MUSK COLLEGE

OF BUSINESS & TECHNLOGY

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER SYSTEMS

Introduction
History of Computing
The history of computing is a rich and diverse field, spanning several millennia and encompassing
numerous innovations, both conceptual and physical.
Abacus (c. 2000 BCE)
- One of the earliest known tools for computation, used in various ancient civilizations including
Mesopotamia, Persia, India, China, and Rome.
Napier's Bones (1617)
- Invented by John Napier, a manually operated calculating device using rods to multiply and divide
numbers.
Pascaline (1642)
- Blaise Pascal invented one of the first mechanical calculators capable of performing addition and
subtraction.
Difference Engine (1822) and Analytical Engine (1837)
- Charles Babbage designed these early mechanical computers, with the Analytical Engine being a
conceptual forerunner to modern computers.
Ada Lovelace (1840s)
- Recognized as the first computer programmer, she wrote algorithms for Babbage's Analytical Engine.
Konrad Zuse's Z3 (1941)
- The first programmable digital computer.
ENIAC (1945)
- The first general-purpose electronic digital computer, designed by John Presper Eckert and John
Mauchly.
UNIVAC I (1951)
- The first commercially produced computer in the United States.
1950s and 1960s

Transistors (1947)
- Invented at Bell Labs, replacing vacuum tubes and revolutionizing computer design.
Integrated Circuits (1958)
- Jack Kilby and Robert Noyce's development led to the microchip, significantly reducing the size and
cost of computers.
IBM System/360 (1964)
- A mainframe computer family that established standards for software compatibility.
1970s and 1980s
Microprocessors (1971)
- Intel's 4004 was the first single-chip microprocessor, paving the way for personal computers.
IBM PC (1981)
- Standardized the personal computer market and led to widespread adoption in business and home
use.
1990s to Present
World Wide Web (1991)
- Tim Berners-Lee's creation of the web transformed how people accessed and shared information.
Smartphones (2007 onwards)
- The introduction of the iPhone revolutionized mobile computing and integrated multiple functions into
a single device.
Key Themes and Trends
1. Miniaturization:
- From vacuum tubes to transistors to integrated circuits, computing devices have become increasingly
compact.
2. Speed and Power
- Exponential growth in processing power and speed, as described by Moore's Law.

3. Accessibility
- From large, room-sized machines to personal and mobile devices, computing technology has become
ubiquitous.
4. Connectivity
- The rise of the Internet and networked systems has connected computers globally, enabling the
digital age.
Classification of Computers
Computers can be classified based on several criteria, including their size, purpose, data handling, and
functionality. Here is an overview of the various classifications of computers:
Based on Size and Power
1. Supercomputers
- The most powerful in terms of processing capacity. Used for complex tasks such as weather
forecasting, scientific simulations, and cryptography.
- Example: Summit, Fugaku.
2. Mainframe Computers
- Large, powerful systems used by organizations for bulk data processing, critical applications, and
large-scale transaction processing.
- Example: IBM Z series.
3. Minicomputers (Midrange Computers)
- Smaller than mainframes but more powerful than microcomputers, used in manufacturing processes,
research labs, and small to medium-sized businesses.
 - Example: PDP-11, AS/400.
4. Microcomputers (Personal Computers)
- Designed for individual use, including desktops, laptops, and workstations.
- Example: Apple MacBook, Dell XPS.
5. Microcontrollers
- Embedded systems within other devices to control specific functions. Used in appliances,
automobiles, and industrial machines.
- Example: Arduino, Raspberry Pi.

Based on Purpose
1. General-Purpose Computers
- Capable of performing a wide variety of tasks and applications. Most personal computers fall into this
category.
- Example: Laptops, desktops.
2. Special-Purpose Computers
- Designed for specific tasks or functions. Often embedded within other systems.
- Example: Calculators, embedded systems in medical devices.
Based on Data Handling
1. Analog Computers
- Use continuous physical phenomena such as electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic quantities to model
the problem being solved.
- Example: Slide rule, mechanical integrators.
2. Digital Computers
- Process information in binary format (0s and 1s). These are the most common types of computers
today.
- Example: PCs, smartphones.
3. Hybrid Computers
- Combine features of both analog and digital computers. Used in specialized applications where both
types of data processing are required.
- Example: Hybrid control systems in industrial applications.
Based on Functionality
1. Servers
- Provide services to other computers over a network. Used in hosting websites, managing databases,
and running applications.
- Example: Web servers, database servers.

2. Workstations
- High-performance computers designed for technical or scientific applications. Typically used by
engineers, architects, and graphic designers.
- Example: CAD workstations, video editing systems.
3. Embedded Systems
- Specialized computing systems that perform dedicated functions within larger systems.
 - Example: Automotive control systems, smart appliances.
4. Personal Computers (PCs)
- Designed for individual use, including desktops and laptops.
- Example: Gaming PCs, home office computers.
Based on User Interface
1. Desktop Computers
- Intended for regular use at a single location. Typically consist of a separate monitor, keyboard, and
mouse.
- Example: Tower PCs, all-in-one PCs.

2. Laptops
- Portable computers that integrate the screen, keyboard, and processor into a single unit.
- Example: Ultrabooks, gaming laptops.
3. Tablets
- Portable devices with touchscreens, designed for mobile use. Often include virtual keyboards and
stylus support.
- Example: iPad, Microsoft Surface.
4. Handheld Computers
- Small, portable devices that fit in the hand. Include PDAs (Personal Digital Assistants) and modern
smartphones.
- Example: iPhone, Android phones.
Based on Generation
1. First Generation (1940s-1950s)
- Vacuum tubes were used for circuitry.
- Example: ENIAC, UNIVAC.
2. Second Generation (1950s-1960s)
- Transistors replaced vacuum tubes.
- Example: IBM 7090, CDC 1604.
3. Third Generation (1960s-1970s)
- Integrated circuits replaced transistors.
- Example: IBM System/360, PDP-8.
4. Fourth Generation (1970s-present)
- Microprocessors were introduced.
- Example: Intel 4004, Apple Macintosh.
5. Fifth Generation (Present and Beyond)
- Based on artificial intelligence and quantum computing.
- Example: Quantum computers, AI-driven systems.
Data and Information
Data
Definition- Raw, unprocessed facts, figures, and symbols without context or meaning.
Characteristics- Unorganized, neutral, and in its original form.
Examples
- Numbers: 42, 3.14
- Text: "John Doe"
- Symbols: @, #
Information
Definition-Processed, organized data that is meaningful and useful.
Characteristics- Contextual, structured, and purposeful.
Types- Descriptive (e.g., biographies), diagnostic (e.g., failure analysis), predictive (e.g., weather
forecasts), and prescriptive (e.g., treatment plans).

Examples
 A sales report summarizing figures.
 An email detailing meeting schedules.
 A chart showing monthly temperature trends.
Input, Output, and Processing
Input
Definition- Data or instructions entered into a computer system for processing.
Examples- Keyboard strokes, mouse clicks, scanner readings, microphone audio, sensors.
Devices- Keyboard, mouse, scanner, microphone, camera.
Output
Definition- Data produced by a computer after processing, delivered to the user or another system.
Examples- Displayed text, printed documents, audio playback, visual graphics.
Devices- Monitor, printer, speakers, projector.
Processing
Definition-The act of transforming input data into meaningful output using algorithms and
computations.
Steps
1. Data Collection-Gathering raw data from input devices.
2. Data Manipulation- Performing calculations, sorting, filtering, or other operations on the data.
3. Data Storage-Saving processed data for future use.
4. Data Output-Delivering the processed data to an output device.
Example
Input- User types a document on a keyboard.
Processing-The computer's CPU processes keystrokes into formatted text, spell-checks, and saves the
document.
Output-The document is displayed on the monitor and can be printed out.
Memory
Definition-Memory in computing refers to the electronic components that store digital data temporarily
or permanently for processing by the CPU (Central Processing Unit) or other parts of the computer.
Types
1. Primary Memory (RAM - Random Access Memory)
Definition- Provides temporary storage for data and program instructions that the CPU needs to access
quickly.
Characteristics-Volatile (loses data when power is off), fast access times, directly accessible by the CPU.
Examples; DDR4, DDR5 RAM modules.
2. Secondary Memory (Storage Devices)
Definition-Offers long-term storage of data, programs, and operating systems even when the power is
off.
Characteristics-Non-volatile, slower access times compared to RAM, larger storage capacities.
Examples- Hard disk drives (HDD), solid-state drives (SSD), USB flash drives, optical discs (CDs, DVDs).
3. Cache Memory
Definition-High-speed memory located on the CPU or between the CPU and main memory.
Purpose-Stores frequently accessed data and instructions to speed up processing.
Characteristics-Faster access times than RAM, smaller capacities.
Function
Data Storage-Holds instructions, programs, and data temporarily or permanently during processing.
Data Retrieval-Allows the CPU to access and retrieve stored data quickly for processing.
Data Manipulation-Enables the CPU to read, write, and modify data stored in memory.
Hierarchy
 Memory hierarchy refers to the organization of different memory types based on access speed,
capacity, and cost, with faster and more expensive memory closer to the CPU.
 Levels typically include registers, cache, RAM, and secondary storage.

Importance
 Memory plays a crucial role in computer performance, affecting speed, responsiveness, and
multitasking capabilities.
 Optimizing memory usage is essential for efficient operation and resource management in
computing systems.
System Software

Definition- System software is a type of computer program designed to facilitate the operation of a
computer system and provide a platform for running application software. It manages hardware
resources and provides essential services for users and application programs.
Components
1. Operating System (OS)
Definition-The core system software that manages computer hardware resources and provides
essential services, such as memory management, process scheduling, file management, and user
interface.
Examples- Windows, macOS, Linux, Unix, Android, iOS.
2. Device Drivers
Definition-Software that allows the operating system to communicate with hardware devices, such as
printers, graphics cards, and network adapters, by translating operating system commands into device-
specific commands.
Examples- Printer drivers, graphics drivers, network drivers.
3. Utilities
Definition-Tools and programs that perform specific tasks to enhance system performance, diagnose
and troubleshoot issues, and manage system resources.
Examples; Disk defragmenters, antivirus software, backup utilities, system optimization tools.
Functions
1. Resource Management
Manages hardware resources, such as CPU, memory, disk space, and peripherals, allocating them
efficiently among different processes and users.

2. Process Management
Controls the execution of processes, including scheduling, prioritization, and synchronization, to ensure
efficient utilization of CPU resources.
3. Memory Management
Manages system memory, including allocation, de-allocation, and protection mechanisms, to optimize
memory usage and prevent conflicts between processes.
4. File Management
Provides services for creating, accessing, organizing, and manipulating files and directories on storage
devices, ensuring data integrity and security.
5. User Interface
Provides a platform for interaction between users and the computer system, offering graphical or
command-line interfaces for executing commands and accessing resources.
Importance
 System software serves as the foundation for running application software, enabling users to
perform various tasks and functions on their computers.
 It ensures the efficient and reliable operation of computer systems by managing hardware
resources, providing essential services, and facilitating communication between hardware and
software components.
 Without system software, computers would be unable to boot, execute programs, or perform
basic tasks, rendering them unusable for most users.
Application Software
Definition- Application software refers to programs and software packages designed to perform specific
tasks or applications for end-users. Unlike system software, which manages and supports computer
hardware and provides a platform for running applications, application software is intended for
accomplishing particular user-oriented tasks.
Categories
1. Productivity Software
Definition-Tools designed to enhance productivity and facilitate common tasks in personal, academic, or
professional settings.
Examples- Word processors (Microsoft Word, Google Docs), spreadsheets (Microsoft Excel, Google
Sheets), presentation software (Microsoft PowerPoint, Google Slides), email clients (Microsoft Outlook,
Gmail), note-taking apps (Evernote, OneNote).
2. Multimedia Software
Definition- Applications for creating, editing, and managing multimedia content, such as audio, video,
images, and graphics.
Examples- Image editors (Adobe Photoshop, GIMP), video editors (Adobe Premiere Pro, Final Cut Pro),
audio editors (Audacity, Adobe Audition), media players (VLC Media Player, Windows Media Player),
graphic design software (Adobe Illustrator, Canva).
3. Communication Software
Definition-Tools for facilitating communication and collaboration between users, either in real-time or
asynchronously.
Examples-Instant messaging apps (WhatsApp, Slack), video conferencing software (Zoom, Microsoft
Teams), email clients (Microsoft Outlook, Gmail), social media platforms (Facebook, Twitter),
collaboration tools (Google Workspace, Microsoft Office 365).
4. Entertainment Software
Definition- Programs designed for recreational purposes, including games, simulations, and digital media
consumption.
Examples- Video games (Fortnite, Minecraft), simulations (Flight Simulator, SimCity), streaming services
(Netflix, Spotify), virtual reality experiences (Oculus Rift, PlayStation VR), digital art creation tools
(Procreate, Blender).
5. Education and Reference Software
Definition- Applications aimed at supporting learning, providing educational content, and serving as
reference materials.
Examples- Educational games (Mathletics, Duolingo), e-learning platforms (Khan Academy, Coursera),
reference tools (Encyclopedia Britannica, Wikipedia), language learning apps (Rosetta Stone, Babbel),
digital libraries (OverDrive, Project Gutenberg).

Functions
- Application software enables users to perform specific tasks, such as creating documents, editing
photos, communicating with others, playing games, or learning new skills.
- It provides user-friendly interfaces and features tailored to the needs of different user groups,
enhancing usability and accessibility.
- Application software contributes to productivity, creativity, entertainment, communication, and
learning, enhancing the overall user experience and enabling individuals to accomplish their goals
effectively and efficiently.
Importance
- Application software meets the diverse needs and interests of users, empowering them to perform
tasks, pursue hobbies, communicate with others, and access information and entertainment.
- It drives innovation and creativity by providing tools and platforms for content creation, collaboration,
and expression across various domains and industries.
- Application software enhances user engagement, satisfaction, and quality of life by providing solutions
that streamline workflows, foster communication and collaboration, and enable personalized
experiences tailored to individual preferences and interests.
Virus and Virus Management
Virus
Definition-A computer virus is a malicious program or code designed to replicate itself and spread to
other computers or files, often causing damage or disrupting normal computer operations.
Characteristics-Viruses can infect files, spread through networks or email attachments, and execute
malicious actions, such as deleting files, stealing data, or corrupting system files.
Modes of Transmission-Viruses can spread through infected files, email attachments, removable media
(USB drives), malicious websites, and network vulnerabilities.
Types- Common types of viruses include file viruses, macro viruses, boot sector viruses, polymorphic
viruses, and ransomware.

Virus Management

1. Antivirus Software
Definition-Specialized software designed to detect, prevent, and remove viruses and other malware
from computer systems.
Features- Real-time scanning, heuristic analysis, malware removal, firewall protection, automatic
updates.
Examples; Norton Antivirus, McAfee, Avast, Bitdefender.
2. Firewalls
Definition-Security systems that monitor and control incoming and outgoing network traffic, blocking
unauthorized access and preventing the spread of viruses and other threats.
Features- Packet filtering, stateful inspection, application layer filtering, intrusion detection and
prevention.
Examples; Windows Firewall, Cisco ASA, pfSense.
3. Regular Software Updates
Definition-Keeping operating systems, applications, and antivirus software up to date with the latest
security patches and updates to fix vulnerabilities and protect against new threats.
Importance-Patching known vulnerabilities prevents attackers from exploiting security flaws to infect
systems with viruses or malware.
4. Safe Internet Practices
Definition-Educating users about safe internet browsing habits to minimize the risk of downloading or
executing malicious software.
Tips-Avoid clicking on suspicious links or email attachments, use secure passwords, enable two-factor
authentication, and verify the authenticity of websites before downloading files.
5. Backup and Recovery
Definition- Creating regular backups of important data and files to mitigate the impact of a virus
infection or data loss event.
Importance- Backup copies enable users to restore their data and systems to a previous state before the
infection occurred, reducing downtime and data loss.
6. User Awareness Training
Definition-Educating users about the dangers of viruses, phishing attacks, and social engineering tactics
to recognize and avoid potential threats.
Training Topics-Recognizing suspicious emails, verifying website authenticity, avoiding clicking on pop-
up ads, and reporting security incidents.
Conclusion
Effective virus management involves a combination of antivirus software, firewalls, software updates,
safe internet practices, backup and recovery procedures, and user awareness training to protect
computer systems and data from malicious threats. Constant vigilance and proactive measures are
essential to safeguard against evolving virus threats in today's digital landscape.