as means of allegorical technique.

• The poems or tales feature a dreaming narrator and use the dream as a vehicle to establish its setting
and characters as otherworldly.

• Settings such as heaven, hell, purgatory or other fantastic or divine locations become possible.

• God(s), angels, demons, dead people, saints and supernatural beings become possible to be used.

• It can provide an escape from the world of pain, labour, plague and famine.

• It provides an escape from ecclesiastical and legal repercussions (Dreams are sent by God(s), the
dreamer has no agency in what s/he sees).

200
 11/15/2023

Geoffrey Chaucer

• He has been called the "father of English literature", or, alternatively, the "father of
English poetry". He was the first writer to be buried in what has since come to be called
Poets' Corner, in Westminster Abbey.

• He is seen as crucial in legitimising the literary use of Middle English when the dominant
literary languages in England were still Anglo-Norman French and Latin.

• His achievement for the language can be seen as part of a general historical trend towards
the creation of a vernacular literature, after the example of Dante, in many parts of Europe.

201
 11/15/2023

Canterbury Tales -General info-

• Inspired by Boccacio’s Decameron.
• Consists of 24 stories told by 30 pilgrims who were travelling to Canterbury on a
pilgrimage to the Shrine of Thomas Becket. (Chaucer intented for 120 stories, never
completed)
• It has a general prologue that describe these pilgrims in detail. Prologue is a great
source for social satire. (estate satire)
• Abusive and corrupt characters are heavily criticised.
• The stories reflect upon the character of the persons that tell them.
• It consists of a storytelling contest referreed by an inkeeper.

202
11/15/2023

203
11/15/2023

204
 11/15/2023

Piers Plowman -General info-

• William Langland (the author) is associated with the Lollardy Movement, thus it may be possible that he uses this work to
covertly pass Lollard themes. (Lollards are predecessors of a Protestant movement, they problematise the clergy abusing their
mediatorship position)

• *The work is satirical in nature, employs strong allegories to covertly perform its satire. (Juvenalian Satire)

• *Lots of allegorical names: Be Modest of Speech, Do Your Father’s Honour, Steal Not, Bear No False Witness etc. (this
tradition of naming will later be observed in the extreme versions of Protestantism; Puritans)

• *It features 8 consecutive dreams. The main story provides a frame to the 8 dreams the dreamer is telling about.

• These dreams tell of a quest for a true Christian life, criticises the clergymen that abuse Medieval Catholicism, propose hard
labour, persistence and sacrifice as the true path to salvation rather than imdulgence and monetary compensation.

205
11/15/2023

206