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Chapter 10: Radioactivity and Nuclear Processes
CHAPTER OUTLINE
10.1 Radioactive Nuclei 10.5 Measurement Units for Radiation
10.2 Equations for Nuclear Reactions 10.6 Medical Uses of Radioisotopes
10.3 Isotope Half‐Life 10.7 Nonmedical Uses of Radioisotopes
10.4 The Health Effects of Radiation 10.8 Induced Nuclear Reactions
10.9 Nuclear Energy
LEARNING OBJECTIVES/ASSESSMENT
When you have completed your study of this chapter, you should be able to:
1. Describe and characterize the common forms of radiation emitted during radioactive decay and other
nuclear processes. (Section 10.1; Exercise 10.2)
2. Write balanced equations for nuclear reactions. (Section 10.2; Exercise 10.12)
3. Solve problems using the half‐life concept. (Section 10.3; Exercise 10.16)
4. Describe the effects of radiation on health. (Section 10.4; Exercise 10.22)
5. Describe and compare the units used to measure quantities of radiation. (Section 10.5; Exercise 10.24)
6. Describe, with examples, medical uses of radioisotopes. (Sections 10.6; Exercise 10.30)
7. Describe, with examples, nonmedical uses of radioisotopes. (Sections 10.7; Exercise 10.36)
8. Show that you understand the concept of induced nuclear reactions. (Section 10.8; Exercise 10.38)
9. Describe the differences between nuclear fission and nuclear fusion reactions. (Section 10.9; Exercise
10.48)
10.5 Radiation which has no mass (and therefore no charge) is able to penetrate matter better than
radiation which has mass, whether it is charged or neutral. As the charge and mass increase,
radiation is less able to penetrate matter.
117
10.7 a. A tin‐117 nucleus 50 Sn
50
b. A nucleus of the chromium (Cr) isotope containing 26 neutrons 24 Cr
44
c. A nucleus of element number 20 that contains 24 neutrons 20 Ca
27
10.8 a. An aluminum‐27 nucleus 13 Al
90
b. A nucleus of element number 38 with a mass number of 90 38 Sr
76
c. A nucleus of the krypton isotope that contains 40 neutrons 36 Kr
10.9 a. 10
4 Be → ? + 10
5 B ?= 0
−1 β d. 44
22 Ti + 0
−1 e→? ?= 44
21 Sc
b. 210
83 Bi → α + ?
4
2 ?= 206
81 Tl e. 8
4Be → ?+ He 4
2 ?= α 4
2
c. 15
8 O→?+ 15
7 N ?= β 0
1 f. 46
23 V → ?+ 46
22 Ti ? = 01 β
10.10 a. 234
90 Th → ? + 234
91 Pa ?= 0
−1 β (beta) d. 226
88 Ra → ? + 42 α ?= 222
86 Rn
b. 35
16 S→?+ 0
−1 β ?= 35
17 Cl e. 113
47 Ag → 113
48 Cd + ? ?= 0
−1 β (beta)
c. ?→ α+ 4
2
244
98 Cf ?= 248
100 Fm f. 41
18 Ar + 0
−1 e→? ?= 41
17 Cl
10.11 a. 66
29
Cu (beta emission) 66
29
Cu → 0
−1
β+ 66
30
Zn
b. 22
11
Na (positron emission)
22
11 Na → β + 0
1
22
10 Ne
c. 19
8
O (daughter = F ) 19
9
19
8
O→ 0
−1
β+ F
19
9
Radioactivity and Nuclear Processes 237
d. 192
78
Pt (alpha emission) 192
78
Pt → 42 α + 188
76
Os
e. 108
50
Sn (electron capture) 108
50
Sn + 0
−1
e→ 108
49
In
f. 67
28
Ni (beta emission) 67
28
Ni → 0
−1
β+ 67
29
Cu
;10.12 a. 157
63 Eu (beta emission) 157
63 Eu → 0
−1 β+ 157
64 Gd
b. 190
78 Pt (daughter = osmium‐186) 190
78 Pt → α +4
2
186
76 Os
c. 138
62 Sm (electron capture) 138
62 Sm + 0
−1 e→ 138
61 Pm
d. 188
80 Hg (daughter Au‐188) 188
80 Hg → +1
0
β+ 188
79 Au
e. 234
90 Th (beta emission) 234
90 Th → −1
0
β+ 234
91 Pa
f. 218
85 At (alpha emission) 218
85 At → α +4
2
214
83 Bi
10.14 Half‐life is the amount of time required for half of a sample to undergo a specific process. For
example, if the half‐life of a cake is one day, then half of a cake will be eaten the first day, the
next day half of the remaining cake (¼ of the original cake) would be eaten, the following day
half of the remaining cake ( 1 8 of the original cake) would be eaten, etc.
10.18 ⎛1⎞
half − lives
⎛⎛ 1 ⎞ half − lives
⎞ ⎛ ⎛ 1 ⎞⎞
12.5% = 100% ⎜ ⎟ ⇒ log ( 0.125 ) = log ⎜ ⎜ ⎟ ⎟⎟ ⇒ log ( 0.125 ) = half − lives ⎜ log ⎜ ⎟ ⎟
⎝2⎠ ⎜⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎠
⎝ ⎠
half − lives = 3.000
⎛ 5600 years ⎞
Time elapsed = 3 half − lives ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 16800 years = 1.68 × 10 years
4
⎝ 1 half − life ⎠
10.20 ⎛1⎞
half − lives
1 ⎛ ⎛ 1 ⎞ half − lives ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ ⎛ 1 ⎞⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = ⇒ log ⎜ ⎜ ⎟ ⎟⎟ = log ⎜ ⎟ ⇒ half − lives ⎜ log ⎜ ⎟ ⎟ = log ⎜ ⎟
⎝2⎠ ⎜
16 ⎝⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎠ ⎝ 16 ⎠ ⎝ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎠ ⎝ 16 ⎠
half − lives = 4
⎛ 5600 years ⎞
Time elapsed = 4 half − lives ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 22400 years = 2.24 × 10 years
4
⎝ 1 half − life ⎠
2 ⎛ 130 units ⎞
d 2y = ( 10 feet ) ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 867 feet
2
⎝ 15 units ⎠
d y = 867 feet 2 = 29 feet
;10.22 Long‐term, low‐level exposure to radiation may lead to genetic mutations because ionizing
radiation can produce free radicals in exposed tissues. Short‐term exposure to intense
radiation destroys tissue rapidly and causes radiation sickness. Both forms of exposure have
negative effects on health.
Radioactivity and Nuclear Processes 239
2
10.23 Ix dy
= 2
I y dx
(12.0 m )
2
Ix
=
75 units ( 2.00 m )2
(12.0 m )
2
10.25 The rem corresponds to the health effect produced by 1 roentgen of gamma or X‐rays
regardless of the type of radiation involved. If a person is working in an area where exposure
to several types of radiation is possible, then a unit that is independent of the type of radiation
is the best unit to use.
10.26 ⎛ 1 roentgen ⎞
3.1 rads beta radiation ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 3.2 roentgen
⎝ 0.96 rad ⎠
10.27 A scintillation counter counts the flashes of light as radiation strikes a phosphor.
A Geiger‐Müller counter measures the pulses of electrical current as the radiation creates a
path for electricity to flow through the gas in the detector.
⎝ 10 μCi ⎠⎝ 1 Ci ⎠
sec ond
;10.30 Radioactive isotopes can be used for diagnostic work. When the radioactive isotope
concentrates in a tissue under observation, the location is called a hot spot. When the
radioactive isotope is excluded or rejected by a tissue under observation, the location is called
a cold spot. Both hot spots and cold spots can be used for diagnostic work.
10.31 A therapeutic radioisotope administered internally should be an alpha or beta emitter, have a
half‐life long enough to perform the desired radiation therapy, be non‐toxic (and have non‐
toxic, non‐radioactive daughter isotopes), and be concentrated by the target tissue.
10.32 51
24 Cr + 0
−1 e→ 51
V ; daughter nucleus = vanadium‐51
23
240 Chapter 10
10.33 ⎛ 1 half − life ⎞
x days ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎛1⎞ ⎝ 2.7 days ⎠
2.2 mCi = 70 mCi ⎜ ⎟
⎝2⎠
⎛ 1 half − life ⎞
2.2 mCi ⎛ 1 ⎞x days⎜⎜⎝ 2.7 days ⎟⎠
⎟
=⎜ ⎟
70 mCi ⎝ 2 ⎠
⎛ 1 half − life ⎞
5 x days ⎜ ⎟
⎛1⎞ ⎛1⎞ ⎜ 2.7 days ⎟
⎝ ⎠
⎜ ⎟ =⎜ ⎟
⎝2⎠ ⎝2⎠
⎛ 1 half − life ⎞
5 = x days ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 2.7 days ⎠
⎛ 2.7 days ⎞
x days = 5 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 14 days
⎝ 1 half − life ⎠
or
The percentage of gold‐198 that will remain at the lower activity level is
5
× 100 = 3.1% . This is approximately ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ =
2.2 mCi 1 1
= 3.125% , which is the amount that
70 mCi ⎝2⎠ 32
will remain after 5 half‐lives. The t1/2 is 2.7 days; therefore, the amount of time that must pass
is 2.7 × 5 = 14 days.
10.35 Use a radioisotope to make the metal surfaces on two identical engines. Use a Geiger counter
to measure the radioactivity present in the oil after running the engines for the same length of
time. The one with the higher radioactivity in the oil had more wear on the metal parts.
;10.36 The radioactivity of a gallon of water that contains a radioisotope with a long half‐life could
be measured with the Geiger‐Müller counter. The water could then be added to the pool and
given time to circulate. A sample of pool water could then be taken and the level of
radioactivity measured. The dilution formula could then be used to determine the volume of
the pool based on the relative levels of radioactivity.
10.37 After 10 half‐lives, the amount of the radioisotope left is less than 1/1000 of the original
amount. This would almost be undetectable. Ten half‐lives for 14C = 56,000 years. The amount
of 14C left after several million years would be essentially zero.
10.39 239
94 Pu + 2 01 n → 241
95 Am + −01 β
10.40 238
92 U + 01 n → 239
94 Pu + 2 −01 β
Radioactivity and Nuclear Processes 241
10.41 Neutrons cannot be accelerated in a cyclotron or linear accelerator because neutrons do not
have a charge, and therefore, do not respond to an electric or a magnetic field.
10.42 A moderator is a material that can be placed in the path of a neutron in order to slow down
the neutrons as they pass through the moderator. As the neutrons slow, their kinetic energy
decreases and the nuclear forces allow the neutrons to be captured.
10.43 109
47 Ag + 42 α → 113
49 In
When silver‐109 is bombarded with α particles, indium‐113 is produced. In order for indium‐
111 to be produced, two neutrons must be emitted by indium‐113.
10.44 66
30 Zn + 11 p → 67
31 Ga
10.46 1
1 H + 21 H → 23 He + 00 γ or another reaction that indicates two nuclei come together to form a
single larger nucleus.
10.47 Critical mass is an important concept in neutron‐induced fission chain reactions because it is
the amount of material required to support a self‐sustained fission reaction.
;10.48 Nuclear fission is the process by which a large nucleus divides into smaller nuclei. An
example of induced fission is the following reaction of uranium‐235:
92 U + 0 n → 53 I + 39Y + 4 0 n
235 1 135 97 1
Nuclear fusion is the process by which small nuclei join to form a larger nucleus. An example
is the reaction between hydrogen‐1 and hydrogen‐2 shown in the solution to exercise 10.46.
10.49 a. 235
92 U + 01 n → 160
62 Sm + ?+ 4 01 n ?= 72
30 Zn
b. 235
92 U+ n → 1
0
87
35 Br + ?+ 3 n
1
0 ?= 146
57 La
10.50 238
94 Pu → 42 α + 234
92 U
ADDITIONAL EXERCISES
10.51 ⎛ 210 g ⎞
6.02 × 10 20 210 Po atoms ⎜ = 0.210 g
⎜ 6.02 × 10 23 210 Po atoms ⎟⎟
⎝ ⎠
⎛ 1 half − life ⎞
138 days ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎛1⎞ ⎝ 138 days ⎠
Amount remaining = 0.210 g Po ⎜ ⎟ 210
⎝2⎠
Amount remaining = 0.105 g Po
210
⎛ 4 g alpha particles ⎞
Po ⎜ ⎟⎟ = 0.002 g alpha particles
210
0.105 g
⎜ 210 g 210 Po
⎝ ⎠
In one half‐life, 0.105 g 210Po undergoes alpha emission, while 0.105 g does not. If only the
alpha particles leave the material, 0.002 g alpha particles are emitted during that half‐life.
242 Chapter 10
This means, of the original 0.210 g, 0.208 g remain. The composition of the remaining solid is
approximately half 210Po and half 206Pb, the daughter isotope.
10.52 The fusion reactions occurring in the sun only take place at extremely high temperatures
because at low temperatures the nuclei do not have enough energy to overcome their
repulsion for each other (they are both positive) in order to get close enough to each other to
collide, let alone join together.
10.54 In 2.4 minutes, half of the atoms in the Zn‐71 sample will decay and release one beta particle
per atom that decays.
0.200 g 71
Zn ( 1 mole
71 g
71
71
Zn
Zn )( 6.02×1023 atoms
1 mole 71
Zn
71
Zn
)( 1 atom
2 atoms
71
71
Zn decays
Zn present )( 1 beta particle formed
1 atom 71
Zn decays ) = 3.5 × 10 20 beta particles
min
2.4 min
⎛ 0.200 g
⎜
71
Zn ( 1 mole
70.92773 g
71
Zn
71
Zn )( 6.02×10 23 atoms
1 mole 71
Zn
71
Zn
)( 1 atom
2 atoms
71
71
Zn decays
Zn present ) ⎞⎟ ⎛⎜ 1 Ci ⎞
⎟ = 1.6 × 108 Ci
⎜
⎜
⎝
2.4 min ( )
60 sec
1 min
⎟⎜
⎟ ⎝ 3.7 × 10 sec ond
⎠
10 decays ⎟
⎠
10.55 Strontium is in the same chemical group as calcium, which is a component of bones.
Elements in the same chemical group have similar chemical properties; therefore, strontium
can be incorporated into the bones of humans and other animals, just like calcium is.
10.58 (a) Radio waves have the least energy when compared with gamma rays, ultraviolet
radiation, and visible light.
10.60 The least penetrating radiation given off by a radioactive substance consists of (a) alpha
particles.
10.61 (c) Gamma rays are the most penetrating form of radiation.
10.62 234
92 U → 42 α + 230
90 Th
When uranium‐234 decays by alpha emission, the resulting isotope is (d) 23090Th .
10.63 (b) 14
6 C→ 14
7 N + −01 β describes the decay of carbon‐14 isotope by beta emission.
Radioactivity and Nuclear Processes 243
10.64 232
90 Th → 228
88 Ra + X
The particle X in the above equation is (d) an alpha particle.
10.65 210
83 A→ 206
81 Tl + 42 α
The atomic number and mass of the element resulting from element A undergoing alpha
decay is (b) 206
81 B .
10.66 B → ?+ −01 β + 00 γ
238
92 B→ 238
93 Np + −01 β + 00 γ
The particle B in the above equation is (a) 238
93 B .
10.67 228
88 X→ 224
86 Rn + 42 α
The particle B in the above equation is (a) 224
86 Rn .
10.68 42
17
X→ 42
18
Y+?
?= 0
−1
β
The missing product in the above equation is (d) −01 β .
10.69 60
24 A→ 60
24 B+?
?= γ 0
0
⎛ 1 half − life ⎞
2 = x years ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 1.2 × 10 years ⎠
9
⎛ 1.2 × 10 9 years ⎞
2 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = x years
⎝ 1 half − life ⎠
x = 2.4 × 109 years
or
2
= , which is ½ x ½ = ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ ; therefore, 2 half‐lives have elapsed.
10 1 1
The fraction remaining is
40 4 ⎝2⎠
The t1/2 is 1.2 x 109 years; therefore, the amount of time that has passed is
1.2 × 10 9 × 2 = 2.4 × 10 9 years.
1
The fraction of the substance remaining is (b) 8 .
The time required to decay a 1 g sample of carbon‐14 from 1 g to 0.0625 g would be (c) 22.92 x
103 years.
10.79 The time required for ½ of the atoms in a sample of a radioactive element to disintegrate is
known as the element’s (d) half‐life.
10.81 18
9 F → 01 β + 188 O
15
8 O → 01 β + 157 N
13
7 N → 01 β + 136 C
10.82 In principle, a radioactive isotope never completely disappears by radioactive decay because
only half of the sample decays per half life, so half of the initial sample remains. In reality, all
of a sample will decay because eventually one atom will remain in a sample and when that
one atom undergoes decay the entire atom will undergo decay, not half of the atom.
Radioactivity and Nuclear Processes 247
10.83 The earth is less radioactive than when it first formed. Few natural changes occur to make
new radioisotopes and the radioisotopes formed at the time of the earth’s formation have had
a long time to decay. Presumably, the quantity of artificial radioisotopes produced through
nuclear fission is insignificant compared to the total radioactivity in the earth.
10.84 While at first sending nuclear waste into outer space might seem like an attractive possibility
because it would remove the hazardous materials from the earth, it is unlikely to be the best
solution for waste disposal. Unfortunately, successfully launching the materials into space
would not be assured, and if the spacecraft used were to explode during or shortly after
launch, radioactive material would be scattered and the results could be devastating. In
addition, we have no idea what the eventual fate of the radioactive waste would be. The
presence of pockets of radioactive materials in the cosmos could have a myriad of unintended
effects on our universe.
10.85 222
86 Rn → 42 α + 218
84 Po
218
84 Po → α +
4
2
214
82 Pb
214
82 Pb → 0
−1 β+ 214
83 Bi
Radon‐222 is converted to bismuth‐214 through these three decays.
10.86 238
92 U → 42 α + 234
90 Th
Th →
234
90
0
−1 β+ 234
91 Pa
Pa →
234
91
0
−1 β+ 234
92 U
EXAM QUESTIONS
MULTIPLE CHOICE
1. Nuclear emissions are passed through a tunnel that has a positive plate on the top and a negative
plate on the bottom. Which of the following emissions is deflected the most by the electrical field?
a. α particles b. β particles c. neutrons d. gamma particles
Answer: B
7. You inject a 160 lb male patient with 1.0 ml of a saline solution containing a radioactive form of
sodium. It has an activity of 5.0x104 dpm. After allowing sufficient time for the solution to mix, you
remove a 1.0 ml sample of blood and measure its radioactivity. You discover it to have an activity of
11 dpm. What is the patient’s blood volume?
(Hint: This is similar to a M1V1 = M2V2 type problem.)
a. 2.2 liters b. 3.5 liters c. 4.6 liters d. 7.0 liters
Answer: C
10. How many neutrons are in the nucleus of the isotope Na?
a. 11 b. 22 c. 12 d. 32
Answer: A
11. Which is the explanation for the difference between the two isotopes of carbon, C‐12 and C‐14?
a. C‐14 contains 2 more protons than does C‐12.
b. C‐14 contains 1 proton and 1 neutron more than does C‐12.
c. C‐14 contains 2 more neutrons than does C‐12.
d. C‐14 contains 2 more electrons than does C‐12.
Answer: C
12. An individual would have to work from behind a special, thick protective wall when which kind of
an emitter is involved?
a. alpha b. beta c. gamma d. free radicals
Answer: C
13. Which of the responses represent the missing particle in the following reaction?
Co + ?→ Co
a. α b. e c. n d. H
Answer: C
14. Which of the following types of radiation is composed of particles which carry a negative charge?
a. alpha b. beta c. gamma d. positron
Answer: B
Radioactivity and Nuclear Processes 249
15. Carbon‐14 dating is a useful tool for determining the age of the artifacts of ancient civilizations.
However, when future archeologists study ruins of our civilization, they may obtain confusing
results, with some artifacts appearing to be MUCH older than others. Which of the following would
be an explanation for these results?
a. Variations in the Sun’s intensity and production of cosmic rays.
b. Ecosystem changes resulting in a reduction in carbon based life.
c. The use of petroleum based synthetic materials.
d. None of the above.
Answer: C
17. Np is an alpha emitter. What is the element produced by the decay of Np‐237?
a. U b. Pa c. Th d. Pu
Answer: B
18. The greatest threat posed by a nuclear (fission) power plant is:
a. the release of radioactive isotopes when the molten core reaches the water table.
b. fish kills resulting from use of local rivers for cooling.
c. having the core melt, ultimately reaching China.
d. thermonuclear detonation.
Answer: A
19. Tritium has a half‐life of 12.5 years. If you had a sample of 8.00 grams of tritium today, how many
grams of tritium would you have in 37.5 years?
a. 8.00 g b. 4.00 g c. 2.00 g d. 1.00 g
Answer: D
20. Sodium‐24 has a half‐life of 15.0 hours. Suppose you had a sample containing 0.010 moles of Na‐24.
How many hours would be required to reduce your sample to 6.25 × 10‐4 moles?
a. 120 b. 60 c. 45 d. 30
Answer: B
21. Technetium‐99m is used in medical diagnosis by injecting a solution and watch for the pattern of
emissions. A 0.325 g sample was injected into a person, and the emission rate indicates that there are
approximately 0.01016 grams of Tc‐99 left. How much time has passed since the injection? Tc‐99 has a
half‐life of 6 hours.
a. 24 hours
b. 30 hours
c. 36 hours
d. There is no way to tell the amount of time that has passed.
Answer: B
250 Chapter 10
22. Which form of radiation would not be deflected by a magnetic field?
a. protons c. beta particles
b. neutrons d. positrons
Answer: B
24. The term ʺnuclear energyʺ is most closely associated with which one of the following processes?
a. nuclear fusion c. cyclotron bombardment
b. nuclear fission d. radioactive decay
Answer: B
31. Which measure of radiation is used to account for health differences of various types of radiation?
a. curie b. rem c. gray d. rad
Answer: B
35. What characteristic is important in using radioisotope dating for very old items, such as rocks
suspected to be over 100,000,000 years old?
a. The radioisotope cannot be soluble in water.
b. The radioisotope must give off light for easy measurement.
c. The radioisotope in question must decay to another radioisotope.
d. The radioisotope should have a very long half‐life.
Answer: D
36. There are some elements within the Periodic Table that are not natural. Which of the following is a
man‐made element?
a. Ta b. Pt c. Tc d. La
Answer: C
39. What is one reason that irradiated food is not readily available in most grocery stores?
a. The cost of the irradiated foods is much higher than normally offered foods.
b. The chance of purchasing food that is still radioactive is rather high.
c. Most people have not learned enough to know that they are safe.
d. All of the responses are correct.
Answer: C
40. Uranium‐235, under the proper circumstances, will undergo nuclear decay releasing 3 high speed
neutrons in the process. Which of the following is true?
a. The neutrons released slow down with time and are not functional.
b. The neutrons released can be used to cause fusion reactions.
c. The neutrons released can cause a chain reaction with other U‐235 atoms.
d. The neutrons are recaptured by the nucleus to produce heavier atoms.
Answer: C
41. Nuclear power plants have control rods that absorb neutrons to control the reaction. What is the
composition of some control rods?
a. steel b. concrete c. U‐238 d. carbon
Answer: D
44. Which of the following is not a desired characteristic of a good radioisotope tracer for medical use?
a. have a long half‐life
b. produce penetrating gamma radiation
c. decay to a nontoxic form
d. undergo the same reactions as the nonradioactive element
Answer: A
Radioactivity and Nuclear Processes 253
45. If you are a medical professional and have a chance to be exposed to many sources of radiation,
which of the following units to measure biological radiation will most likely be used to express your
level of total exposure?
a. Roentgen b. Rad c. Gray d. Rem
Answer: D
46. A patient that works at a nuclear power plant comes to you complaining of nausea and fatigue. You
find out that he might have been exposed to a radiation source, what would you recommend be
done?
a. Nothing, if he is still alive, there is no real problem.
b. Send the patient home to rest because nausea and fatigue are not signs of a serious
exposure.
c. Have additional tests run to find out the level of exposure.
d. Tell the patient to take two aspirins and call you in the morning, he probably has the flu.
Answer: C
47. The new nuclei produced when unstable nuclei undergo radioactive decay are referred to as the:
a. father nuclei. b. daughter nuclei. c. mother nuclei. d. resulting nuclei.
Answer: B
48. History’s first critical chain reaction took place in an atomic pile. The neutrons from fission reactions
caused other fission reactions to occur. What would be the most effective method to stop the fission
reaction from proceeding?
a. throw water on the pile to cool the reaction
b. add more neutrons to the reaction
c. place strong neutron absorbers into the pile
d. none of the above
Answer: C
TRUE‐FALSE
1. A nuclear reaction in which beta particles are emitted yields an atom that weighs 2u less than the
starting element.
Answer: F
2. Gamma emissions can be stopped with the use of an electromagnetic field because of their dense
charge and their mass.
Answer: F
3. Increased distance between the organism and the radiation source reduces the effect of radiation.
Answer: T
254 Chapter 10
4. Ionizing radiation produces free radicals in living tissue.
Answer: T
5. The intensity of radiation is 100 units 15 feet from the source. The intensity would then be 300 units 5
feet from the source.
Answer: F
9. A major problem with attempting to measure the effect of an exposure to emissions is that each
different emission has a different effect on tissue due to the differences in penetration.
Answer: T
10. Radioisotopes which emit alpha rays make the best diagnostic tracers.
Answer: F
11. Diagnostic tracers form cool spots when they are accumulated in diseased tissue.
Answer: F
12. The reasons why I‐131 is not suitable for use as a tracer are the same reasons why I‐131 is an
appropriate choice to treat thyroid cancer.
Answer: T
13. A desirable characteristic of a radioisotope used as a tracer is that it produces a radioactive daughter.
Answer: F
15. Carbon‐14 is only effective in dating an object up to approximately 10 half‐lives. The reason is that the
speed with which C‐14 decays increases after 10 half‐lives.
Answer: F
16. A wooden box found in an Egyptian tomb could have its age determined using carbon‐14.
Answer: T
17. A gold artifact from Peru could have its age determined using carbon‐14.
Answer: F
18. The radioisotope radon‐222 is a gas that is a health hazard because it can make its way into the house
from the soil in which it is produced, be inhaled, and cause lung cancer.
Answer: T
19. The elements beyond uranium, the transuranium elements, are all synthetic.
Answer: T
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Kahvia juotaessa sanoi vieras:
»Hyväoppinen kun on, niin oppii. Isänsä on kuin hullu, että ruotsia
pitää oppia, ja papiksi aikoo kouluttaa, ja Oskarin lahjoilla papiksi
kyllä tuleekin. Vaan minä tahtoisin, että Suomeen pitäisi pojan
pyrkiä…»
Sitten muisti pojan, joka oli kotiintunut isän mukana. Poika oli
kaunis. Ei ollut mistään paikasta isänsä näköinen, ei ollut
äitiinsäkään. Hänessä oli jotakin aivan vierasta, varsinkin silmissä ja
takaraivolla.
Ja hänen tuli kuin sääli emäntää, joka vielä oli pulska ja punakka
ihminen, vilkas, kohtelias ja puhelias. Isäntä ei osannut muuta kuin
kehua poikaa ja sen ruotsinkielen taitoa.
Vihdoin vieras päätti olla ajattelematta muuta kuin sitä, mitä varten
oli tänne rajalle tullut ja pyrkinyt ruotsinpuoliselle rannalle asumaan.
Ja siihen hän nukkui.
»Kuulin, että maisteri oli valveilla… Olette tainnut herätä, kun tästä
ovat miehet aamukylmässä metsään lähteneet…»
»Niin tietenkin.»
»Meneekö Oskarikin?»
Kun hän tuli pirttiin, oli Oskari jo kouluun lähdössä. Airisto tervehti
poikaa ystävällisesti ja katsoi häntä nyt tarkemmin. Hento oli varsi
hänellä, mutta ikäisekseen pitkä. Kasvot olivat kapeat, melkein
enemmän tyttö- kuin poikalapsen kasvot, ja silmät syvänsiniset. Otsa
oli korkea ja kasvojen ilme vakava.
He lähtivät.
»Minkätähden?»
Kukaan ei vastannut.
»Jo mie vähäsen», sanoi Tyyra, mutta Airistosta näytti, että tyttö
oli häpeissään.
Häpesikö hän sitä, että osasi suomea, vai sitäkö, ettei osannut?
Jälkimmäinen näytti Airistosta otaksuttavammalta.
Hän kääntyi takaisin kujaa kohti ja ehti juuri ulos toisesta kujasta,
kun opettajatar toisesta käveli pihaan.
»Kovin on komea…»
»Semmoinenko on?»
»Olkoon niin», sanoi Airisto, mutta hänestä tuntui, ettei hän nyt
ymmärtänyt emäntää.
»Minä sen tiedän, joka sen villin kanssa tässä olen kolmetoista
vuotta taistellut.»
IV
Aapeli hymähti.
»Mitäpä niistä niin monesta! Kun on yksi ja hyvä, niin se riittää.»
»Minä sanoin heti, kun poika syntyi, että jopa tuli minun näköiseni
ja velivainajani lahjainen. Karoliina väitti silloin vastaan, vaan jo on
aikoja sitten uskonut.»
»Piispa kun kävi mennä kesänä täällä, niin tulkin kautta minulle
käski sanoa, että kouluta Oskari papiksi. 'Siitä tulee hyvälahjainen
pappi tänne rajalle', oli sanonut. No minä sanoin, että ei tarvitse taloa
liikuttaa, jos poika papiksikin koulutetaan. Karoliina muka sanoo, että
ei kouluteta, että kuka talon perii, vaan mieleistä on Karoliinallekin…
niinkuin maisteri hyvin ymmärtää… Se on vähän juonikko, tämä
Karoliina… Ja saatan minä vieraalle sanoa, että kauan kesti,
ennenkuin suostui tulemaan emännäksi tänne Portaankorvaan…
Mutta jopa viimein tuli, melkein pyytämättä…»
Nyt ei emäntä enää hillinnyt itseään. Hän oli muuttunut, niin että oli
aivan kalpeana ja ääni värähteli, kun hän tiuskaisi:
Airiston tuli paha olla. Häntä iletti ja hänen tuli sanomattoman sääli
emäntää ja Oskaria, joiden hän nyt ymmärsi olevan isännän orjia.
Hän nousi ja meni sanaakaan puhumatta kamariinsa.
*****
Syötyään hän istahti ikkunan ääreen ja katseli joelle, jonka jää oli
alkanut muuttua vedenväriseksi. Siitä luisti silmä Suomen puolelle,
kylälle ja kyläntakaisiin vaaroihin. Joki oli Portaankorvan kohdalta
kapea, niin että selvään erotti Suomen puolen maantiellä kulkijat.
Hänen silmänsä viivähti vaarain lakien huipuilla, joiden lumi vielä
pohotti sinisen valkoisena vaaleampaa taivasta vasten, kierteli kylää,
jonka ohi tie kulki, nyt mustalta nauhalta näyttäen, mutta lopulta jäi
katse Väylänpään taloon, joka oli kylän upein… Siitä taas ajatukset
lensivät tämän talon emäntään, joka oli Väylänpäästä kotoisin.
Ainakin täytyi olla niin, ettei Oskarin isä ollut tämän talon isäntä.
Saattoi olla emännällä joku nuoruudenunelma, josta…
— Mitä ajatelleekaan!
Koski ulvoi, tohisi niin, että korvissa soi, kun lisäksi myötätuuli
auttoi sen ääntä taloon päin.
Isäntä oli nyt hyvällä tuulella. Maisteri oli illalla, kun hän iltasen
jälkeen oli käynyt puheilla, kehunut taloa hyväksi, poikaa
hyväoppiseksi ja isäntää erinomaisen toimeliaaksi.