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GOVERNING CHINA
IN THE 21ST CENTURY

New
Development
Assistance
Emerging Economies and the
New Landscape of Development Assistance

Edited by Yijia Jing

Alvaro Mendez · Yu Zheng
 Governing China in the 21st Century

Series Editors
Zhimin Chen
School of International Relations and Public Affairs
Fudan University
Shanghai, China

Yijia Jing
Institute for Global Public Policy &
School of International Relations and Public Affairs
Fudan University
Shanghai, China
Since 1978, China’s political and social systems have transformed signifi-
cantly to accommodate the world’s largest population and second largest
economy. These changes have grown more complex and challenging as
China deals with modernization, globalization, and informatization. The
unique path of sociopolitical development of China hardly fits within any
existing frame of reference. The number of scientific explorations of
China’s political and social development, as well as contributions to inter-
national literature from Chinese scholars living and researching in
Mainland China, has been growing fast. This series publishes research by
Chinese and international scholars on China’s politics, diplomacy, public
affairs, and social and economic issues for the international academic
community.

More information about this series at

http://www.palgrave.com/gp/series/15023
Yijia Jing • Alvaro Mendez • Yu Zheng
Editors

New Development
Assistance
Emerging Economies and the New Landscape of
Development Assistance
Editors
Yijia Jing Alvaro Mendez
Institute for Global Public Policy London School of Economics
School of International Relations and London, UK
Public Affairs
Fudan University
Shanghai, China

Yu Zheng
School of International Relations and
Public Affairs
Fudan University
Shanghai, China

ISSN 2524-3586     ISSN 2524-3594 (electronic)

Governing China in the 21st Century
ISBN 978-981-13-7231-5    ISBN 978-981-13-7232-2 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-7232-2

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer
Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the
Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of
translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on
microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval,
electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now
known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are
exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information
in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the pub-
lisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the
material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The
publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institu-
tional affiliations.

This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature
Singapore Pte Ltd.
The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-­01/04 Gateway East, Singapore
189721, Singapore
 Acknowledgments

The book is supported by the National Social Science Foundation of

China under Grant 15ZDA031, the National Science Foundation of
China under Grant 71490735 and the LSE-Fudan Research Centre for
Global Public Policy.

v
 Contents

1 New Development Assistance in the Making: An

Introduction  1
Yijia Jing, Alvaro Mendez, and Yu Zheng

2 The Western Way of Development: A Critical Review 19

Chris Alden, Daniel Large, and Alvaro Mendez

3 The Emergence of New Development Assistance:

Conceptual and Operational Frameworks 39
Yu Zheng

4 The Aid Management Systems in BRICS Countries 59

Jianzhi Zhao and Zhe Ouyang

5 Two Approaches to Institutionalizing the New

Development Assistance: A Comparative Analysis of the
Operational Institutions of NDB and AIIB 75
Jiejin Zhu

6 Is Development Assistance Getting Better Due to the

Widening Role of Emerging Economies? 99
Neil Renwick and Jing Gu

vii
viii CONTENTS

7 International Development Assistance: A Case Study of

Brazil119
Rogerio F. Pinto

8 Russia’s Contribution to International Development

Assistance143
Elena Dobrolyubova

9 India as an Emerging Donor: Political and Economic

Determinants155
Eswaran Sridharan

10 Chinese Foreign Aid and Financing: An Example of New

Development Assistance?167
Denghua Zhang

11 South African Development Assistance in Africa181

Chris Tapscott

Index197
 Notes on Contributors

Chris Alden is Professor of International Relations at the London School

of Economics and Political Science (LSE), and is a research associate with
the Global Powers and Africa Programme, South African Institute of
International Affairs (SAIIA). He is author/co-author of numerous books,
including Mozambique and the Construction of the New African State
(Palgrave Macmillan 2003), South Africa’s Post-Apartheid Foreign Policy
(2003), China in Africa (2007), Land, Liberation and Compromise in
Southern Africa (Palgrave Macmillan 2009), The South in World Politics
(Palgrave Macmillan 2010), Foreign Policy Analysis: New Approaches 2nd
edition (2017), and co-editor of China and Africa: Building Peace and
Security Cooperation on the Continent (Palgrave Macmillan 2017), China
and Mozambique: From Comrades to Capitalists (2014), China Returns to
Africa (2008). He has written numerous articles in internationally recog-
nised journals. He has held fellowships at Cambridge University; Institute
of Social Science, University of Tokyo; Ritsumeikan University, Kyoto;
École Normale Supérieure (Cachan), Paris; and University of Pretoria.
Elena Dobrolyubova holds a PhD in Economics. She graduated from
the Russian Economic Academy (MA in World Economy). In 2015, she
defended a thesis on governance statistics. She has worked in the World
Bank during 1999–2007 on various public sector projects in Russia. Since
2007, she is the Head of Center of Economic and Financial Consulting,
a Russian consultancy firm specializing in governance reforms, perfor-
mance management, and fiscal affairs. Since 2011, she is also the Deputy

ix
x Notes on Contributors

Director of the Center for Public Administration Technologies in the

Russian Presidential Academy of National Economy and Public
Administration (RANEPA). She has about 100 publications on eco-
nomic and public sector issues.
Jing Gu is the Director of Centre for Rising Powers and Global
Development, and a senior research fellow at the Institute of Development
Studies. She is a senior consultant to the Center for International
Knowledge on Development at the Development Research Center of the
State Council in China. She is a political economist with extensive experi-
ence in research and advisory work of governance, business and sustain-
able development. She has led many interdisciplinary research projects
involving multi-country teams, including the groundbreaking pioneering
research on China’s outward investment in Africa. Her teaching, research
and advisory work focus on China’s international development strategies,
BRICS and South-South Cooperation. She is a member of the International
Editorial Board of Third World Quarterly.
Yijia Jing is a Chang Jiang Scholar, Seaker Chan Chair Professor of
Public Management, Dean of the Institute for Global Public Policy, and
professor of School of International Relations and Public Affairs, Fudan
University, Shanghai, China. He holds his BA/MA degree in Economics
from Peking University, MA in Sociology from the University of Maryland,
College Park, and PhD in Public Policy from the Ohio State University.
He is the editor-in-chief of Fudan Public Administration Review and co-
editor of International Public Management Journal. He is the founding
co-editor of the Palgrave Macmillan book series Governing China in the
Twenty-First Century. He serves as a vice president of International
Research Society for Public Management.
Daniel Large is an assistant professor at Central European University’s
School of Public Policy. He is also a senior non-resident fellow of the
University of Nottingham’s China Policy Institute, and a fellow of the Rift
Valley Institute. His publications include New Directions in the Study of
Africa and China (2018), co-edited with Chris Alden; Sudan Looks East:
China, India and the Politics of Asian Alternatives (2011), co-edited with
Luke Patey; and China Returns to Africa: A Rising Power and a Continent
Embrace (2008), co-edited with Chris Alden and Ricardo Soares de
Oliveira.
 Notes on Contributors  xi

Alvaro Mendez is the co-director of the Global South Unit at the LSE,
where he is also a senior research fellow in the International Relations
Department. He is a senior fellow at Fudan University; a research associate
at the University of Bristol; and a former editor of Millennium-Journal of
International Studies at the LSE. He lectures at the LSE on courses such
as China and the global South and foreign policy analysis. LSE’s
International Relations Department awarded him its 2003–2004 Teaching
Prize. Mendez is an associate academic at the LSE Latin America and
Caribbean Centre and an International Advisory Board member of the
Observatoire Politique de l’Amérique latine et des Caraïbes (OPALC) at
Sciences Po. His most recent publications include Colombian Agency and
the Making of US Foreign Policy (2017); Global Governance in Foreign
Policy (2018); and The China-­Latin America Axis: Emerging Markets and
Their Role in an Increasingly Globalised World (co-authored, Palgrave
Macmillan, 2018).
Zhe Ouyang is a graduate student and research assistant for the Center
for Global Governance at the School of International Relations and
Public Affairs, Fudan University. His research interest is mainly in inter-
national public policy. His work has been published in leading Chinese
journals.
Rogerio F. Pinto a Brazilian national, is an international consultant in
public management and institutional development with extended experi-
ence in international development as a staff of the World Bank, the Inter-­
American Development Bank and the Organization of American States.
He has worked in different capacities in 45 different countries in four
continents around the world (mostly in Africa and Latin America). After
retirement from the World Bank, he taught at the Brazilian School of
Public and Business Administration of the Getulio Vargas Foundation. He
has delivered consulting and teaching assignments with governments,
NGOs, universities and international organizations.
Neil Renwick is a professor in the School of Humanities, Coventry
University, UK. He specialises in international relations with a particular
interest in human development challenges. A graduate of Durham
University and the Australian National University, his published work
includes a number of monographs and edited books and numerous jour-
nal articles. His work focuses on East Asia and the Pacific, and he has
delivered many lectures and research seminars at universities and research
xii Notes on Contributors

institutes across the region over two decades. He is a consultant to the

UNDP Pacific Region, to the T20 Think Tank Forum for the G20
Leaders’ Summits in China and Germany and to a number of NGOs. He
is a member of the International Institute of Strategic Studies, an elected
committee member of the International Political Science Association and
an associate of the British Academy of Social Sciences. He is an invited
member of the CCTV Group of International Experts and has contrib-
uted to international and Chinese media on a regular basis.
Eswaran Sridharan is Academic Director and Chief Executive of the
University of Pennsylvania Institute for the Advanced Study of India, New
Delhi. He is a political scientist and the author, editor or co-editor of nine
books. His published work includes over 80 journal articles and edited
volume chapters. He has held visiting appointments at the University of
California, Berkeley; London School of Economics; Institute for
Developing Economies, Tokyo; and Institute of South Asian Studies,
Singapore. He is the editor of India Review, a refereed journal. He holds
a PhD in Political Science from the University of Pennsylvania.
Chris Tapscott is an emeritus professor at the School of Government,
University of the Western Cape, South Africa. As a sociologist, he has
extensive applied policy research experience in the fields of administrative
reform and governance in developing states. His research focus is on the
local state and on the political and administrative challenges which con-
front the development of substantive participatory democracy and services
delivery in countries of the global South. His publications in this field
include Citizenship and Social Movements, Perspectives from the Global
South (2010) co-edited with Lisa Thompson, and a forthcoming volume
on The Democratic Development State: North-­South Perspectives, co-edited
with Tor Halvorsen and Teresita Ceuz-del Rosario.
Denghua Zhang is a research fellow at the Australian National University.
He completed his PhD on Chinese foreign policy and aid at the Australian
National University in 2017. Prior to that, he had a decade-long work
experience as a Chinese diplomat. His research focuses on international
relations, development studies, Chinese foreign policy, Chinese foreign
aid and China in the Pacific. His articles have been published widely
 Notes on Contributors  xiii

including recently in The Pacific Review, Third World Quarterly, Asian

Journal of Political Sciences, The Round Table, Asia and the Pacific Policy
Studies and Security Challenges.
Jianzhi Zhao is Associate Professor of Economic Policy and Deputy
Director for the Center for Global Governance at the School of
International Relations and Public Affairs, Fudan University. His research
interests are international political economy, public economics, develop-
ment economics, and development finance. He has worked at multiple
international organizations, including the World Bank, Asian Development
Bank and Inter-American Development Bank. Zhao was also a visiting
researcher at the Bank of Finland. He has been invited to present his
research paper at the Congressional Budget Office (CBO) of the United
States government. He has consulted with World Bank, Chinese Ministry
of Commerce, Chinese Social Science Foundation and USAID. He has
served as an ad hoc referee for many international journals. His work has
been published in many leading journals. Zhao was Shorenstein
Postdoctoral Fellow at Stanford University and holds his PhD in
International Economic Policy from the University of Maryland, College
Park.
Yu Zheng is a professor at the School of International Relations and
Public Affairs (SIRPA), Fudan University, Shanghai, China. He holds a
PhD from the University of California, San Diego, and taught at the
University of Connecticut, USA. He is the author of Governance and
Foreign Investment in China, India, and Taiwan: Credibility, Flexibility,
and International Business. His publications have also appeared in journals
such as Comparative Politics, Public Opinion Quarterly, Socio-­Economic
Review, Studies in Comparative International Development, and others.
Jiejin Zhu is an associate professor at the School of International
Relations and Public Affairs, Fudan University, China. His research inter-
ests include international institutions and global governance, especially
the BRICS and G20. His published work includes 3 books and over 30
papers on these topics. He is doing research on Rising Powers’ Strategy
for Changing the International Institutions.
 List of Figures

Fig. 3.1 Scope of emerging economies 44

Fig. 4.1 The change of the landscape in international development
society. Source: Author’s calculation based on OECD
International Development Statistics (IDS) (2018) 60
Fig. 4.2 Brazilian aid management system 62
Fig. 4.3 Indian aid management system 64
Fig. 4.4 South African aid management system 66
Fig. 4.5 Chinese aid management system 68
Fig. 7.1 ABC Budget 2000–2014 in US$ 136
Fig. 10.1 Chinese annual aid budget (2005–2015), billion RMB. Source:
Compiled by author based on MoF data 169
Fig. 10.2 Geographical distribution of Chinese foreign aid. Source:
Compiled by author 171
Fig. 10.3 Components of Chinese aid. Source: Compiled by author 172
Fig. 11.1 Estimated aid flows to and from South Africa 2004–2013 (US$
millions). Source: Chiwandamira and Smith (2015) (estimates
based on OECD data) 188

xv
 List of Tables

Table 3.1 Non-DAC countries’ contribution in ODA 44

Table 3.2 Emerging economies’ ODA or ODA-like flows (million $) 47
Table 3.3 Emerging economies’ non-concessional official flows
(million $) 48
Table 3.4 BRICS and emerging economies’ roles in international
development49
Table 3.5 Comparison of key features of ODA and NDA 50
Table 5.1 The four waves of multilateral development banks (MDBs) 78
Table 5.2 Indian proposal, Chinese proposal, and BRICS proposal
of NDB 84
Table 5.3 Chinese proposal, European proposal, and multilateral
proposal91
Table 7.1 Overall expenditures with international development
assistance, in US$ 127
Table 7.2 Contributions to international organizations, in US$
thousands128
Table 7.3 Number of ongoing projects by year and average annual
expenditures by project 135
Table 8.1 Russia’s official development assistance in 2004–2015 148
Table 8.2 ODA programs and projects, implemented by the federal
executive authorities in 2014 150
Table 9.1 Operating Exim Bank lines of credit as on May 2015 157
Table 9.2 Region-wise (operating) lines of credit as on May 2015 158
Table 9.3 Purpose-wise (operating) lines of credit as on May 2015 158

xvii
xviii List of Tables

Table 9.4 India’s bilateral aid, excluding Exim Bank LOCs, 1997–2016
($ million)159
Table 9.5 Loans and grants to South Asia, 1984–2016 160
Table 10.1 China’s financial flows overseas for development cooperation 170
Table 11.1 South African treasury data on aid expenditure
(millions of Rands) 187
Table 11.2 Total economic engagement of four BRICS donor countries
in 2014 (US$ millions) 188
 CHAPTER 1

New Development Assistance in the Making:

An Introduction

Yijia Jing, Alvaro Mendez, and Yu Zheng

New Development Assistance: A New Agenda

Many emerging economies have been gradually evolving from recipients
of Official Development Assistance (ODA) to new donors. While statisti-
cal information of their contribution varies due to heterogeneous defini-
tions, criteria, and data availability, the impacts of emerging economies’
increasing engagement in international development have become visible.
Their growing role in international development does not just reflect a
shift of the center of gravity of the global political economy toward the
South and East, but has paved the way for rethinking and reforming ODA.

Y. Jing (*)
Institute for Global Public Policy, School of International Relations and Public
Affairs, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
e-mail: jingyj@fudan.edu.cn
A. Mendez
London School of Economics, London, UK
e-mail: a.mendez@lse.ac.uk
Y. Zheng
School of International Relations and Public Affairs, Fudan University,
Shanghai, China
e-mail: yzheng@fudan.edu.cn

© The Author(s) 2020 1

Y. Jing et al. (eds.), New Development Assistance, Governing China
in the 21st Century,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-7232-2_1
2 Y. JING ET AL.

In early 2017, scholars of Fudan University and the London School of

Economics and Political Science (LSE) with a common interest in interna-
tional development assistance launched a joint project to explore the
changing landscape that is stemming from the increasingly prominent
donor roles played by emerging economies. The project evaluated the cur-
rent practices of development assistance and their effectiveness; identified
new patterns and challenges; and sorted out new concepts, norms, and
activities to deliver policy advice to national governments, aid agencies, and
multilateral aid organizations. In April 2017, scholars from both institu-
tions met in the Old Building of LSE and coined the concept of New
Development Assistance (NDA), with the ambition to establish a new ana-
lytic framework that would capture the attributes of emerging-economy
development assistance realized so far which fundamentally diverge from
those of conventional ODA. The following September, a forum on
Development and Governance in BRICS was held at Fudan University
with a roundtable on NDA. Members of the research project enthusiasti-
cally presented their research, which had been structured according to a
general understanding of the ideas and practices of NDA. It was concluded
that the changing global political economy had laid the socioeconomic
background for reasonably definable and distinct patterns of development
assistance to emerge that merit serious academic attention and exploration.

The New International Political Economy and New

Development Assistance (NDA)
The post-WWII global political economy has undergone fundamental
changes that have created new momentum and challenges for develop-
ment assistance. ODA was first a response to a war-damaged Europe, then
shifted its focus to developing countries, most of which had been European
colonies before WWII. For a long period, ODA reflected the hierarchical
global economic structure by being a major responsibility of developed
countries in the Global North. Beyond a historically forged moral obliga-
tion, ODA brought with it economic, political, cultural, and other pur-
poses and implications. As its magnitude continued to grow, ODA began
to assume the function of “global redistribution” contributing to develop-
ment and sociopolitical stability in the Global South.
In the second half of the twentieth century, ODA passed through incre-
mental changes and improvements. The economic boom of the 1960s and
1970s brought still more developed countries into the donor group. The
 NEW DEVELOPMENT ASSISTANCE IN THE MAKING: AN INTRODUCTION 3

Development Assistance Committee (DAC) of the Organisation for

Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) was established in
1961 to promote development assistance, coordinate cooperation, guide
operations, and harmonize standards. In 1969, DAC first defined ODA
to include three basic components: an official sector contribution, an eco-
nomic development focus, and concessional financial terms. For decades,
over 90% of world’s ODA came from DAC members. Unsurprisingly,
most ODA reflected the ideas, specifically neoliberalism, of the developed
Global North regarding effective and legitimate ways of assisting devel-
opment. Even though OECD was encouraging its member states to
enhance borrowers’ ownership through the Paris Declaration and the
Accra Agenda for Action, the OECD’s value-laden ODA practices still
tended to reflect Western views of global political-economic governance.
ODA conditionality, driven by a value consensus on economic marketiza-
tion and political democratization, often confronted aid-receiving coun-
tries with a tension between external rule adoption and autonomous
development. Although ODA alleviated some of the economic difficulties
of aid recipients and brought them new opportunities, it was incapable of
exerting a major influence that would empower countries with ingrained
weaknesses in market infrastructure and political stability. ODA was based
on the experiences of the Global North, and hardly provided an effective
prescription for the North-South hierarchical political-economic
structure.
The rise of emerging economies in the late twentieth century blazed
alternative paths of development and subsequently new directions and
resources for international development. In 2017, emerging economies
accounted for 9 of the top 20 countries in terms of GDP, and their average
GDP was 70% of the latter group’s. Amazingly, China’s GDP rose from
19% of Japan’s in 1980 to 247% in 2017. The G20 has been replacing the
G7 as the world’s main scheme of global economic governance. Despite
their vast internal variation, the development paths of emerging econo-
mies have one thing in common, their deviation from the accepted Western
precepts. The values underlying their development achievements were
nicknamed the “Beijing Consensus” in 2004 by Joshua Ramo (2004), a
scholar at Kissinger Associates, to designate it as an alternative to the
“Washington Consensus”.
The growing productive capacity of emerging economies has signifi-
cantly expanded their role as development assistance providers. The lead-
ing ones are big regional countries such as the BRICS, starting to provide
4 Y. JING ET AL.

development assistance long ago despite being recipients of it at the same

time. Aside from regional geopolitical concerns, common motivations
driving emerging economies to become donors before they were really
rich enough were economic integration, trade benefits, cultural ties, and
humanitarian rescue. Usually, the engagement of emerging countries was
gradual in terms of aid amount, geographical coverage, and institution
and capacity building. The Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) launched in
2013 and the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB) established in
2015 as part of China’s grand global political economic strategy had a
huge component of international development. As China and India are
expected to have a GDP bigger than that of the US by the middle of this
century (OECD, 2018), the development assistance potential of emerging
economies is hardly negligible, and will surely become an important
resource for bridging the huge gap between the supply of and demand for
development assistance.
Notwithstanding that emerging economies have obviously learned
from DAC rules and aid practices, their perceptions of development and
of appropriate ways of external intervention are different. They usually
lack strong market and social infrastructure and institutions, and their
development trajectories may not distinguish a clear boundary between
the economy and the state. Their political systems have difficulty in adopt-
ing and stabilizing Western democracy. Consequently, their aid actions are
pragmatic and devoid of a value focus. As the new donors themselves had
emerged from a history of colonial rule by Western powers, their assis-
tance to other developing economies was not restrained by the moral obli-
gations that traditional ODA carries, and tended to emphasize South-South
cooperation and mutual benefit, which, in turn, was critical for domesti-
cally justifying their aid engagement and spending.
Systematic adoption of DAC rules by emerging countries was proved
practically impossible. Although there is a clear trend of increasing engage-
ment, they have not yet reached consensus on a given proportion of GDP
as the goal for assistance inputs, unlike DAC countries. The standard of
concessional ODA of 25% grant elements was not widely followed.
International development funding from emerging donors was often
unconditional, and lacking multilateral cooperation and due transparency
by DAC standards. While a deficiency of institutionalization and good
governance partially explains these differences, a better preference match
between new assistance providers and recipients is also in play. The increas-
ing aid from emerging countries has been a response to the fundamental
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recommended, for it conveys practically all that well-informed people
should know of ‘Our European Neighbours.’”—Mail and Express.

IV.—DUTCH LIFE IN TOWN AND COUNTRY

By P. M. Hough, B.A.
Not alone for its historic past is Holland interesting, but also for the
paradox which it presents to-day. It is difficult to reconcile the old-
world methods seen all over the country with the advanced ideas
expressed in conversation, in books, and in newspapers. Mr.
Hough’s long residence in the country has enabled him to present a
trustworthy picture of Dutch social life and customs in the seven
provinces,—the inhabitants of which, while diverse in race, dialect,
and religion, are one in their love of liberty and patriotic devotion.
“Holland is always interesting, in any line of study. In this work its
charm is carefully preserved. The sturdy toil of the people, their
quaint characteristics, their conservative retention of old dress and
customs, their quiet abstention from taking part in the great affairs of
the world are all clearly reflected in this faithful mirror. The
illustrations are of a high grade of photographic reproductions.”—
Washington Post.
V.—SWISS LIFE IN TOWN AND COUNTRY
By Alfred T. Story, author of the “Building of the British
Empire,” etc.
Switzerland forms one of the smallest states of Europe, being little
more than half the size of Scotland, and is almost the only one
whose history is the history of its people. It is the centre of the
grandest scenery, the birthplace of four of its best known and most
considerable rivers, and has for centuries enjoyed the special
distinction of being the home of democracy and freedom.
As Mr. Story points out, the average tourist, passing more or less
rapidly through the country, while impressed by the grandeur of the
scenery, fails utterly to secure any true insight into the home life of
the people. Mr. Story has, however, pitched his tent among the Alps
and has made a careful and sympathetic study of Swiss life,—the
keynote of which is simplicity and sincerity.

IN PREPARATION

SPANISH LIFE IN TOWN AND COUNTRY

By L. Higgin.

ITALIAN LIFE IN TOWN AND COUNTRY

By Luigi Villari.
G. P. PUTNAM’S SONS
New York and London
*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FRENCH LIFE
IN TOWN AND COUNTRY ***

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