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 AFRICAN HISTORIES
AND MODERNITIES

The History and

Political Transition of
Zimbabwe
From Mugabe to Mnangagwa
Edited by
Sabelo J. Ndlovu-Gatsheni · Pedzisai Ruhanya
African Histories and Modernities

Series Editors
Toyin Falola
The University of Texas at Austin
Austin, TX, USA

Matthew M. Heaton
Virginia Tech
Blacksburg, VA, USA
This book series serves as a scholarly forum on African contributions to
and negotiations of diverse modernities over time and space, with a par-
ticular emphasis on historical developments. Specifically, it aims to refute
the hegemonic conception of a singular modernity, Western in origin,
spreading out to encompass the globe over the last several decades. Indeed,
rather than reinforcing conceptual boundaries or parameters, the series
instead looks to receive and respond to changing perspectives on an
important but inherently nebulous idea, deliberately creating a space in
which multiple modernities can interact, overlap, and conflict. While privi-
leging works that emphasize historical change over time, the series will
also feature scholarship that blurs the lines between the historical and the
contemporary, recognizing the ways in which our changing understand-
ings of modernity in the present have the capacity to affect the way we
think about African and global histories.

Editorial Board
Akintunde Akinyemi, Literature, University of Florida, Gainesville
Malami Buba, African Studies, Hankuk University of Foreign Studies,
Yongin, South Korea
Emmanuel Mbah, History, CUNY, College of Staten Island
Insa Nolte, History, University of Birmingham
Shadrack Wanjala Nasong’o, International Studies, Rhodes College
Samuel Oloruntoba, Political Science, TMALI, University of South Africa
Bridget Teboh, History, University of Massachusetts Dartmouth

More information about this series at

http://www.palgrave.com/gp/series/14758
 Sabelo J. Ndlovu-Gatsheni
Pedzisai Ruhanya
Editors

The History and

Political Transition of
Zimbabwe
From Mugabe to Mnangagwa
Editors
Sabelo J. Ndlovu-Gatsheni
Archie Mafeje Research Institute
University of South Africa
Pretoria, South Africa
Pedzisai Ruhanya
University of Johannesburg
Johannesburg, South Africa

African Histories and Modernities

ISBN 978-3-030-47732-5    ISBN 978-3-030-47733-2 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-47733-2

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer
Nature Switzerland AG 2020
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the
Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of
translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on
microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval,
electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now
known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are
exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information
in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the
publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to
the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The
publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and
institutional affiliations.

Cover illustration: Getty images

This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature
Switzerland AG.
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
 Foreword

Zimbabwe’s sole political leader since independence in 1980, Robert

Gabriel Mugabe, lost power after a military coup in 2017. For a fortnight
in November 2017, the coup was, for some observers in the academy and
media and for many Zimbabwean citizens, indeterminate and imbued
with potential for the emergence of a political leadership that would
reform the authoritarian and divisive nationalist politics that had come to
define the Zimbabwean state. Zimbabwe’s once efficient public service
provision, effective state bureaucracies and large formal sector had disinte-
grated significantly in the two decades preceding the coup. This decline
was a consequence of marked economic regression and rising state corrup-
tion. For many, the 2017 coup opened up possibilities for economic turn-
around and regeneration of state institutions.
This insightful edited volume by Sabelo Ndlovu-Gatsheni and Pedzisai
Ruhanya comes three years after the coup. It assesses the degree to which
the various openings that the coup created were indeed opportunities for
real political and economic reforms. Are the politics and governance of the
post-coup ZANU PF administration, led by Emmerson Mnangagwa, radi-
cally different from that of the ZANU PF government that Mugabe
headed? Have the values and practices of what Ndlovu-Gatsheni has else-
where referred to as ‘Mugabeism’ atrophied? Why is Zimbabwean politics
locked in interminable transitions? These are only a few of the critical
questions this book addresses.
Linda Thomas-Greenfield and Bruce Wharton’s “Zimbabwe’s Coup:
Net Gain or No Gain?” (2019) has endeavoured to evaluate the fate of the

v
vi FOREWORD

reform agenda following the 2017 coup. In the broader literature, Clayton
Thyne and Jonathan Powell’s “Coup d’État or Coup d’Autocracy: How
Coups Impact Democratization, 1950–2008” (2016), Ozan Varol’s The
Democratic Coup d’État (2017), Nikolay Marinov and Hein Goemans’
“Coups and Democracy” (2014) and Paul Collier’s “In Praise of the
Coup” (2009), among others, debate and reach some varying conclusions
about the impact of coups on political processes such as democratisation.
For example, whereas Collier is in praise of the coup for being a means of
liberating an oppressed people from dictatorship, Thyne and Powell warn
that in fact, personal dictatorships and misrule have often been post-coup
outcomes.
Ndlovu-Gatsheni and Ruhanya’s book adds to the aforementioned lit-
erature. Like Thyne and Powell’s work, Ndlovu-Gatsheni and Ruhanya’s
study is not in praise of the coup, and, similar to Thomas-Greenfield and
Wharton, they strike a pessimistic tone with regard to the extent of politi-
cal reform since the 2017 coup. However, two crucial points distinguish
Ndlovu-Gatsheni and Ruhanya’s study from competing works focusing on
Zimbabwe’s post-coup politics. The first is that it surpasses other studies
in terms of scope. Ndlovu-Gatsheni and Ruhanya have assembled an
ambitious book, which examines how post-coup national politics interacts
with, and is shaped by, themes such as nationalism, political economy and
gender. The result is a rich appraisal of politics after the coup that is use-
fully historicised, incorporates political economy and pays notable atten-
tion to gender, which so inscribed politics before and during the coup.
The 2017 coup represents a departure from some of the politics of old
because it was Zimbabwe’s inaugural coup, impacting civil–military rela-
tions for years to come, but a significant part of subsequent politics has
deep historical roots that this book enables the reader to grasp. A second
point that distinguishes Gatsheni and Ruhanya’s book is that it fore-
grounds arguments by young and older Zimbabwean scholars about their
distressed country’s politics.
In recent years, academic interest in coups and military rule has declined
in African Studies, owing to the marked reduction in the frequency of
coups and also because intellectual fashions come and go. Nonetheless,
coups continue to occur and, as the recent case of Zimbabwe shows, their
incidence is not the preserve of countries with a history of successful
coups. The study of coup motivations, dynamics and consequences
 FOREWORD vii

remains an important and productive intellectual pursuit, even if it has

gone out of fashion for some scholars. This book, with its focus on post-
coup politics, substantiates my point through its remarkable range of
insightful contributions.

St Antony’s College, Oxford

Blessing-Miles Tendi
 Acknowledgements

This book is founded upon the collective efforts of its editors and con-
tributors. As editors, we appreciate the commitment and cooperation of
all contributors to this project, and therefore take this opportunity to
thank them most sincerely. Sabelo J. Ndlovu-Gatsheni would like to thank
Professor Tshilidzi Marwala (Principal and Vice-Chancellor of the
University of Johannesburg) for facilitating his 2019 Visiting Professorship
at the Johannesburg Institute of Advanced Study (JIAS) and Dr Bongani
Ngqulunga (Director of JIAS) for accepting him as Visiting Professor at
the institute, which enabled completion of this book project. Ndlovu-­
Gatsheni also extends thanks to Professor Mandla Makhanya (Principal
and Vice-Chancellor of the University of South Africa), under whom he
works, for giving him time off to work on this book project. The editors
also extend their thanks to Professor Blessing-Miles Tendi (University of
Oxford) and Mr Siphosami Malunga (Executive Director of the Open
Society Initiative for Southern Africa) for contributing foreword and post-
script respectively.

ix
 Contents

1 Introduction: Transition in Zimbabwe: From Robert

Gabriel Mugabe to Emmerson Dambudzo Mnangagwa: A
Repetition Without Change  1
Sabelo J. Ndlovu-Gatsheni and Pedzisai Ruhanya

Part I Colonialism, Nationalism and Political Culture  23

2 The Political Culture of Zimbabwe: Continuities and

Discontinuities 25
Rudo Gaidzanwa

3 The Zimbabwean National Question: Key Components

and Unfinished Business 51
Sabelo J. Ndlovu-Gatsheni

4 Opposition Politics and the Culture of Polarisation in

Zimbabwe, 1980–2018 85
Zenzo Moyo

5 Understanding Zimbabwe’s Political Culture: Media and

Civil Society117
Stanley Tsarwe

xi
xii Contents

Part II Identity, Militarisation and Transitional Politics 133

6 The Identity Politics Factor in Zimbabwe’s Transition

Politics135
Bekezela Gumbo

7 The Ethnicization of Political Mobilization in Zimbabwe:

The Case of Pro-Mthwakazi Movements155
Samukele Hadebe

8 The Militarisation of State Institutions in Zimbabwe,

2002–2017181
Pedzisai Ruhanya

Part III Social Media, Democracy and Political Discourse 205

9 The Media and Politics in the Context of the “Third

Chimurenga” in Zimbabwe207
Philip Pasirayi

10 Social Media and the Concept of Dissidence in

Zimbabwean Politics221
Shepherd Mpofu and Trust Matsilele

11 The Tabloidization of Political News in Zimbabwe: End

of Quality Press?245
Wellington Gadzikwa

Part IV Post-Mugabe Economy, Gender and Operation

Restore Legacy 273

12 Primitive Accumulation and Mugabe’s Extroverted

Economy: What Now Under the Second Republic?275
Toendepi Shonhe
 Contents  xiii

13 The Idea of a New Zimbabwe Post-Mugabe299

Sylvester Marumahoko and Tinashe C. Chigwata

14 Misogyny, Sexism and Hegemonic Masculinity in

Zimbabwe’s Operation Restore Legacy331
Lyton Ncube

15 Foreign Direct Investment in the Post-Mugabe Era359

Mkhululi Sibindi


Postscript: A Tale of Broken Promises389
Siphosami Malunga

Index399
 Notes on Contributors

Tinashe C. Chigwata is a senior researcher at the Dullah Omar Institute

for Constitutional Law, Governance and Human Rights at the University
of the Western Cape in South Africa. He obtained a PhD in Public Law
from the University of the Western Cape in South Africa. His other quali-
fications are an MPhil in Local Government Law (University of the
Western Cape) and a BSc (Honours) in Administration (University of
Zimbabwe). His current research interests are in the areas of local govern-
ment law, decentralisation and constitutional law. Dr Chigwata has exten-
sive experience working in both the public and private sectors in Zimbabwe
and South Africa.
Wellington Gadzikwa is a lecturer in Journalism and Media Studies at
the University of Zimbabwe. He has been a senior lecturer at Harare
Polytechnic Division of Mass Communication (thirteen years), Information
Officer-Ministry of Information (six years). He is a media analyst and
consultant, and had published four books on the media as well as
various articles in academic journals and chapters in books. He com-
pleted his PhD at UNISA in 2018.
Rudo Gaidzanwa is Professor of Sociology at the University of
Zimbabwe. She specialises in social policy, land and gender studies and has
published on gender and land, extractivism and social policy. She is also a
gender and human rights activist. Her publications include Images of
Women in Zimbabwean Literature (1985), Speaking for Ourselves:
Masculinities and Femininities amongst University of Zimbabwe Students

xv
xvi NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS

(ed., 2001) and A Beautiful Strength: A Journal of Eighty Years of Women’s

Rights, Movements and Activism in Zimbabwe since 1936 (co-edited with
I. Matambanadzo, 2017). She is former Dean of the Faculty of Social
Studies at University of Zimbabwe (2008–2012) and a former Dean of
the College of Social Sciences at Zimbabwe Academy of Sciences. She
served on the Presidential Land Committee in Zimbabwe in 2003 and as
the Coordinator of Affirmative Action Programme at the University of
Zimbabwe, as well as lead researcher for the WoMIN and Centre for
Natural Resource Governance Study on Gendered Extractive Activities in
Zimbabwe, 2017.
Bekezela Gumbo is currently a DPhil student at the Centre for Africa
Studies at the University of the Free State. His research interests include
politics of transition, political institutional engineering for sustainable
political stability and socioeconomic and human development in Southern
Africa. He serves as a principal researcher at Zimbabwe Democracy
Institute, an independent research institute in Zimbabwe. As an under-
graduate, he studied political science, and his Master’s degree is in
International Relations from the University of Zimbabwe.
Samukele Hadebe is a senior researcher at Chris Hani Institute,
Johannesburg. He holds a doctorate in Linguistics awarded jointly by the
University of Zimbabwe and the University of Oslo. He was the chief edi-
tor of the Ndebele dictionary Isichazamazwi SesiNdebele (2001). The sub-
jects of his publications include language planning, translation, literature,
nationalism and labour issues. He has worked as a university lecturer,
a senior civil servant and in civil society organizations.
Siphosami Malunga is the Executive Director of the Open Society
Initiative for Southern Africa (OSISA) and a human rights lawyer with
extensive experience in justice and governance in Africa. He took the helm
at OSISA in August 2013; having previously worked with the United
Nations Development Programme (UNDP) as the senior governance
advisor and regional programme manager in the Regional Bureau for
Africa. He managed UNDP’s democratic governance programme for
Africa, providing policy analysis and intellectual leadership to governance
advisors in UNDP’s Africa offices. Malunga joined the Department
of Peacekeeping Operations in the UN’s Transitional Administration
in East Timor in 2000 as an advisor to the transitional minister of
justice, and later as senior defence trial attorney with the UN Serious
 NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS xvii

Crimes Tribunal. Between 2003 and 2006 he worked with the UN in

Afghanistan to rebuild the justice sector, before moving to UNDP’s
Governance Centre in Oslo, where he led UNDP’s effort to integrate
conflict prevention in democratic governance policy and program-
ming. In 2008, he moved to Johannesburg to work in UNDP’s East
and Southern Africa office until 2011. Malunga earned his LLB at
the University of Zimbabwe in 1994 and a Master’s in International
Law (Cum Laude) from the University of Oslo, Norway, in 2007. He
is a regular contributor, writer, commentator and contributor to
leading continental and global publications on political, social and
economic issues in Africa.
Sylvester Marumahoko is a Global Excellence and Stature Scholar with
the School of Post Graduate Studies (Research and Innovation) at the
University of Johannesburg in South Africa. He obtained a PhD in Public
Law from the University of the Western Cape in South Africa. His other
qualifications are MPhil in Local Government Law (University of the
Western Cape), MSc in Rural and Urban Planning (University of
Zimbabwe), MPA (University of Zimbabwe) and BSc (Honours) in
Politics and Administration (University of Zimbabwe). His current
research interests are in the areas of electoral reform in Southern
Africa (with a special focus on Zimbabwe), constitutional law, the
civil society–state relationship and intergovernmental relations. Dr
Marumahoko has extensive experience working in both the public
and private sectors in Zimbabwe and South Africa.
Trust Matsilele recently completed his PhD at the Department of
Communication Studies, University of Johannesburg. He studied
Zimbabwe’s social media dissidence with an interdisciplinary approach
that encompassed media, anthropology and history. Matsilele’s research
interests include the use of social media by voices on the margins, the use
of artificial intelligence and big data in contemporary newsrooms and
whistleblower citizen journalism.
Zenzo Moyo is a South Africa-based Zimbabwean researcher, who has
practised both as a school teacher and as a university lecturer. Dr Moyo
completed his MA (2013) and PhD (2018) in Development Studies at the
University of Johannesburg. His PhD thesis was on state–civil society rela-
tions, and how these have moderated processes of democratisation in
Zimbabwe. One of his recent publications is a 2018 article titled ‘“What
xviii NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS

Would We Be Without Them?” Rural Intellectuals in the State and NGOs

in Zimbabwe’s Crisis-Ridden Countryside”, which is based on his MA
research and was published by the Critical Sociology Journal. Currently, Dr
Moyo works as a researcher at the Mapungubwe Institute for Strategic
Reflection in Johannesburg. His research interests are in civil society, social
movements, democracy, African and opposition politics, human rights and
the links between education and development.
Shepherd Mpofu holds a PhD in Media Studies from the University of
the Witwatersrand and is currently a Senior Lecturer in Communication
Studies at the University of Limpopo. He is a former Global Excellence
Research Fellow at the University of Johannesburg. His research and
teaching interests are in media and identity, politics, digital media, citizen
journalism and comparative media systems. He is currently working
on two books, on social media and identity in South Africa and dia-
sporic media and identity in Zimbabwe.
Lyton Ncube is a Postdoctoral Research Fellow in Communication
Studies Department, University of Johannesburg, South Africa. He holds
a PhD in Cultural and Media Studies from the Centre for Communication
Media and Society, University of KwaZulu-Natal (2015). Lyton Ncube’s
Doctoral thesis shows the nexus of football, power, identity and develop-
ment discourses in modern Zimbabwe. Using Zimbabwe’s two prominent
football clubs, Dynamos FC and Highlanders FC, the study demonstrates
how football is intricately intertwined with the daily exigencies of exis-
tence of the people of Zimbabwe. His research interests are in the political
economy of the media, critical theory, cultural studies and the sociology of
sport, particularly the nexus of football, nationalism and social identities.
Sabelo J. Ndlovu-Gatsheni is Research Professor and Director of
Scholarship in the Department of Leadership and Transformation in the
Principal and Vice-Chancellor’s Office at the University of South Africa
(UNISA) and is also the 2019 Visiting Professor at the Johannesburg
Institute of Advanced Study at the University of Johannesburg. He holds
a DPhil in Historical Studies from the University of Zimbabwe. He has
taught at the University of Zimbabwe, Midlands State University,
Monash University (South Africa/Australia), the Open University
(United Kingdom, UK) and the University of South Africa. He is a
member of the Academy of Science of South Africa, a Fellow of the
Centre of African Studies in the Netherlands and a Research Associate
 NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS xix

of the Ferguson Centre for African and Asian Studies at the Open
University; he is also highly rated as a social scientist by the National
Research Foundation of South Africa. He has published over 100
academic works, including seven sole-authored books, and seven
edited volumes. His latest major publications are books entitled
Epistemic Freedom in Africa: Deprovincialization and Decolonization
(2018) and Decolonization, Development and Knowledge in Africa:
Turning Over a New Leaf (2020, forthcoming).
Philip Pasirayi is a Zimbabwean human rights activist and researcher.
He holds a DPhil in International Development from the University of
Oxford (UK). His research interests are in media, democracy, governance
and human rights. He is currently working as Executive Director of a local
Zimbabwean NGO, the Centre for Community Development in
Zimbabwe, based in Harare.
Pedzisai Ruhanya is a Postdoctoral Research Fellow with the University
of Johannesburg’s School of Communication, Faculty of Humanities. He
is the director of the Zimbabwe Democracy Institute (ZDI). He studied
journalism, sociology, human rights and media and democracy at the
Universities of Zimbabwe, Essex (UK) and Westminster (UK).
Toendepi Shonhe is a political economist and Research Fellow at Thabo
Mbeki African Leadership Institute, University of South Africa. He holds
a Master’s in public policy management from the University of
Witwatersrand in South Africa and PhD in Development Studies—
Agrarian Relations from the University of KwaZulu Natal. His research
interest is in agrarian change and economic development. He recently
published a book on reconfigured agrarian relations in Zimbabwe. His
current research work focuses on the agrarian transition in Zimbabwe as
well as land reform, food security and capital accumulation in Africa.
Mkhululi Sibindi is a doctoral student in International Business,
Economics and Trade at the University of South Africa. He completed his
MBA at Zimbabwe Open University. His academic and professional
engagements have included appointments at Richfield Graduate Institute
(South Africa) Trust Academy (Bulawayo). He currently serves as
Senior Lecturer at Richfield Graduate Institute of Technology in
Pretoria. He is a specialist in international capital flows, expansion
strategies and multinational firms’ heterogeneity. His research inter-
ests focus on developing markets, with specific emphasis on Africa. He is
expert in advanced econometrics and quantitative research.
xx NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS

Stanley Tsarwe is a senior lecturer in Journalism and Media Studies at

the University of Zimbabwe. He holds a PhD in Journalism and Media
Studies from Rhodes University, South Africa. He also holds an MA in
Journalism and Media Studies from the same institution. He has research
interests in media and democracy; African radio and democratisation; and
media, conflict and peace in Africa.
 List of Figures

Fig. 6.1 A systems analysis of identity politics in Zimbabwe transition

politics139
Fig. 6.2 Conceptualising identity politics as a dominant political
culture in Zimbabwe 144
Fig. 12.1 Zimbabwe trade 1995–2016. Notes: Imports, exports.
(Source: Simoes 2018) 288
Fig. 12.2 Balance of payments developments: 2009–2017. (Source:
RBZ 2018) 289
Fig. 12.3 Diamond exports and imports from partners for Zimbabwe,
2000–2016. (Source: Various Sources, Adopted from TMALI,
UN COMTRADE) 290
Fig. 12.4 Interconnectedness of Africa’s Regional Economic Blocks.
Notes (Abbreviations): AMU, Arab Maghreb Union;
CEMAC, Central African Economic and Monetary
Community; CMA, Common Monetary Area; CEN-SAD,
Community of Sahelo-Saharan States; CEPGL, Economic
Community of the Great Lakes Countries; IOC, Indian Ocean
Commission; IGAD, Intergovernmental Authority on
Development; MRU, Mano River Union; SACU, Southern
African Customs Union; WAEMU, West African Economic
and Monetary Union; WAMZ, West African Monetary Zone.
* Members of CEN-SAD. (Source: Ncube and Mokoti
(2019), figure updated from UNESC (2009), Economic
Development in Africa 2009: Strengthening Regional
Economic Integration for Development. United Nations
publication. Sales No. E.09.II.D.7. New York and Geneva) 291

xxi
xxii List of Figures

Fig. 14.1 Demonstrators gathered outside State House after the long
march to and from the Highfields suburb. (Source: Author) 340
Fig. 14.2 A manipulated WhatsApp picture of Grace Mugabe bent
over, General Chiwenga fucking from behind. (Source:
WhatsApp meme) 345
Fig. 14.3 A tweet allegedly from the ZANU–PF handle claiming that
there was no coup, but military action that aimed to help
Mugabe, who had been taken advantage of by his wife 349
Fig. 14.4 Tweet by prominent Zimbabwean musician Mapfumo
suggesting that Grace’s character had triggered Operation
Restore Legacy. (Source: Thomas Mapfumo’s Twitter handle) 350
Fig. 14.5 Trevor Ncube’s tweet, sarcastically commending Grace’s
contribution in the downfall of her husband. (Source: Trevor
Ncube’s Twitter handle) 351
Fig. 14.6 A manipulated WhatsApp image of Robert Mugabe blaming a
miserable-looking Grace for their demise. (Source: WhatsApp
meme)352
Fig. 14.7 A WhatsApp meme that trended on 24 November 2017, on
the inauguration of President Emmerson Mnangagwa.
(Source: WhatsApp meme) 353
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