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Chapter 7: Molecular Structures 371
Chapter 7: Molecular Structures

Teaching for Conceptual Understanding
Introduce this chapter by explaining the importance of understanding molecular shapes. Good examples include the
structure of DNA, designer drugs, and physical properties of molecules. If you (or a colleague) use molecular
modeling in your research, tell your students about the work and show them examples.
Understanding covalent bonding and an ability to draw correct Lewis structures are both prerequisites for
understanding and predicting correct molecular geometries. As necessary, the students should be told to review
Chapter 6.
Electron-region geometry and molecular geometry can be confusing for students. Use balloon models (Figure 7.3)
to illustrate the differences and similarities between the two. For example ammonia has a tetrahedral electron-region
geometry and a triangular pyramidal molecular geometry. Construct a four-balloon model from three balloons of
the same color and one of a different color. Explain the four balloons represent the regions in which electron pairs
are located. The same colored balloons are bonding regions and the different colored balloon the lone pair region.
Although a lone pair of electrons contributes to the arrangement of the atoms in the molecule, it is not part of the
chemical formula or structure and can be removed from view. Pop the different colored balloon and have the
students focus on the three remaining balloons (it is important you continue holding the three balloons in a triangular
pyramidal arrangement). A similar example explains the structure of water.
Hydrogen bonding is a concept for which there are many student misconceptions, the most obvious being it is a
bonding between two hydrogen atoms or two hydrogen molecules. Another is that hydrogen bonding occurs only
between two like molecules. Questions for Review and Thought 94-95 assess student understanding of hydrogen
bonding. If you are teaching students whose majors involve the study of living systems, it is very important that
they have a solid understanding of the concept. Take the time to teach and test it well.
Suggestions for Effective Learning

Models are an absolute necessity for teaching molecular geometry. Ball-and-stick models will work best to clearly
illustrate the different structures and they will correspond to the drawings in the textbook. Balloon models, as
described above, work well when explaining regions of bonding and lone-pair electrons.
If you draw three-dimensional structures in a two-dimensional plane, use the solid (—), dashed line (- - - -), and
wedge ( ) notation explained in Section 7-1. This notation is used throughout the textbook and in other
(organic, biochemistry, biology) textbooks.
Tell students that Tables 7.1-7-3 are good summaries of molecular geometry types.
Students sometimes confuse the terms “intermolecular” and “intramolecular.” It is sometimes useful to relate the
prefixes inter-and intra- to the familiar terms “intercollegiate” sports and “intramural” sports.
Demonstrating with bar magnets is a simple way to illustrate dipole-dipole attractions.
A very good example of enantiomers is (+)- and (–)-carvone, (–)-carvone smells like spearmint and (+)-carvone
smells like caraway. Show students the different structures and bring samples of each to class for them to smell. A
good question to ask is: Do you think your nose sensors are chiral?
If you discuss spectroscopy and the bending, stretching vibrating, rotating, and translating nature of bonds and
molecules, physically illustrate each (by bending your arms in and out of sync, turning around, etc). Your students
will grasp the concept quickly and probably remember it for years to come.
Cooperative Learning Activities

Questions, problems, and topics that can be used for Cooperative Learning Exercises and other group work are:
• Questions for Review and Thought in this chapter: 62, 72, 79, 80, 85, 86, 87, 88, 96, 109, and 110
• Conceptual Challenge Problems: CP7.A
372 Chapter 7: Molecular Structures
End-of-Chapter Solutions for Chapter 7

Summary Problem
Part I
Result: (a) See structure below; tetrahedral, angular, 109.5°, sp3 (b) Triangular planar, triangular planar,
120°, sp2 (c) See structure below; triangular planar, triangular planar, 120°, sp2 (d) See structure below;
linear, linear, 180°, sp (e) See structure below; tetrahedral, triangular pyramidal, 109.5°, sp3
Analyze: Write Lewis structures for a list of formulas and identify their electron geometry, the shape, and the
hybridization of the central atom.
Plan: Follow the plan in the solution to Question 6.15 for writing Lewis structures, then determine the number of
bonded atoms and lone pairs on the central atom, determine the designated type (AXnEm), and use Tables 7.1-7.3.
Use the electron geometry to determine the number of electron pairs around the central atom. Select a hybridization
that accommodates the appropriate number of bonds as described in Section 7-2.
Execute:
(a) BrF2+ (20 e–) The type is AX2E2, so the electron-region geometry is tetrahedral and the molecular
geometry is angular. The bond angle is slightly less than 109.5°. The Br atom must
be sp3-hybridized to accommodate the two bonds and two lone pairs.
(b) OCCl2 (24 e–) The type is AX3E0, so the electron-region geometry and the molecular geometry are
triangular planar. The bond angles are 120°. The C atom must be sp2-hybridized to
accommodate the three bonded atoms.
(c) CH3+ (6 e–) The type is AX3E0, so the electron-region geometry and the molecular geometry are
triangular planar. The bond angles are 120°. The C atom must be sp2-hybridized to
accommodate the three bonds.
(d) SeCS (16 e–) The type is AX2E0, so the electron-region geometry and the molecular geometry are
linear. The bond angle is 180°. The C atom must be sp-hybridized to accommodate
the two bonded atoms.
(e) CH3– (8 e–) The type is AX3E1, so the electron-region geometry is tetrahedral and the molecular
geometry is triangular pyramidal. The bond angle is slightly less than 109.5°. The C
atom must be sp3-hybridized to accommodate the three bonds and one lone pair.
Part II
Result: (a) C14H18O5N2 (b) sp3 (c) sp3 (d) sp3 (e) sp2 (f) See structure below
Analyze, Plan, and Execute:

(a) To get the formula, count the number of each type of atom. There are six carbon atoms and five hydrogen
atoms in the benzene ring.
The formula is C14H18O5N2.
(b) There are twelve atoms that have triangular planar molecular geometry. Nine atoms have three bonded atoms
and no lone pairs for type AX3E0. Three O atoms have one bonded atom and two lone pairs for type AXE2.
All eleven are circled below. Any three of these will answer the question.
(c) There are five C atoms that have tetrahedral molecular geometry, with four bonded atoms and no lone pairs for
type AX4E0. All five are circled below. Any three of these will answer the question.
(d) Two O atoms have bent (angular) molecular geometry, with two bonded atoms and two lone pairs for type
AX2E2. They are circled, here:
(e) and are both AX3E1, so the electron-region geometry is tetrahedral.
The three bonds and one lone pair need sp3-hybridization on the N atoms.
(f) Both CH2 groups: are AX4E0, so the electron-region geometry is tetrahedral.
The four bonds need sp3-hybridization on the C atoms.
(g) Both carbon atoms in the C=O groups: and are AX3E0, so the electron-region
geometry is tetrahedral. The two bonds and two lone pairs need sp3-hybridization on the O atoms.
(h) The oxygen atom to which a methyl (–CH3 ) group is attached: is AX2E2, so the electron-region
geometry is triangular planar. The three bonds need sp2-hybridization on the C atoms.
(i) All single bonds are sigma (σ) bonds. All double bonds are composed of one sigma (σ) bond and one pi (π)
bond. The diagram below identifies sigma (σ) and pi (π) bonds involving C atoms and N atoms:
H O H O H
H σ π σ σ π σ σ
σ
σ σ σ σ σ σ σ
N C C N C C O C σ H
σ σ
H σ σ σ
σ σ σ σ
H C H H H C H H
σ σ
π
O H H C H
σ C σ O σ σ σ
σ
C π C
σ π σ
C π C σ
σ σ
H σ C H
σ
H
Part III
Result: See structure below
Analyze, Plan, and Execute: The structure of water and the highly polar bonds provide excellent conditions for
forming hydrogen bonds.
Because glucose also contains –OH groups and a C=O group, there is ample opportunity for the glucose atoms
(shown in bold) to interact with water molecules using hydrogen bonding (show as dashed lines: (- - - -). The
H atoms in water are attracted to O atoms in glucose and the O atom in water is attracted to the H atoms in glucose,
when they are bonded to O atoms. Notice: hydrogen bonding will not occur between O atoms in water and the
H atoms bonded to C atoms.
H H
O
O H
H
H
H O H H H H H
O
O O
H C C C C C C O
H
H
H H
O H O O H O
H H H
H H H H H
O H O
O
H O H O O H H
H
H H
Questions for Review and Thought

Review Questions
1. Result/Explanation: The physical basis of the VSEPR (Valence-Shell Electron-Pair Repulsion) model is the
repulsion of like charges. Because electron pairs will repel each other, they will arrange themselves to be as far
from each other as possible. This model is used to predict the shape of molecules and ions by describing the
relative orientation of atoms connected to each other with covalent bonds.
2. Result/Explanation: Electron-region geometry identifies the positions of all the electron regions (usually pairs)
around the central atom. The molecular geometry identifies the positions of all the atoms bonded to the central
atom. For example, look at H2O:
The central O atom in H2O has four electron pairs, two bonding pairs and two lone pairs, so its electron-region
geometry is tetrahedral. The two atoms bonded to the O in the AX2E2 type are arranged with an angular
molecular geometry.
3. Result/Explanation: Use Table 7.1
Number of electron pairs Electron-region geometry
2 linear
3 triangular planar
4 tetrahedral
5 triangular bipyramidal
6 octahedral
4. Result/Explanation: Use Tables 7.1-7.3
(a) Two atoms bonded together must be linear.
(b) AX2E2 type has angular (bent) molecular geometry.
(c) AX3E1 type has triangular pyramidal molecular geometry.

(d) AX4E0 type has tetrahedral molecular geometry.
AX2E2, AX3E1, and AX4E0 types all have a tetrahedral estimated H–A–H bond angle of 109.5°.
5. Result/Explanation: To have a triangular planar molecule with three electron regions around the central atom,
the central atom must have three bonded atoms and no lone pairs. To have an angular molecule with three
electron pairs around the central atom, the central atom must have two bonded atoms and one lone pair. In the
first case, the bond angles are predicted to be 120°. In the second case, they are 109.5°.
6. Result/Explanation: Following the example at the end of Section 7-2e, we’ll look at each atom in the molecule
with more than one atom bonded to it and determine the electron-region geometry at that center, then determine
the shape of the molecule from the collective geometries at these centers.
Problem-Solving Example 7.6 gives the formula for ethylene as C2H4. The Lewis structure for C2H4 looks like
this:
H H
C C
H H
Looking at the first C atom, it has three bonded atoms (two H atoms and one C atom) and no lone pairs. That
gives it three electron-regions and makes it an AX3E0 type, so the atoms bonded to the first C atom are arranged
with a triangular planar geometry. Looking at the second C atom, it also has three bonded atoms and no lone
pairs, so it is also AX3E0 type and the atoms bonded to that C atom are arranged with a triangular planar
geometry. VESPR alone does not assure us that these two planes are coplanar, but the π bond representing the
second bond in the double bond would not be formed unless they are. With all the atoms in a common plane,
the molecule is planar.
7. Result/Explanation: A molecule with polar bonds can be nonpolar if the bond poles are equal and point in
opposite directions. CO2 is a good example of a nonpolar molecule with polar bonds.
.. ..
O
.. C O
..
8. Result/Explanation: In Section 7-7b, we learn that Erwin Chargaff measured the quantities of nitrogen bases in
DNA. He learned every organism has a characteristic base composition in all cells and those bases occur in
pairs: adenine with thymine and guanine with cytosine.
9. Result/Explanation: In Section 7-7a, we learn that the deoxyribose units in the backbone chain are joined
through phosphate diester linkages. The margin note describes the creation of the phosphate diester. The
phosphate units join nucleotides into a polynucleotide chain that has a backbone of alternating deoxyribose and
phosphate units in a long strand with the various nitrogenous bases extending out from the sugar-phosphate
backbone. A DNA segment with nucleotides bonded together is shown in Figure 7.24.
10. Result/Explanation: Infrared spectroscopy is used to characterize the structure of molecules. The infrared
spectrum shows the specific frequencies absorbed when the molecule undergoes specific types of motions.
Each molecule, with its unique arrangement of atoms and bonds, interacts differently with infrared light; hence,
the resulting spectrum is also unique, much like the individual fingerprints of people.
11. Result/Explanation: For infrared radiation to be absorbed, the motion of the molecule to have a frequency in
the range of 1012 - 1014 s–1.
Topical Questions
Molecular Shape (Section 7-2)
12. Result/Explanation: Section 7-1 shows all and stick models, space filling models, and two-dimensional pictures
using wedges and dashed lines:
(a)
(b)
(c)
13. Result: See structures below; (a) linear (b) triangular planar (c) octahedral (d) triangular
pyramidal
Analysis: Write Lewis structures for a list of chemical formulas and identify their shape.
Plan: Follow the systematic plan for Lewis structures given in the solution to Question 6.15, then determine the
number of bonded atoms and lone pairs on the central atom, determine the designated type (AXnEm) and use
Table 7.1. Notice: It is not necessary to take the time to expand the octet of a central atom solely for the
purposes of lowering its formal charge, because the shape of the molecule will not change. Hence, most Lewis
structures here are written to follow the octet rule, unless the atom must have more than eight electrons for
another reason.
Execute:
(a) BeH2 (4 e–) The type is AX2E0, so it is linear.
(b) CH2Cl2 (20 e–) The type is AX4E0, so it is tetrahedral.
(c) BH3 (6 e–) The type is AX3E0, so it is triangular planar.
(d) SeCl6 (48 e–) The type is AX6E0, so it is octahedral.
(e) PF3 (26 e–) The type is AX3E1, so it is triangular pyramidal.

14. Result: See structures below; (a) tetrahedral, triangular pyramidal (b) tetrahedral, angular (109.5°)
(c) linear, linear (d) tetrahedral, angular (109.5°)
Analysis: Write Lewis structures for a list of chemical formulas and identify their shape.
Tables 7.1, 7.2, or 7.3.
Execute:
(a) NH2Cl (14 e–) The type is AX3E1, so the electron-region geometry is tetrahedral and the
molecular geometry is triangular pyramidal.
(b) OF2 (20 e–) The type is AX2E2, so the electron-region geometry is tetrahedral and the
molecular geometry is angular (109.5°).
(c) SCN– (16 e–) The type is AX2E0, so the electron-region geometry and the molecular geometry
are both linear.
(d) HOF (14 e–) The type is AX2E2, so the electron-region geometry is tetrahedral and the
15. Result: See structures below; (a) triangular planar, triangular planar (b) triangular planar, triangular
planar (c) tetrahedral, triangular pyramidal (d) tetrahedral, triangular pyramidal
Analysis: Write Lewis structures for a list of chemical formulas and identify their electron-region geometry and
the molecular geometry.
Tables 7.1, 7.2, or 7.3.
Execute:
(a) BO33– (24 e–) The type is AX3E0, so both the electron-region geometry and the molecular
geometry are triangular planar.
(b) CO32– (24 e–) AX3E0, so both the electron-region geometry and the molecular geometry are
triangular planar.
(c) SO32– (26 e–) AX3E1, so the electron-region geometry is tetrahedral and the
molecular geometry is triangular pyramidal.
–
(d) ClO3 (26 e–) AX3E1, so the electron-region geometry is tetrahedral and the molecular
geometry is triangular pyramidal.
All of these ions and molecules have one central atom with three O atoms bonded to it. The number and type of
bonded atoms is constant. The geometries vary depending on how many lone pairs are on the central atom.
The structures with the same number of valance electrons all have the same geometry.
16. Result: See structures below; (a) linear, linear (b) triangular planar, angular (120°) (c) triangular
planar, angular (120°) (d) triangular planar, angular (120°) (e) tetrahedral; angular (109.5°); See
comment below
Plan: Adapt the method given in the solution to Question 15.
Execute:
(a) CO2 (16 e–) The type is AX2E0, so the electron-region geometry and the molecular geometry
are both linear.
–
(b) NO2 (18 e–) The type is AX2E1, so the electron-region geometry is triangular planar and the
molecular geometry is angular (120°).
(c) SO2 (18 e–) The type is AX2E1, so the electron-region geometry is triangular planar and the
(d) O3 (18 e–) The type is AX2E1, so the electron-region geometry is triangular planar and the
(e) ClO2– (20 e–) The type is AX2E2, so the electron-region geometry is tetrahedral and the
Comment: All of these ions and molecules have one central atom with two O atoms bonded to it. The number
and type of bonded atoms is constant. The geometries vary depending on how many lone pairs are on the
central atom. The structures with the same number of valance electrons all have the same geometry.
17. Result: See structures below; XeOF2: triangular bipyramidal, T-shaped; ClOF3: triangular bipyramidal,
seesaw; their molecular geometries are different.
Execute:
XeOF2 (28 e–) The type is AX3E2, so the electron-region geometry is triangular bipyramidal
and the molecular geometry is T-shaped.
ClOF3 (34 e–) The type is AX4E1, so the electron-region geometry is triangular bipyramidal
and the molecular geometry is seesaw.
The two molecules have the same electron-region geometry, but their molecular geometries are different.
18. Result: HCP: linear, linear; I3+: tetrahedral, angular; their charge, type, electron-region geometry, and
molecular geometries are all different.
Execute:
HCP (10 e–) The type is AX2E0, so the electron-region geometry and the molecular geometry
is linear.
I3+ (20 e–) The type is AX2E2, so the electron-region geometry is tetrahedral and the
molecular geometry is angular (bent).
The two species have the same number of atoms, but their charge, type, electron-region geometry, and
molecular geometries are all different.
19. Result: See structures below; (a) octahedral, octahedral (b) triangular bipyramid; seesaw (c) triangular
bipyramidal; triangular bipyramidal (d) octahedral; square planar
Execute:
(a) SiF62– (48 e–) The type is AX6E0, so both the electron-region geometry and the molecular
geometry are octahedral.
(b) SF4 (34 e–) The type is AX4E1, so the electron-region geometry is triangular bipyramid and
the molecular geometry is seesaw.
(c) PF5 (40 e–) The type is AX5E0, so the electron-region geometry is triangular bipyramidal and
the molecular geometry is triangular bipyramidal.
(d) XeF4 (36 e–) The type is AX4E2, so the electron-region geometry is octahedral and the
molecular geometry is square planar.
20. Result: See structures below; (a) triangular bipyramid; linear (b) triangular bipyramid; T-shaped
(c) octahedral; square planar (d) octahedral; square pyramidal
Execute:
–
(a) ClF2 (22 e–) The type is AX2E3, so the electron-region geometry is triangular bipyramid and
the molecular geometry is linear.
(b) ClF3 (28 e–) The type is AX3E2, so the electron-region geometry is triangular
bipyramid and the molecular geometry is T-shaped.
(c) ClF4– (36 e–) The type is AX4E2, so the electron-region geometry is octahedral and the
molecular geometry is square planar.
(d) ClF5 (42 e–) The type is AX5E1, so the electron-region geometry is octahedral and the
molecular geometry is square pyramidal.
–
21. Result: I3+ has AX2E2 with angular geometry; I3 has AX2E3 with linear geometry.
Analysis: Explain why one ion is bent and one is not.

Execute:
I3+ (20 e–) The type is AX2E2, so the electron-region geometry is tetrahedral and the
molecular geometry is angular (bent).
–
I3 (22 e–) The type is AX2E3, so the electron-region geometry is trigonal bipyramidal
and the molecular geometry is linear.
The anion has two more electrons than the cation. The extra pair of electrons join the first two lone pairs on the
central atom, changing the electron-region geometry and forcing the bond pairs to a linear orientation.
22. Result: (a) O–S–O angle is 120° (b) F–B–F angle is 120° (d) H–C–H angle is 120°; C–C–N angle is
180° (c) N–O–H angle is 109.5°; O–N–O is 120°
Analysis: Given chemical formulas and some structural information, predict some approximate bond angles.
Plan: We will adapt the method given in the solution to Question 15 to get the electron-region geometry of the
second atom in the bond description (e.g., A in X–A–Y). We use this to predict the approximate bond angle.
Execute:
(a) SO2 (18 e–) The type is AX2E1, so the electron-region geometry is triangular planar and
the approximate O–S–O angle is 120°.
(b) BF3 (24 e–) The type is AX3E0, so the electron-region geometry is triangular planar and
the approximate F–B–F angle is 120°.
(c) CH2CHCN (20 e–) Look at the first C atom: The type is AX3E0, so the electron-region
geometry is triangular planar and the approximate H–C–H angle is 120°.
Look at the third C atom: The type is AX2E0, so the electron-region
geometry is linear and the approximate C–C–N angle is 180°.
(d) HNO3 (24 e–) Look at the first O atom: The type is AX2E2, so the electron-region
geometry is tetrahedral and the approximate N–O–H angle is 109.5°.
Look at the N atom: The type is AX3E0, so the electron-region geometry
is triangular planar and the approximate O–N–O angle is 120°.
23. Result: (a) Cl–S–Cl angle is 109.5° (b) N–N–O angle is 180°
(c) O–C–N angle is 120°; H–N–H angle is 109.5° (d) H–C–O angle is 109.5°; C–O–H angle is 109.5°
Plan: We adapt the method given in the solution to Question 22.
Execute:
(a) SCl2 (20 e–) The type is AX2E2, so the electron-region geometry is tetrahedral and the
approximate Cl–S–Cl angle is 109.5°.
(b) N2O (16 e–) The type is AX2E0, so the electron-region geometry is linear and the
approximate N–N–O angle is 180°.
(c) NH2CONH2 (24 e–) Look at the C atom: The type is AX3E0, so the electron-region geometry is
triangular planar and the approximate O–C–N angle is 120°.
Look at the second N atom: The type is AX3E1, so the electron-region geometry
is tetrahedral and the approximate H–N–H angle is 109.5°.
(d) CH3OH (14 e–) Look at the C atom: The type is AX4E0, so the electron-region geometry is
tetrahedral and the approximate H–C–O angle is 109.5°.
Look at the O atom: The type is AX2E2, so the electron-region geometry is
tetrahedral and the approximate C–O–H angle is 109.5°.
24. Result: (a) four at 90°, one at 120°, and one at 180° (b) 90° and 120° (c) eight at 90° and two at 180°
Execute:
(a) SeF4 (34 e–) The type is AX4E1, so the electron-region geometry is triangular bipyramid.
The Fequitorial–Se–Fequitorial angle is 120°, the Fequitorial–Se–Faxial angles are
90° and Faxial–Se–Faxial angle is 180°.
(b) SOF4 (40 e–) The type is AX5E0, so the electron-region geometry is triangular
bipyramidal, equatorial-F–S–O angles are 120° and the axial-F–S–O angles
are 90°.
(c) BrF5 (42 e–) The type is AX5E1, so the electron-region geometry is octahedral and all the
F–Br–F angles are 90°. The angles across the bottom of the structure will
be 180°.
25. Result: (a) Twelve at 90° (b) 180° (c) 180°

Analysis: Given chemical formulas, predict some approximate bond angles.
Execute:
(a) SF6 (48 e–) The type is AX6E0, so the electron-region geometry is octahedral and all 12
of the F–S–F angles are 90°.
(b) XeF2 (22 e–) The type is AX2E3, so the electron-region geometry is triangular
bipyramidal, and the F–Xe–F angle is 180°.
(c) ClF2– (22 e–) The type is AX2E3, so the electron-region geometry is triangular
bipyramidal, and the F–Cl–F angle is 180°.
26. Result: NO2+
Analysis: Given two chemical formulas, predict which has a greater O–N–O bond angle.
Execute:
NO2 molecule and NO2+ ion differ by only one electron. NO2 has 17 electrons and NO2+ has 16 electrons.
Their Lewis structures are quite similar:
Using VESPR, NO2 is triangular planar (AX2E1) and NO2+ is linear (AX2). The predict O–N–O angle in NO2
is approximately 120°. The predict O–N–O angle in NO2+ ion is 180°. So, NO2+ has a greater O–N–O angle.
– –
27. Result: ClF2 ; VSEPR predicted angle for ClF2 is 180° (AX2E3) and for ClF2+ is 109.5° (AX2E2).
Analysis: Given two chemical formulas, explain which has a greater O–N–O bond angle.
Execute:
ClF2+ cation and ClF2– anion differ by two electrons. ClF2+ has 20 electrons and ClF2– has 22 electrons.
ClF2+ cation has type AX2E2. The electron-region geometry is tetrahedral, and the F–Cl–F angle is 109.5°:
ClF2– anion has type AX2E3. The electron-region geometry is triangular bipyramidal, and the F–Cl–F angle is
180°.
According to the VESPR model, we predict that the F–Cl–F angle in a ClF2– anion is a greater angle than the
angle in a ClF2+ cation.
Chirality in Organic Compounds (Section 7-2)

28. Result: See circles on structures below
Analysis: Given structural formulas, identify the chiral centers.
Plan: Chiral centers are C atoms with four bonds, where each fragment bonded is different. Cirle the chiral
centers.
Execute:
(a) The second and third C atoms have four different fragments: HOOC–, HO–, –H, and –CH(OH)COOH.
O HO HO O
HO C C C C H
H H
(b) This molecule has no chiral centers. The two inner C atoms do not have four bonds. The first C atom has
three H atoms bonded.
O O
CH3 C C OH
(c) The third C atom has four different fragments: CH3CH2–, –H, –COOH, and –NH2. The first and second C
atoms have three and two H atoms bonded, respectively, so they are not chiral centers.
H O
CH3 CH2 C C OH
NH2
Plan: We will follow the plan from Question 28.
Execute:
(a) The second C atom has four different fragments: CH3–, HO–, –CH2OH, and –H. The first C atom has
three H atoms bonded and the third C atom has two H atoms bonded, so they are not chiral centers.
HO OH
CH3 C C H
H H
(b) This molecule has no chiral centers. The first two C atoms do not have four bonds. The third C atom has
two H atoms bonded.
H C C CH2 OH
H H
(c) The third C atom has four different fragments: CH3CCl2–, F–, –Cl, and –H. The first C atom has two H
atoms bonded. The second C atom has two Cl atoms bonded, so they are not chiral centers.
Cl F
CH3 C C Cl
Cl H
30. Result: See circle on structure below
Plan: We will adapt the plan from the solution to Question 28.
Execute:
(a) This molecule has no chiral centers. The end C atoms have three H atoms bonded, and the second C atom
has three CH3 fragments.
H Cl H
H C C C H
H CH3 H
(b) This molecule has no chiral centers. The end C atoms have two or three H atoms bonded, and the second C
atom has two CH3 fragments.
H H H
Cl C C C H
H CH3 H
(c) The second C atom has four different fragments: CH3–, Br–, –CH2CH2CH3, and –H. The other C atoms
have more than one H atom bonded, so they are not chiral centers.
H Br H H H
H C C C C C H
H H H H H
(d) This molecule has no chiral centers. Most of the C atoms have two or three H atoms, and the second C
atom has two –CH2CH3 fragments.
H H Br H H
H C C C C C H
H H H H H
Plan: We will adapt the plan from the solution to Question 28.
Execute:
(a) The second C atom has four different fragments: CH3–, Br–, –CH2CH3, and –Cl. The other C atoms have
more than one H atoms bonded, so they are not chiral centers.
H Br H H
H C C C C H
H H H H
(b) This molecule has no chiral centers. The end C atoms have three H atoms bonded, and the third C atom has
three –CH3 fragments.
H CH3 H
H C C C H
H H H
(c) The fourth C atom has four different fragments: CH3CH=CH–, H–, –CH3, and –Br. The end C atoms have
three H atoms bonded, and the second and third C atoms have only three bonds, so they are not chiral
centers.
H H H H H
H C C C C C H
H Br H
Hybridization (Section 7-3, 7-4)

32. Result: tetrahedral, sp3-hybridization
Analyze and Plan: Write a Lewis structure for CHCl3 and use VSEPR to determine the molecular geometry as
described in the solution to Question 15. Use the chart in Section 7-3c to determine the hybridization of the
central atom using the electron-region geometry.
Execute: The molecule is AX4E0 type, so its electron-region geometry and its molecular geometry are
tetrahedral.
To make four equal bonds with an electron-region geometry of tetrahedral, the C atom must be sp3-hybridized.
33. Result: Both C atoms are tetrahedral centers with four bonds and the O atom is bent at 109.5° with two
bonds and two lone pairs; all four atoms have sp3-hybridization
Analyze: Describe the geometry and hybridization of several atoms in a structural formula.
Plan and Execute: Write a Lewis structure for HOCH2CH2OH and use VSEPR as described in the solution to
Question 15 to determine the geometry of each of the C and O atoms. Use the chart in Section 7-3c to
determine the hybridization of each atom using the electron-region geometry.
The O atoms are AX2E2 type, so the H–O–C angles will be approximately the tetrahedral angle of 109.5°.
The C atoms are AX4E0 type, so the O–C–C, O–C–H, H–C–C and H–C–H angles will also be approximately
the tetrahedral angle of 109.5°.
The O atoms must be sp3-hybridized to make two bonds and two lone pairs with an electron-region geometry
of tetrahedral. The C atoms must be sp3-hybridized to make four bonds with an electron-region geometry of
tetrahedral.
34. Result: The central S atom in SCl2 has sp3 hybridization; the central C atom in OCS is sp-hybridized.
SCl2 has two single bonds. OCS has two double bonds.
Analyze: Describe the geometry and hybridization of several atoms in a structural formula.
Plan and Execute: Follow the procedure described in the solution to Question 32.
SCl2 (20 e–) The type is AX2E2, so the electron-region geometry is tetrahedral and the
molecular geometry is bent (109.5°).
The S atom must be sp3-hybridized.

OCS (16 e–) The C atom must be the central atom. The type is AX2E0, so the electron-
region geometry is linear and the O–C–S angle is 180°.
The C atom must be sp-hybridized.

The bonding in these molecules is polar covalent. The two bonds in SCl2 are single bonds. The two bonds in
OCS are double bonds.
35. Result: (a) methyl carbon: sp3 carboxyl carbon: sp2 (b) methyl carbon: 109.5°, carboxyl carbon: 120°
Analyze: Given a structural formula, describe the geometry and hybridization of several atoms and determine
the approximate bond angle.
Plan and Execute: Draw the Lewis structure and use VSEPR to determine the electron-region geometry of each
of the C atoms as described in the solution to Question 15. The bond angles and hybridization are associated
with the electron-region geometry using Figures 7.1 and 7.2 and the chart in Section 7-3c.
(a) Look at the left C atom: The type is AX4E0, so the electron-region geometry is tetrahedral and this C
atom’s hybridization is sp3. Look at the right C atom: The type is AX3E0, so the electron-region geometry
is triangular planar and this C atom’s hybridization is sp2.
(b) The sp3-hybridized C atom has tetrahedral H–C–H and H–C–C bond angles of approximately 109.5°. The
sp2-hybridized C atom has triangular planar C–C–O and O–C–O bond angles of approximately 120°.
36. Result: (a) ammonium N: sp3, nitrate N: sp2 (b)ammonium N: 109.5°, nitrate N: 120°
Analyze: Given a structural formula, describe the geometry and hybridization of several atoms and determine
the approximate bond angle.
Plan and Execute: Adapt the plan described in the solution to Question 35.
(a) Look at the first N atom: The type is AX4E0, so the electron-region geometry is tetrahedral and this N
atom’s hybridization is sp3. Look at the second N atom: The type is AX3E0, so the electron-region
geometry is triangular planar and this N atom’s hybridization is sp2.
(b) The sp3-hybridized N atom has tetrahedral H–N–H bond angles of approximately 109.5°. The sp2-
hybridized N atom has triangular planar O–N–O bond angles of approximately 120°.
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adjutant were already transferred to new regiments, and their places
were not yet filled. The three months of the enlistment expired a few
days after the battle.
In the fall of 1861, the old artillery company of this town was
reorganized, and Captain Richard Barrett received a commission in
March, 1862, from the state, as its commander. This company,
chiefly recruited here, was later embodied in the Forty-seventh
Regiment, Massachusetts Volunteers, enlisted as nine months’ men,
and sent to New Orleans, where they were employed in guard duty
during their term of service. Captain Humphrey H. Buttrick, lieutenant
in this regiment, as he had been already lieutenant in Captain
Prescott’s company in 1861, went out again in August, 1864, a
captain in the Fifty-ninth Massachusetts, and saw hard service in the
Ninth Corps, under General Burnside. The regiment being formed of
veterans, and in fields requiring great activity and exposure, suffered
extraordinary losses; Captain Buttrick and one other officer being the
only officers in it who were neither killed, wounded nor captured.[190]
In August, 1862, on the new requisition for troops, when it was
becoming difficult to meet the draft,—mainly through the personal
example and influence of Mr. Sylvester Lovejoy, twelve men,
including himself, were enlisted for three years, and, being soon after
enrolled in the Fortieth Massachusetts, went to the war; and a very
good account has been heard, not only of the regiment, but of the
talents and virtues of these men.
After the return of the three months’ company to Concord, in 1861,
Captain Prescott raised a new company of volunteers, and Captain
Bowers another. Each of these companies included recruits from this
town, and they formed part of the Thirty-second Regiment of
Massachusetts Volunteers. Enlisting for three years, and remaining
to the end of the war, these troops saw every variety of hard service
which the war offered, and, though suffering at first some
disadvantage from change of commanders, and from severe losses,
they grew at last, under the command of Colonel Prescott, to an
excellent reputation, attested by the names of the thirty battles they
were authorized to inscribe on their flag, and by the important
position usually assigned them in the field.
I have found many notes of their rough experience in the march
and in the field. In McClellan’s retreat in the Peninsula, in July, 1862,
“it is all our men can do to draw their feet out of the mud. We
marched one mile through mud, without exaggeration, one foot
deep,—a good deal of the way over my boots, and with short rations;
on one day nothing but liver, blackberries, and pennyroyal tea.”—“At
Fredericksburg we lay eleven hours in one spot without moving,
except to rise and fire.” The next note is, “cracker for a day and a
half,—but all right.” Another day, “had not left the ranks for thirty
hours, and the nights were broken by frequent alarms. How would
Concord people,” he asks, “like to pass the night on the battle-field,
and hear the dying cry for help, and not be able to go to them?” But
the regiment did good service at Harrison’s Landing, and at
Antietam, under Colonel Parker; and at Fredericksburg, in
December, Lieutenant-Colonel Prescott loudly expressed his
satisfaction at his comrades, now and then particularizing names:
“Bowers, Shepard and Lauriat are as brave as lions.”[191]
At the battle of Gettysburg, in July, 1863, the brigade of which the
Thirty-second Regiment formed a part, was in line of battle seventy-
two hours, and suffered severely. Colonel Prescott’s regiment went
in with two hundred and ten men, nineteen officers. On the second of
July they had to cross the famous wheat-field, under fire from the
rebels in front and on both flanks. Seventy men were killed or
wounded out of seven companies. Here Francis Buttrick, whose
manly beauty all of us remember,[192] and Sergeant Appleton, an
excellent soldier, were fatally wounded. The Colonel was hit by three
bullets. “I feel,” he writes, “I have much to be thankful for that my life
is spared, although I would willingly die to have the regiment do as
well as they have done. Our colors had several holes made, and
were badly torn. One bullet hit the staff which the bearer had in his
hand. The color-bearer is brave as a lion; he will go anywhere you
say, and no questions asked; his name is Marshall Davis.” The
Colonel took evident pleasure in the fact that he could account for all
his men. There were so many killed, so many wounded,—but no
missing. For that word “missing” was apt to mean skulking. Another
incident: “A friend of Lieutenant Barrow complains that we did not
treat his body with respect, inasmuch as we did not send it home. I
think we were very fortunate to save it at all, for in ten minutes after
he was killed the rebels occupied the ground, and we had to carry
him and all our wounded nearly two miles in blankets. There was no
place nearer than Baltimore where we could have got a coffin, and I
suppose it was eighty miles there. We laid him in two double
blankets, and then sent off a long distance and got boards off a barn
to make the best coffin we could, and gave him burial.”
After Gettysburg, Colonel Prescott remarks that our regiment is
highly complimented. When Colonel Gurney, of the Ninth, came to
him the next day to tell him that “folks are just beginning to
appreciate the Thirty-second Regiment: it always was a good
regiment, and people are just beginning to find it out;” Colonel
Prescott notes in his journal,—“Pity they have not found it out before
it was all gone. We have a hundred and seventy-seven guns this
morning.”
Let me add an extract from the official report of the brigade
commander: “Word was sent by General Barnes, that, when we
retired, we should fall back under cover of the woods. This order was
communicated to Colonel Prescott, whose regiment was then under
the hottest fire. Understanding it to be a peremptory order to retire
then, he replied, ‘I don’t want to retire; I am not ready to retire; I can
hold this place;’ and he made good his assertion. Being informed
that he misunderstood the order, which was only to inform him how
to retire when it became necessary, he was satisfied, and he and his
command held their ground manfully.” It was said that Colonel
Prescott’s reply, when reported, pleased the Acting-Brigadier-
General Sweitzer mightily.
After Gettysburg, the Thirty-second Regiment saw hard service at
Rappahannock Station; and at Baltimore, in Virginia, where they
were drawn up in battle order for ten days successively: crossing the
Rapidan, and suffering from such extreme cold, a few days later, at
Mine Run, that the men were compelled to break rank and run in
circles to keep themselves from being frozen. On the third of
December, they went into winter quarters.
I must not follow the multiplied details that make the hard work of
the next year. But the campaign in the Wilderness surpassed all their
worst experience hitherto of the soldier’s life. On the third of May,
they crossed the Rapidan for the fifth time. On the twelfth, at Laurel
Hill, the regiment had twenty-one killed and seventy-five wounded,
including five officers. “The regiment has been in the front and centre
since the battle begun, eight and a half days ago, and is now
building breastworks on the Fredericksburg road. This has been the
hardest fight the world ever knew. I think the loss of our army will be
forty thousand. Every day, for the last eight days, there has been a
terrible battle the whole length of the line. One day they drove us; but
it has been regular bull-dog fighting.” On the twenty-first, they had
been, for seventeen days and nights, under arms without rest. On
the twenty-third, they crossed the North Anna, and achieved a great
success. On the thirtieth, we learn, “Our regiment has never been in
the second line since we crossed the Rapidan, on the third.” On the
night of the thirtieth,—“The hardest day we ever had. We have been
in the first line twenty-six days, and fighting every day but two; whilst
your newspapers talk of the inactivity of the Army of the Potomac. If
those writers could be here and fight all day, and sleep in the
trenches, and be called up several times in the night by picket-firing,
they would not call it inactive.” June fourth is marked in the diary as
“An awful day;—two hundred men lost to the command;” and not
until the fifth of June comes at last a respite for a short space, during
which the men drew shoes and socks, and the officers were able to
send to the wagons and procure a change of clothes, for the first
time in five weeks.
But from these incessant labors there was now to be rest for one
head,—the honored and beloved commander of the regiment. On
the sixteenth of June, they crossed the James River, and marched to
within three miles of Petersburg. Early in the morning of the
eighteenth they went to the front, formed line of battle, and were
ordered to take the Norfolk and Petersburg Railroad from the rebels.
In this charge, Colonel George L. Prescott was mortally wounded.
After driving the enemy from the railroad, crossing it, and climbing
the farther bank to continue the charge, he was struck, in front of his
command, by a musket-ball which entered his breast near the heart.
He was carried off the field to the division hospital, and died on the
following morning. On his death-bed, he received the needless
assurances of his general that “he had done more than all his
duty,”—needless to a conscience so faithful and unspotted. One of
his townsmen and comrades, a sergeant in his regiment, writing to
his own family, uses these words: “He was one of the few men who
fight for principle. He did not fight for glory, honor, nor money, but
because he thought it his duty. These are not my feelings only, but of
the whole regiment.”
On the first of January, 1865, the Thirty-second Regiment made
itself comfortable in log huts, a mile south of our rear line of works
before Petersburg. On the fourth of February, sudden orders came to
move next morning at daylight. At Dabney’s Mills, in a sharp fight,
they lost seventy-four in killed, wounded and missing. Here Major
Shepard was taken prisoner. The lines were held until the tenth, with
more than usual suffering from snow and hail and intense cold,
added to the annoyance of the artillery fire. On the first of April, the
regiment connected with Sheridan’s cavalry, near the Five Forks,
and took an important part in that battle which opened Petersburg
and Richmond, and forced the surrender of Lee. On the ninth, they
marched in support of the cavalry, and were advancing in a grand
charge, when the white flag of General Lee appeared. The brigade
of which the Thirty-second Regiment formed part was detailed to
receive the formal surrender of the rebel arms. The homeward
march began on the thirteenth, and the regiment was mustered out
in the field, at Washington, on the twenty-eighth of June, and arrived
in Boston on the first of July.
Fellow citizens: The obelisk records only the names of the dead.
There is something partial in this distribution of honor. Those who
went through those dreadful fields and returned not deserve much
more than all the honor we can pay. But those also who went
through the same fields, and returned alive, put just as much at
hazard as those who died, and, in other countries, would wear
distinctive badges of honor as long as they lived. I hope the disuse of
such medals or badges in this country only signifies that everybody
knows these men, and carries their deeds in such lively
remembrance that they require no badge or reminder. I am sure I
need not bespeak your gratitude to these fellow citizens and
neighbors of ours. I hope they will be content with the laurels of one
war.
But let me, in behalf of this assembly, speak directly to you, our
defenders, and say, that it is easy to see that if danger should ever
threaten the homes which you guard, the knowledge of your
presence will be a wall of fire for their protection. Brave men! you will
hardly be called to see again fields as terrible as those you have
already trampled with your victories.
There are people who can hardly read the names on yonder
bronze tablet, the mist so gathers in their eyes. Three of the names
are of sons of one family.[193] A gloom gathers on this assembly,
composed as it is of kindred men and women, for, in many houses,
the dearest and noblest is gone from their hearth-stone. Yet it is
tinged with light from heaven. A duty so severe has been
discharged, and with such immense results of good, lifting private
sacrifice to the sublime, that, though the cannon volleys have a
sound of funeral echoes, they can yet hear through them the
benedictions of their country and mankind.
APPENDIX
In the above Address I have been compelled to suppress more
details of personal interest than I have used. But I do not like to omit
the testimony to the character of the Commander of the Thirty-
second Massachusetts Regiment, given in the following letter by one
of his soldiers:—
Near Petersburg, Virginia, June 20, 1864.

Dear Father:
With feelings of deep regret, I inform you that Colonel
Prescott, our brave and lamented leader, is no more. He was
shot through the body, near the heart, on the eighteenth day
of June, and died the following morning. On the morning of
the eighteenth, our division was not in line. Reveille was at an
early hour, and before long we were moving to the front. Soon
we passed the ground where the Ninth Corps drove the
enemy from their fortified lines, and came upon and formed
our line in rear of Crawford’s Division. In front of us, and one
mile distant, the Rebels’ lines of works could be seen.
Between us and them, and in a deep gulley, was the Norfolk
and Petersburg Railroad. Soon the order came for us to take
the railroad from the enemy, whose advance then held it. Four
regiments of our brigade were to head the charge; so the 32d
Massachusetts, 62d, 91st and 155th Pennsylvania regiments,
under command of Colonel Gregory, moved forward in good
order, the enemy keeping up a steady fire all the time. All
went well till we reached the road. The Rebels left when they
saw us advance, and, when we reached the road, they were
running away. But here our troubles began. The banks, on
each side of the road, were about thirty feet high, and, being
stiff clay, were nearly perpendicular. We got down well
enough, because we got started, and were rolled to the
bottom, a confused pile of Yanks. Now to climb the other side!
It was impossible to get up by climbing, for the side of it was
like the side of a house. By dint of getting on each other’s
shoulders and making holes for our feet with bayonets, a few
of us got up; reaching our guns down to the others, we all
finally got over. Meanwhile, a storm of bullets was rained
upon us. Through it all, Colonel Prescott was cool and
collected, encouraging the men to do their best. After we were
almost all across, he moved out in front of the line, and called
the men out to him, saying, “Come on, men; form our line
here.” The color-bearer stepped towards him, when a bullet
struck the Colonel, passed through him, and wounded the
color-bearer, Sergeant Giles of Company G. Calmly the
Colonel turned, and said, “I am wounded; some one help me
off.” A sergeant of Company B, and one of the 21st
Pennsylvania, helped him off. This man told me, last night, all
that the Colonel said, while going off. He was afraid we would
be driven back, and wanted these men to stick by him. He
said, “I die for my country.” He seemed to be conscious that
death was near to him, and said the wound was near his
heart; wanted the sergeant of Company B to write to his
family, and tell them all about him. He will write to Mrs.
Prescott, probably; but if they do not hear from some one an
account of his death, I wish you would show this to Mrs.
Prescott. He died in the division hospital, night before last,
and his remains will probably be sent to Concord. We lament
his loss in the regiment very much. He was like a father to us,
—always counselling us to be firm in the path of duty, and
setting the example himself. I think a more moral man, or one
more likely to enter the kingdom of heaven, cannot be found
in the Army of the Potomac. No man ever heard him swear, or
saw him use liquor, since we were in the service. I wish there
was some way for the regiment to pay some tribute to his
memory. But the folks at home must do this for the present.
The Thirty-second Regiment has lost its leader, and calls on
the people of Concord to console the afflicted family of the
brave departed, by showing their esteem for him in some
manner. He was one of the few men who fight for principle,—
pure principle. He did not fight for glory, honor nor money but
because he thought it his duty. These are not my feelings
only, but of the whole regiment. I want you to show this to
every one, so they can see what we thought of the Colonel,
and how he died in front of his regiment. God bless and
comfort his poor family. Perhaps people think soldiers have
no feeling, but it is not so. We feel deep anxiety for the
families of all our dear comrades.
Charles Bartlett,
Sergeant Company G, 32d Mass. Vols.[194]
XVIII
EDITORS’ ADDRESS
MASSACHUSETTS QUARTERLY REVIEW,

DECEMBER, 1847
The old men studied magic in the flowers,

And human fortunes in astronomy,
And an omnipotence in chemistry,
Preferring things to names, for these were men,
Were unitarians of the united world,
And, wheresoever their clear eye-beams fell,
They caught the footsteps of the Same. Our eyes
Are armed, but we are strangers to the stars,
And strangers to the mystic beast and bird,
And strangers to the plant and to the mine.
The injured elements say, ‘Not in us;’
And night and day, ocean and continent,
Fire, plant and mineral say, ‘Not in us;’
And haughtily return us stare for stare.
For we invade them impiously for gain;
We devastate them unreligiously,
And coldly ask their pottage, not their love.
Therefore they shove us from them, yield to us
Only what to our griping toil is due;
But the sweet affluence of love and song,
The rich results of the divine consents
Of man and earth, of world beloved and loved,
The nectar and ambrosia are withheld.
EDITORS’ ADDRESS
The American people are fast opening their own destiny. The
material basis is of such extent that no folly of man can quite subvert
it; for the territory is a considerable fraction of the planet, and the
population neither loath nor inexpert to use their advantages. Add,
that this energetic race derive an unprecedented material power
from the new arts, from the expansions effected by public schools,
cheap postage and a cheap press, from the telescope, the telegraph,
the railroad, steamship, steam-ferry, steam-mill; from domestic
architecture, chemical agriculture, from ventilation, from ice, ether,
caoutchouc, and innumerable inventions and manufactures.
A scholar who has been reading of the fabulous magnificence of
Assyria and Persia, of Rome and Constantinople, leaves his library
and takes his seat in a railroad-car, where he is importuned by
newsboys with journals still wet from Liverpool and Havre, with
telegraphic despatches not yet fifty minutes old from Buffalo and
Cincinnati. At the screams of the steam-whistle, the train quits city
and suburbs, darts away into the interior, drops every man at his
estate as it whirls along, and shows our traveller what tens of
thousands of powerful and weaponed men, science-armed and
society-armed, sit at large in this ample region, obscure from their
numbers and the extent of the domain. He reflects on the power
which each of these plain republicans can employ; how far these
chains of intercourse and travel reach, interlock and ramify; what
levers, what pumps, what exhaustive analyses are applied to Nature
for the benefit of masses of men. Then he exclaims, What a negro-
fine royalty is that of Jamschid and Solomon! What a substantial
sovereignty does my townsman possess! A man who has a hundred
dollars to dispose of—a hundred dollars over his bread—is rich
beyond the dreams of the Cæsars.
Keep our eyes as long as we can on this picture, we cannot stave
off the ulterior question,—the famous question of Cineas to Pyrrhus,
[195]—the where to of all this power and population, these surveys
and inventions, this taxing and tabulating, mill-privilege, roads, and
mines. The aspect this country presents is a certain maniacal
activity, an immense apparatus of cunning machinery which turns
out, at last, some Nuremberg toys. Has it generated, as great
interests do, any intellectual power? Where are the works of the
imagination—the surest test of a national genius? At least as far as
the purpose and genius of America is yet reported in any book, it is a
sterility and no genius.
One would say there is nothing colossal in the country but its
geography and its material activities; that the moral and intellectual
effects are not on the same scale with the trade and production.
There is no speech heard but that of auctioneers, newsboys, and the
caucus. Where is the great breath of the New World, the voice of
aboriginal nations opening new eras with hymns of lofty cheer? Our
books and fine arts are imitations; there is a fatal incuriosity and
disinclination in our educated men to new studies and the
interrogation of Nature. We have taste, critical talent, good
professors, good commentators, but a lack of male energy. What
more serious calamity can befall a people than a constitutional
dulness and limitation? The moral influence of the intellect is
wanting. We hearken in vain for any profound voice speaking to the
American heart, cheering timid good men, animating the youth,
consoling the defeated, and intelligently announcing duties which
clothe life with joy, and endear the face of land and sea to men.[196]
It is a poor consideration that the country wit is precocious, and, as
we say, practical; that political interests on so broad a scale as ours
are administered by little men with some saucy village talent, by deft
partisans, good cipherers; strict economists, quite empty of all
superstition.
Conceding these unfavorable appearances, it would yet be a poor
pedantry to read the fates of this country from these narrow data. On
the contrary, we are persuaded that moral and material values are
always commensurate. Every material organization exists to a moral
end, which makes the reason of its existence. Here are no books,
but who can see the continent with its inland and surrounding
waters, its temperate climates, its west-wind breathing vigor through
all the year, its confluence of races so favorable to the highest
energy, and the infinite glut of their production, without putting new
queries to Destiny as to the purpose for which this muster of nations
and this sudden creation of enormous values is made?
This is equally the view of science and of patriotism. We hesitate
to employ a word so much abused as patriotism, whose true sense
is almost the reverse of its popular sense. We have no sympathy
with that boyish egotism, hoarse with cheering for one side, for one
state, for one town: the right patriotism consists in the delight which
springs from contributing our peculiar and legitimate advantages to
the benefit of humanity. Every foot of soil has its proper quality; the
grape on two sides of the same fence has new flavors; and so every
acre on the globe, every family of men, every point of climate, has its
distinguishing virtues. Certainly then this country does not lie here in
the sun causeless; and though it may not be easy to define its
influence, men feel already its emancipating quality in the careless
self-reliance of the manners, in the freedom of thought, in the direct
roads by which grievances are reached and redressed, and even in
the reckless and sinister politics, not less than in purer expressions.
Bad as it is, this freedom leads onward and upward,—to a Columbia
of thought and art, which is the last and endless end of Columbus’s
adventure.
Lovers of our country, but not always approvers of the public
counsels, we should certainly be glad to give good advice in politics.
We have not been able to escape our national and endemic habit,
and to be liberated from interest in the elections and in public affairs.
Nor have we cared to disfranchise ourselves. We are more solicitous
than others to make our politics clear and healthful, as we believe
politics to be nowise accidental or exceptional, but subject to the
same laws with trees, earths and acids. We see that reckless and
destructive fury which characterizes the lower classes of American
society, and which is pampered by hundreds of profligate presses.
The young intriguers who drive in bar-rooms and town-meetings the
trade of politics, sagacious only to seize the victorious side, have put
the country into the position of an overgrown bully, and
Massachusetts finds no heart or head to give weight and efficacy to
her contrary judgment. In hours when it seemed only to need one
just word from a man of honor to have vindicated the rights of
millions, and to have given a true direction to the first steps of a
nation, we have seen the best understandings of New England, the
trusted leaders of her counsels, constituting a snivelling and
despised opposition, clapped on the back by comfortable capitalists
from all sections, and persuaded to say, We are too old to stand for
what is called a New England sentiment any longer. Rely on us for
commercial representatives, but for questions of ethics,—who knows
what markets may be opened? We are not well, we are not in our
seats, when justice and humanity are to be spoken for.
We have a bad war, many victories, each of which converts the
country into an immense chanticleer; and a very insincere political
opposition.[197] The country needs to be extricated from its delirium
at once. Public affairs are chained in the same law with private; the
retributions of armed states are not less sure and signal than those
which come to private felons. The facility of majorities is no
protection from the natural sequence of their own acts. Men reason
badly, but Nature and Destiny are logical.[198]
But, whilst we should think our pains well bestowed if we could
cure the infatuation of statesmen, and should be sincerely pleased if
we could give a direction to the Federal politics, we are far from
believing politics the primal interest of men. On the contrary, we hold
that the laws and governors cannot possess a commanding interest
for any but vacant or fanatical people; for the reason that this is
simply a formal and superficial interest; and men of a solid genius
are only interested in substantial things.
The State, like the individual, should rest on an ideal basis. Not
only man but Nature is injured by the imputation that man exists only
to be fattened with bread, but he lives in such connection with
Thought and Fact that his bread is surely involved as one element
thereof, but is not its end and aim. So the insight which commands
the laws and conditions of the true polity precludes forever all
interest in the squabbles of parties. As soon as men have tasted the
enjoyment of learning, friendship and virtue, for which the State
exists, the prizes of office appear polluted, and their followers
outcasts.
A journal that would meet the real wants of this time must have a
courage and power sufficient to solve the problems which the great
groping society around us, stupid with perplexity, is dumbly
exploring. Let it now show its astuteness by dodging each difficult
question and arguing diffusely every point on which men are long
ago unanimous. Can it front this matter of Socialism, to which the
names of Owen and Fourier have attached, and dispose of that
question? Will it cope with the allied questions of Government,
Nonresistance, and all that belongs under that category? Will it
measure itself with the chapter on Slavery, in some sort the special
enigma of the time, as it has provoked against it a sort of inspiration
and enthusiasm singular in modern history? There are literary and
philosophical reputations to settle. The name of Swedenborg has in
this very time acquired new honors, and the current year has
witnessed the appearance, in their first English translation, of his
manuscripts. Here is an unsettled account in the book of Fame; a
nebula to dim eyes, but which great telescopes may yet resolve into
a magnificent system. Here is the standing problem of Natural
Science, and the merits of her great interpreters to be determined;
the encyclopædical Humboldt, and the intrepid generalizations
collected by the author of the Vestiges of Creation. Here is the
balance to be adjusted between the exact French school of Cuvier,
and the genial catholic theorists, Geoffroy St.-Hilaire, Goethe, Davy
and Agassiz. Will it venture into the thin and difficult air of that school
where the secrets of structure are discussed under the topics of
mesmerism and the twilights of demonology?
What will easily seem to many a far higher question than any other
is that which respects the embodying of the Conscience of the
period. Is the age we live in unfriendly to the highest powers; to that
blending of the affections with the poetic faculty which has
distinguished the Religious Ages? We have a better opinion of the
economy of Nature than to fear that those varying phases which
humanity presents ever leave out any of the grand springs of human
action. Mankind for the moment seem to be in search of a religion.
The Jewish cultus is declining; the Divine, or, as some will say, the
truly Human, hovers, now seen, now unseen, before us. This period
of peace, this hour when the jangle of contending churches is
hushing or hushed, will seem only the more propitious to those who
believe that man need not fear the want of religion, because they
know his religious constitution,—that he must rest on the moral and
religious sentiments, as the motion of bodies rests on geometry. In
the rapid decay of what was called religion, timid and unthinking
people fancy a decay of the hope of man. But the moral and religious
sentiments meet us everywhere, alike in markets as in churches. A
God starts up behind cotton bales also. The conscience of man is
regenerated as is the atmosphere, so that society cannot be
debauched. The health which we call Virtue is an equipoise which
easily redresses itself, and resembles those rocking stones which a
child’s finger can move, and a weight of many hundred tons cannot
overthrow.
With these convictions, a few friends of good letters have thought
fit to associate themselves for the conduct of a new journal. We have
obeyed the custom and convenience of the time in adopting this form
of a Review, as a mould into which all metal most easily runs. But
the form shall not be suffered to be an impediment. The name might
convey the impression of a book of criticism, and that nothing is to
be found here which was not written expressly for the Review; but
good readers know that inspired pages are not written to fill a space,
but for inevitable utterance; and to such our journal is freely and
solicitously open, even though everything else be excluded. We
entreat the aid of every lover of truth and right, and let these
principles entreat for us. We rely on the talents and industry of good
men known to us, but much more on the magnetism of truth, which is
multiplying and educating advocates for itself and friends for us. We
rely on the truth for and against ourselves.
XIX
ADDRESS TO KOSSUTH
AT CONCORD, MAY 11, 1852
God said, I am tired of kings,

I suffer them no more;
Up to my ear the morning brings
The outrage of the poor.
My angel,—his name is Freedom,—

Choose him to be your king;
He shall cut pathways east and west,
And fend you with his wing.
ADDRESS TO KOSSUTH
Sir,—The fatigue of your many public visits, in such unbroken
succession as may compare with the toils of a campaign, forbid us to
detain you long. The people of this town share with their countrymen
the admiration of valor and perseverance; they, like their
compatriots, have been hungry to see the man whose extraordinary
eloquence is seconded by the splendor and the solidity of his
actions. But, as it is the privilege of the people of this town to keep a
hallowed mound which has a place in the story of the country; as
Concord is one of the monuments of freedom; we knew beforehand
that you could not go by us; you could not take all your steps in the
pilgrimage of American liberty, until you had seen with your eyes the
ruins of the bridge where a handful of brave farmers opened our
Revolution. Therefore, we sat and waited for you.
And now, Sir, we are heartily glad to see you, at last, in these
fields. We set no more value than you do on cheers and huzzas. But
we think that the graves of our heroes around us throb to-day to a
footstep that sounded like their own:—
“The mighty tread

Brings from the dust the sound of liberty.”[199]
Sir, we have watched with attention your progress through the

land, and the varying feeling with which you have been received, and
the unvarying tone and countenance which you have maintained.
We wish to discriminate in our regard. We wish to reserve our honor
for actions of the noblest strain. We please ourselves that in you we
meet one whose temper was long since tried in the fire, and made
equal to all events; a man so truly in love with the greatest future,
that he cannot be diverted to any less.
It is our republican doctrine, too, that the wide variety of opinions is
an advantage. I believe I may say of the people of this country at
large, that their sympathy is more worth, because it stands the test of
party. It is not a blind wave; it is a living soul contending with living
souls. It is, in every expression, antagonized. No opinion will pass
but must stand the tug of war. As you see, the love you win is worth
something; for it has been argued through; its foundation searched; it
has proved sound and whole; it may be avowed; it will last, and it will
draw all opinion to itself.
We have seen, with great pleasure, that there is nothing accidental
in your attitude. We have seen that you are organically in that cause
you plead. The man of Freedom, you are also the man of Fate. You
do not elect, but you are elected by God and your genius to the task.
We do not, therefore, affect to thank you. We only see in you the
angel of freedom, crossing sea and land; crossing parties,
nationalities, private interests and self-esteems; dividing populations
where you go, and drawing to your part only the good. We are afraid
that you are growing popular, Sir; you may be called to the dangers
of prosperity. But, hitherto, you have had in all centuries and in all
parties only the men of heart. I do not know but you will have the
million yet. Then, may your strength be equal to your day. But
remember, Sir, that everything great and excellent in the world is in
minorities.[200]
Far be from us, Sir, any tone of patronage; we ought rather to ask
yours. We know the austere condition of liberty—that it must be
reconquered over and over again; yea, day by day; that it is a state
of war; that it is always slipping from those who boast it to those who
fight for it: and you, the foremost soldier of freedom in this age,—it is
for us to crave your judgment; who are we that we should dictate to
you? You have won your own. We only affirm it. This country of
workingmen greets in you a worker. This republic greets in you a
republican. We only say, ‘Well done, good and faithful.’—You have
earned your own nobility at home. We admit you ad eundem (as they
say at College). We admit you to the same degree, without new trial.
We suspend all rules before so paramount a merit. You may well sit
a doctor in the college of liberty. You have achieved your right to
interpret our Washington. And I speak the sense not only of every
generous American, but the law of mind, when I say that it is not
those who live idly in the city called after his name, but those who, all
over the world, think and act like him, who can claim to explain the
sentiment of Washington.
Sir, whatever obstruction from selfishness, indifference, or from
property (which always sympathizes with possession) you may
encounter, we congratulate you that you have known how to convert
calamities into powers, exile into a campaign, present defeat into
lasting victory. For this new crusade which you preach to willing and
to unwilling ears in America is a seed of armed men. You have got
your story told in every palace and log hut and prairie camp,
throughout this continent. And, as the shores of Europe and America
approach every month, and their politics will one day mingle, when
the crisis arrives it will find us all instructed beforehand in the rights
and wrongs of Hungary, and parties already to her freedom.
XX
WOMAN
A LECTURE READ BEFORE THE WOMAN’S

RIGHTS CONVENTION, BOSTON, SEPTEMBER
20, 1855
The politics are base,

The letters do not cheer,
And ’tis far in the deeps of history,
The voice that speaketh clear.
Yet there in the parlor sits

Some figure in noble guise,—
Our Angel in a stranger’s form;
Or Woman’s pleading eyes.
“Lo, when the Lord made North and South,

And sun and moon ordained he,
Forth bringing each by word of mouth
In order of its dignity,
Did man from the crude clay express
By sequence, and, all else decreed,
He formed the woman; nor might less
Than Sabbath such a work succeed.”
Coventry Patmore.
WOMAN
Among those movements which seem to be, now and then,
endemic in the public mind,—perhaps we should say, sporadic,—
rather than the single inspiration of one mind, is that which has urged
on society the benefits of action having for its object a benefit to the
position of Woman. And none is more seriously interesting to every
healthful and thoughtful mind.
In that race which is now predominant over all the other races of
men, it was a cherished belief that women had an oracular nature.
They are more delicate than men,—delicate as iodine to light,—and
thus more impressionable. They are the best index of the coming
hour. I share this belief. I think their words are to be weighed; but it is
their inconsiderate word,—according to the rule, ‘take their first
advice, not the second:’ as Coleridge was wont to apply to a lady for
her judgment in questions of taste, and accept it; but when she
added—“I think so, because—” “Pardon me, madam,” he said,
“leave me to find out the reasons for myself.” In this sense, as more
delicate mercuries of the imponderable and immaterial influences,
what they say and think is the shadow of coming events. Their very
dolls are indicative. Among our Norse ancestors, Frigga was
worshipped as the goddess of women. “Weirdes all,” said the Edda,
“Frigga knoweth, though she telleth them never.” That is to say, all
wisdoms Woman knows; though she takes them for granted, and
does not explain them as discoveries, like the understanding of man.
Men remark figure: women always catch the expression. They
inspire by a look, and pass with us not so much by what they say or
do, as by their presence. They learn so fast and convey the result so
fast as to outrun the logic of their slow brother and make his
acquisitions poor.[201] ’Tis their mood and tone that is important.
Does their mind misgive them, or are they firm and cheerful? ’Tis a
true report that things are going ill or well. And any remarkable
opinion or movement shared by woman will be the first sign of
revolution.
Plato said, Women are the same as men in faculty, only less in
degree. But the general voice of mankind has agreed that they have

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Chapter 7: Molecular Structures

Suggestions for Effective Learning

Cooperative Learning Activities

End-of-Chapter Solutions for Chapter 7

Analyze, Plan, and Execute:

The formula is C14H18O5N2.

(e) and are both AX3E1, so the electron-region geometry is tetrahedral.

The four bonds need sp3-hybridization on the C atoms.

Questions for Review and Thought

(c) AX3E1 type has triangular pyramidal molecular geometry.

(d) AX4E0 type has tetrahedral molecular geometry.

(b) CH2Cl2 (20 e–) The type is AX4E0, so it is tetrahedral.

(c) BH3 (6 e–) The type is AX3E0, so it is triangular planar.

(d) SeCl6 (48 e–) The type is AX6E0, so it is octahedral.

(e) PF3 (26 e–) The type is AX3E1, so it is triangular pyramidal.

Analysis: Explain why one ion is bent and one is not.

25. Result: (a) Twelve at 90° (b) 180° (c) 180°

26. Result: NO2+

Chirality in Organic Compounds (Section 7-2)

Hybridization (Section 7-3, 7-4)

The S atom must be sp3-hybridized.

The C atom must be sp-hybridized.

Near Petersburg, Virginia, June 20, 1864.

MASSACHUSETTS QUARTERLY REVIEW,

The old men studied magic in the flowers,

AT CONCORD, MAY 11, 1852

God said, I am tired of kings,

My angel,—his name is Freedom,—

“The mighty tread

Sir, we have watched with attention your progress through the

A LECTURE READ BEFORE THE WOMAN’S

The politics are base,

Yet there in the parlor sits

“Lo, when the Lord made North and South,

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