MAE 201 course notes – Fall 2019 Copyrighted by R. D.

Gould

ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS I

II. ENERGY AND THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

1. Internal Energy (C&B 2-2): U [kJ], specific internal energy, u [kJ/kg]:

• All the energy associated with the microscopic mode of an atom or molecule.
These modes include: translational, rotational and vibrational kinetic energy,
electronic energy, intermolecular potential energy (coulomb & gravitational
binding forces), nuclear binding energy, energy associated with forces between
molecules, …

Translation Rotation Vibration Intermolecular

• Internal energy is “randomly oriented” and is not readily available.
• Effectively harnessing or converting this disorganized motion into organized
motion is the goal of the thermodynamicist (i.e. heat engine design)
• Internal energy is associate with the microscopic motions and forces in the
atoms or molecules that make up the material – it is not heat energy

Chapter 2 – Page 1
 MAE 201 course notes – Fall 2019 Copyrighted by R. D. Gould

ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS I

Behavior of Solids (C&B 3-2)

• Solids are characterized by their resistance to deformation and changes in

volume. EOS →  ≈ C (not strong function of P, T, …)
• The atoms or molecules that compose the solid are packed closely together –
they have fixed average positions in space relative to each other, but vibrate
around this position – the amplitude and frequency of these oscillations can
store energy (i.e. an internal energy storage mode)

body centered cubic face centered cubic spring-mass model

• The forces between the atoms in a crystal can take a variety of forms (ionic
bonds (NaCl), covalent bonds (share electrons), metallic bonding (electrons
shared by whole crystal), van der Waals forces (noble elements)

Chapter 2 – Page 2
 MAE 201 course notes – Fall 2019 Copyrighted by R. D. Gould

ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS I
Behavior of Liquids (C&B 3-2)

• As more energy is added to a solid the amplitudes of the vibrations will

increased to the point where the forces from other particles will not be able to
hold them in a lattice structure – they break lattice bonds - escape their “orbits” .
• Liquids change shape (move) when placed under shear – liquids deform
continuously under the application of shear stress.
• A molecule in a liquid is probably acted on all the time by as many other
molecules as it would be if in the solid state (density about the same).
• A liquid molecule near the free surface may have enough energy (amplitude of
vibration) that it escapes from the attractive forces of the other molecules – this
is the kinetic energy interpretation of the process of evaporation.
• A liquid-gas in equilibrium (i.e. a 2 phase mixture) will have as many molecules
escaping as “falling back” (captured). The net exchange is zero.
• As a molecule leaves the liquid it takes its internal energy with it. Thus,
evaporation lowers the energy (temperature) of the liquid (i.e. evaporative
cooling) if energy is not added back.

Chapter 2 – Page 3
 MAE 201 course notes – Fall 2019 Copyrighted by R. D. Gould

ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS I
Behavior of Gases (C&B 3-2)

• As even more energy is added to the matter, more particles escape the attractive
force range and thus are free to move about entirely uncontrolled by forces from
other molecules.
• The average velocity of gas molecules at STP (Standard Temperature &
Pressure) is approximately 1200 m/s for He and 500 m/s for N2.
• It is this nature of gas molecules where the expression “a gas abores a vacuum”
comes from. Gases quickly spread to fill an empty space.

NIST (National Institute of Standards & Technology): STP → 20 °C & 101.325 kPa
68 °F & 14.696 psia

IUPAC (Intl Union of Pure & Applied Chemistry): STP → 0 °C & 100 kPa
32 °F & 14.504 psia

Chapter 2 – Page 4
 MAE 201 course notes – Fall 2019 Copyrighted by R. D. Gould

ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS I
2. Definition of Heat (Q) [J, kJ] (C&B 2-3):

• Energy transfer across the system boundary due to a temperature difference

• Heat flows from “hot” to “cold” regions

a. Sign convention for heat:

• Heat added to a system is considered positive, in [+]
• Heat removed from a system is considered negative, out [-]
b. Adiabatic process:
• No heat is transferred during the process (Qnet= 0, perfectly insulated)
c. Units of heat: [n-m], [J], [lbf-ft], [BTU]
d. Rate of heat transfer: Q  Q t [J/s], [W]

c. Net heat expression: Qnet ,in   Qin   Qout 

2
• Heat transfer is a path function and thus: Q1 2   Q1 2 (2-15)
1
• MUST know process path in order to integrate δQ
• Heat is not a thermodynamic property!

Chapter 2 – Page 5
 MAE 201 course notes – Fall 2019 Copyrighted by R. D. Gould

ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS I

3. Definition of Work (W) [J, kJ] (C&B 2-4):

a. General definition:
• Energy expended by force acting through a distance: W    Fon sys  ds
b. Thermodynamic definition:
• Energy transfer across the system boundary (to or from the surroundings)
• Work done by a system could be used to raise a weight external to the
system
• Work, then, provides a fundamental measure of energy
c. Sign convention for work (heat engine convention):
• Work in [done on the system] is considered negative [-]
• Work out [done by the system] is considered positive [+]
d. Mathematical expression for work: F
 
• W   F  ds   F cos ds 
• Work is a path function!
• Depends on more than just end points s1 s s2
• Work is not a thermodynamic property

Chapter 2 – Page 6
 MAE 201 course notes – Fall 2019 Copyrighted by R. D. Gould

ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS I

e. Common types of work

• Shaft work: Wshaft  2nT (T is torque, n is revolutions) (2-25)
“Other”
work • Electrical work: Welec  VIt (V is voltage, I is current, t is time) (2-20)
• Linear spring work:  
Wspring  1 2 k x22  x12 (k is spring constant, (2-29)
x is position (x = 0 is where Fs = 0)

Accounted 2 2
for as KE • Work to accelerate mass: Waccel 
 1 2 m V2  V1  KE 
and PE of 
• Work to lift mass in gravitational field: Wlift  mg z2  z1  PE 
system

• Moving boundary work (i.e. Wbdry = PdV will be discussed in Chap 4)

f. Units of work: [n-m], [J], [lbf-ft], [BTU]

g. Rate of work transfer (i.e. power): W  W t [J/s], [W] … kW, hp, BTU/hr

c. Net work expression: Wnet , out   Wout   Win other  WBDRY

Chapter 2 – Page 7
 MAE 201 course notes – Fall 2019 Copyrighted by R. D. Gould

ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS I
4. First Law of Thermodynamics - Closed Systems (C&B 2-6):

• Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transformed or transferred

• The net change in energy of the system is exactly equal to the net energy that
crosses the boundary of the system
• Note: Once energy has gotten into the system it is impossible to tell whether
the energy was transferred into the system as heat or as work

a. Consider an arbitrary closed system:

 Changein   Net heat   Net work 

     
 the energy 
  energy added 
  energy done 
 of system   to system   by system 
     

E  E2  E1  Qnet ,in,12  Wnet ,out ,1 2 (2-34, 4-17) Difference form

or dE  Qnet ,in ,1 2  Wnet ,out ,1 2 Differential form

Chapter 2 – Page 8
 MAE 201 course notes – Fall 2019 Copyrighted by R. D. Gould

ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS I
These are:
recall 
Qnet ,1 2   Qin,1 2   Qout ,1 2  1. Path dependent
Wnet ,1 2   Wout ,1 2   Win,1 2 
2. Forms of energy that
 WBDRY
other cross system boundary

where E is defined as the total energy content of the system and is composed of:

2
•Kinetic energy, KE  1 2 mV Why are these “acceleration and
lifting work” terms included
• Potential energy, PE  mgZ with the internal energy?

•Internal energy, U = mu

Recall: This is the energy associated E  U  KE  PE

with the atomic structure of
the substance (translational,
vibrational, rotational,
electronic, nuclear)

Chapter 2 – Page 9
 MAE 201 course notes – Fall 2019 Copyrighted by R. D. Gould

ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS I
b. The First Law of Thermodynamics for a closed system states:
dU  d KE   d PE   Qnet  Wnet
   
 state of the system  energy crossing bdry
 depend on end states  path dependent


U 2 1 U   m

 V12
V 2
2

 mg Z 2  Z1   Qnet ,in,12  Wnet ,out ,12 [kJ]
2
or ESys  U Sys  KESys  PESys   Qnet ,in,12  Wnet ,out ,12 (2-34, 4-17)

z
g
Z

• For an isolated closed system:  E2  E1   0 or E  0

• For a closed system undergoing a cycle: 0  Qnet ,in  Wnet ,out

Chapter 2 – Page 10
 MAE 201 course notes – Fall 2019 Copyrighted by R. D. Gould

ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS I
c. First Law Rate Equation - Closed Systems

X
• In the time interval dt, Qnet,in of heat is transferred in and Wnet,out of work is
done by the system. The internal, kinetic and potential energy change by dU,
d(KE) and d(PE) in this time interval so that an energy balance gives:
dE  dU  d KE   d  PE   Qnet ,in  Wnet ,out

• To establish the 1st law rate equation divide by dt and take the limit as dt0
dE  dU d KE  d PE   Qnet Wnet 
      Qnet ,in  Wnet ,out [W, kW]
dt  dt dt dt  dt dt
• Neglecting changes in kinetic and potential energy (stationary system) gives:
dU Qnet Wnet Wnet Q
  where W net  and Q net  net
dt dt dt dt dt

Chapter 2 – Page 11
 MAE 201 course notes – Fall 2019 Copyrighted by R. D. Gould

ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS I
5. Conversion efficiencies (C&B 2-7):
Desired output
Efficiency 
Required input

 shaft,out
W  elec, out
W
 motor   generator 
W elec, in  shaft,in
W

 shaft,out
W E fluid
turbine   pump 
E fluid  shaft,in
W

Chapter 2 – Page 12