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 ALSO AVAILABLE

PEARSON EDEXCEL A LEVEL

GLOBAL
POLITICS
ROBERT MURPHY
JOSIE GADSBY
JOHN JEFFERIES

Newly revised to accompany the

Pearson Edexcel specification, this
textbook provides comprehensive
coverage of everything you need to
understand about Global Politics.

l Revised to include the most up-to-date case studies and coverage of

developments from around the world
l Provides synoptic links to the core political ideas and links to comparative topics
in the specification
l Includes definitions of key terms and concepts throughout
l Includes quickfire knowledge-check questions and summaries of key content to
help consolidate knowledge and understanding
l Features practice questions throughout, to help improve analysis and evaluation
skills
l Provides answer guidance for practice questions online at
www.hoddereducation.co.uk

This title is also available as an eBook with learning support.

Visit hoddereducation.co.uk/boost to find out more.
 PEARSON EDEXCEL A LEVEL

ITICS
POL O ERN M
V IDEAS
ENT AND POLI
TICS

G
UK ITICAL ITICS JOHN JEFFERIES
PO L POL SARRA JENKINS
B AL
GLO
ROBERT MURPHY
DAVID TUCK

9781398369153.indb 1 14/04/23 7:52 AM

 In order to ensure that this resource offers high-quality support for the associated Pearson qualification, it has
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Endorsement does not cover any guidance on assessment activities or processes (e.g. practice questions or advice
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While the publishers have made every attempt to ensure that advice on the qualification and its assessment
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Pearson examiners have not contributed to any sections in this resource relevant to examination papers for
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Endorsement of a resource does not mean that the resource is required to achieve this Pearson qualification,
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Although every effort has been made to ensure that website addresses are correct at time of going to press,
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ISBN: 978 1 3983 6915 3
© John Jefferies, Sarra Jenkins, Robert Murphy and David Tuck 2023
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 Get the most from this book
This textbook covers the key content of the Pearson Edexcel A level Politics
specification (Global) for teaching from September 2017.
Special features
Synoptic link
Synoptic link
Explanation of links
The political impact of
the media is covered
in Chapter 4 on pages
127–36.
between important
Knowledge check
7 Define individual
concepts in the
8 What is administrative
specification.
9 List three examples
Knowledge check
Short questions to
assess comprehension
of the subject.
Stretch and challenge
Activities and questions
that encourage learning
beyond the core
requirements of the
specification.
Debate/Discuss
Two sides of an
argument to encourage
evaluation and analysis.
Practice questions
Revision questions at
the end of each chapter
to help you practise
source evaluation and
essay-writing skills.
Check your answers at
www.hoddereducation.co.uk/pearson-edexcel-a-level-politics-global
9781398369153.indb 3
articulated Key thinker
use of the German word Volk (folk) Key term
conservative nationalism. Herder’s
resigned because of her responsibility
for the and Bismarck co-opted these ideas
Collier, chief regulator of Ofqual, a shared communal national experience into Volksgeist A German
to bring the disparate German states
A summary of a key
2021
in his post as education secretary until somewhat when he spoke of a Volksgeist expression, associated
policy failure, Williamson remained
from the government. with conservatism, which
when Boris Johnson dismissed him a unified country.
refers to the spirit of the
Key thinker nation: a force that unites
Stretch and challenge
thinker in the political
she admitted that people and gives them a
secretary, Amber Rudd, resigned when 3)
On 29 April 2018, Theresa May’s home
Committee and the House of Commons
when she stated Johann Gottfried von Herder (1744–180 strong sense of national
she had misled the Home Affairs Select attacks from attachment to German nationalism and
a identity.
for removing illegal immigrants. Sustained Herder was a conservative with a romantic
that there were no Home Office targets untenable. key work is Treatise on the Origin of Language
(1772).
further undermined her, making her position scepticism of rationalistic ideas. His
ideas chapters.
the Labour Party and in the media had
Amber Rudd, Home Affairs Select Von Herder’s main ideas
nation can be
Committee, 25 April 2018 common culture of its people, and a
ministerial Ministerial Code of Conduct l The national language expresses the
Amber Rudd: ‘We don’t have targets
for and spirit of a people is their Volksgeist.
responsibility.
1:3 (c) It is of paramount importance defined by its culture. The common culture the basis of a
truthful removals.’ by their language and this could form
that Ministers give accurate and The German people should be defined a nation but
Yvette Cooper: ‘But you did.’
l
information to Parliament, correcting that time, ‘Germany’ did not exist as
failure? are you united German people in one state. (At
any inadvertent error at the earliest Amber Rudd: ‘I don’t know. What
was a collection of states.)
opportunity. Ministers who knowingly referring to?’
of ministers resigning
In focus
mislead Parliament will be expected Yvette Cooper: ‘We just heard from
over administrative regional it is often
to offer their resignation to the Prime previous evidence how there are was to preserve the nation, although
failure. targets for net removals.’ Conservative nationalism’s main goal
Minister as being superior to others.
accused of viewing its nation and culture
resign?
and do you think that she was right to
A closer look at an
Why did Amber Rudd resign
In focus
Scandal
A minister can also be held accountable
for their personal conduct and if this
brings Liberal nationalis m vs conservative nationalism
President Emmanuel Macron decided
to fly the EU
example to support
for their In January 2022, liberal nationalist French
are expected to take responsibility of the EU. This
the government into disrepute, they to try flag under the Arc de Triomphe to celebrate
the French presidency of the Council
ministers who might have preferred
actions and, if appropriate, resign. Even
Marine Le
French Conservative nationalists, in particular
which
to resign because of the intensity with led to a furious reaction from leading
to cling on to power have often had
identity.
flag was an attack on the country’s national
speculated on their future in an era of ‘24-hour news’. Scandals can Pen, arguing that ‘replacing’ the French
the media have liberal and conservative nationalism.
knowledge and
this type) or be provoked by a disregard The row sums up the tensions between
be financial or sexual (the media favours
for the Ministerial Code of Conduct.
are important aspects of conservative
Tradition and a rose-tinted nostalgia examples
the nation state. Some contemporary
John Profumo, secretary of state
for war, 1963 nationalism, reinforcing this idea of
understanding.
in
Ministers can be held of the Macmillan government. However,
John Profumo was one of the rising stars Keeler, for the UK are:
accountable for their his affair with the 19-year-old Christine that the country has faced, such
as the annual
1963 the press uncovered evidence of
personal conduct and a soviet spy, Yevgeny Ivanov. Having
lied to l remembering the hardships
who had also been in a relationship with remembrance of the war dead
are expected to take with Keeler, Profumo resigned. (the popular TV series The Crown Key term
responsibility for their actions Parliament about his relationship l celebrating the royal
family both past and present
demonstrating such nostalgia) Exclusive nationalism
a recent example being
Chris Huhne, energy secretary, 2012 claims l fondly recalling key
moments of collective national joy, in Citizenship of a nation and
the coalition government over media the European Championship final
Chris Huhne was forced to resign from when the England football team reached national identity require
by colluding with his former wife, Vicky
that he had perverted the course of justice convicted 2021. an individual to enjoy a
for his speeding offence. Both were common culture, language
Pryce, so that she took responsibility be described as exclusive nationalism
and sent to prison for the crime.
Priti Patel, international development
secretary, 2017
unofficial
Conservative nationalism can sometimes
as one must be a part of collective
conservative nationalism welcomes
experiences to be part of the nation. However,
those who integrate the values of the
nation
or race with the existing
members of the nation.
Key terms
May’s government over a series of state into their lives.
Priti Patel resigned from Theresa
Concise definitions of
minister,
Israeli ministers, including the prime
private meetings that she’d had with
directly
to report the meetings also put her
Benjamin Netanyahu. Patel’s failure be
that ‘any significant content should
in contravention of the code’s requirement after the event’.
department as soon as possible
passed back to the
key terms.
16 Nationalism 437
214 Theme 1 UK government and politics
Summary
Key themes and
Summary
Debate Key themes and key thinkers
Society The economy
Human nature The state
Capitalism can be
do multiculturalists agree on the state? The state should practise Societies with value
To what extent Individuals desire inconsistent with absolute
questions at the end of
Isaiah are tolerant
autonomy but mirror value pluralism. Communities pluralism moral values such as
play in preserving a culture?
Evaluation: What role should the state Berlin
will decide which values are and free
the absolute values equality
Disagreement admired by cultures most important
Agreement over Society can be a The free market will
within multiculturalism The state should practise
agree that the state can promote cultural • There is disagreement
to protect and support different ethnic
Charles Human identity comprise of a variety of sometimes have to be
• Multiculturalists ‘politics of recognition’
chapters against which
how best Taylor is shaped by communities restrained to protect
and provides a form of integration to support different
diversity groups communities communitarian interests
assimilation as it ideas of Rawls
• Multiculturalists reject state-sponsored Liberal multiculturalists follow the communities
ignores the importance of cultural
belongings • neutral in its Society should be an Free-market capitalism is
and argue that the state must remain Individuals Cultural pluralism must be checked by cultures that
the difference of Bhikhu ongoing conversation
• The role of the state is to recognise treatment of different cultures are culturally recognised by the state, promote alternative values
you can check your
The state Parekh between the various
specific groups and not ignore differences. like Parekh argue that both legal and
the needs of minority • Pluralist multiculturalists embedded allowing
cultures that it contains to economic liberalism
must be sensitive and tolerant to of the state have to be reimagined
all functions governmental diversity
the police service, Free-market capitalism is
groups through multiculturalism, such as foster unity Pluralistic societies
and anti-discriminatory Tariq History and culture The state should allow nations to checked by cultures that
• The state includes formal equality education and asylum provide comfort through diversity promote alternative values
that live in a society, than Parekh, Modood reconcile their diverse
legislation to protect all grouping Kymlicka offers a less radical vision
•
knowledge.
groups ted and security to histories to economic liberalism
including minority arguing for the state to support group-differentia individuals
Society contains Capitalism is enhanced by
rights state must provide
vision: the Will Individuals The
that transcend the energising effects of a
• Modood supports another alternative are provided group-differentiated rights as cultures multicultural workforce
national story Kymlicka national
state should help create an inclusive ‘anchorage’ by this facilitates the consent of simple
that stresses cultural diversity a diverse number of cultures geographical territories
against their culture
• Cosmopolitan multiculturalists argue
should
preserving a culture and that individuals
cultures.
be free to ‘pick and mix’ from different
Pluralist multiculturalists are very
critical of this Practice questions
cultures will
idea — Parekh argues that dominant ’s support for minority rights promote
overwhelm minority cultures
1 To what extent does multiculturalism to
appropriate thinkers you have studied
divisions in society? You must use (24)
any differing views in a balanced way.
support your answer and consider
s agree on the type of society they
2 To what extent do multiculturalist
thinkers you have studied to
wish to create? You must use appropriate (24)
Debate differing views in a balanced way.
and consider any
support your answer
more divided than united? You must
agree on society? 3 To what extent is multiculturalism
To what extent do multiculturalists when considering the nature use appropriate thinkers you have
studied to support your answer and
(24)
cause so much disagreement among multiculturalists consider any differing views in a balanced
way.
Evaluation: Why do shallow and deep diversity
s disagree on the role of the state?
of society? 4 To what extent do multiculturalist
you have studied to support your
Disagreement You must use appropriate thinkers (24)
Agreement views in a balanced way.
liberal/cosmopo litan answer and consider any differing
societies offer many benefits for
all the • There is a divisionandbetween
• Diverse multiculturalists pluralist multiculturalists
toleration so far.
different cultures can only extend
can agree on the concept of • Liberal multiculturalists and
• Multiculturalists
recognition and the state countering
They oppose cultures that promote gender mutilation
Berlin supported diversity
Further reading
cultural forced dress codes, for example. Western
‘Is humanitarian intervention a form of
Bridges, W. and Marchant, J. (2020)
Further reading
cultural marginalisation only as far as it was based on freedom
groups No. 4.
• A diverse societytoallows different cultural
Kymlicka wants a society that respects
group-differentiated imperialism?’, Politics Review, Vol. 29,
• a recipe for tension and conflict’, Politics
Review,
enjoy their own culture and for collective rights, Heywood, A. (2016) ‘Multiculturalism:
the opportunity
culture rights. Taylor goes further and argues
benefit from being part of a wider which liberals are uneasy about Vol. 25, No. 4.
allows society as a whole to ideas of deep diversity Review, Vol. 29, No. 2.
• A diverse society • Pluralist multiculturalism and Parekh’s Kelly, R. (2019) ‘Multiculturalism’, Politics
Relevant websites,
group and develop, and it also promotes cross- shallow diversity within race in contemporary US politics’, Politics
Review,
clash with liberals’ preference for Mogridge, A. (2020) ‘Black Lives Matter:
cultural toleration
society
Vol. 30, No. 1.
Politics Review, Vol. 31, No. 3.
Tuck, D. (2022) ‘Cosmopolitan Multiculturalism’,
15 Multiculturalism 427 books and articles.
426 Theme 2 Political ideas
Get the most from this book iii
14/04/23 7:52 AM
 Contents

Theme 1 UK government and politics 1

Chapter 1 Democracy and participation 2
Current systems of democracy in the UK 3
Widening the franchise and debates over suffrage 20
Pressure groups and other influences 23
Rights in context 32
Chapter 2 Political parties 40
The functions and features of political parties 40
Established political parties 47
Emerging and minority parties in the UK 59
Political parties in context 64
Chapter 3 Electoral systems 76
Elections in the UK 77
Different electoral systems 80
Referendums 105
Chapter 4 Voting behaviour and the media 111
Social factors 112
Political context 120
The influence of the media 127
Case studies of three general elections 138
Chapter 5 The constitution 148
The nature of the UK constitution 148
The development of the constitution since 1997 154
The impact of devolution on the United Kingdom 163
How could the UK constitution be further reformed? 170
Chapter 6 Parliament 179
The origins and development of the UK Parliament 179
The composition of the House of Commons 181
The main functions of the House of Commons 183
The composition of the House of Lords 186
The main functions of the House of Lords 188
The comparative powers of the House of Commons and
the House of Lords 192
How Parliament interacts with the executive 195

iv Contents

9781398369153.indb 4 14/04/23 7:52 AM

 Chapter 7 Prime minister and the executive 209
The structure, role and powers of the executive 209
Ministerial responsibility 212
The prime minister and the cabinet 220
Chapter 8 Relations between branches 241
The impact of the Supreme Court on legislative and policy-making
processes 241
The relationship between the executive and Parliament 251
The European Union 257
The location of sovereignty in the UK political system 266

Theme 2 Political ideas 273

Chapter 9 Liberalism 274
Classical liberalism 274
Modern liberalism 276
Core ideas and principles 276
Different views and tensions within liberalism 289
Chapter 10 Conservatism 301
Core ideas and principles 302
Differing views and tensions within conservatism 312
Chapter 11 Socialism 329
Revolutionary socialism 329
Evolutionary socialism 330
Core ideas and principles 330
Differing views and tensions within socialism 340
Chapter 12 Anarchism 354
Core ideas and principles 355
Different types of anarchism 362
Chapter 13 Ecologism 372
Core ideas and principles 372
Different types of ecologism 379
Chapter 14 Feminism 391
Core ideas and principles 391
Different types of feminism 402
Chapter 15 Multiculturalism 412
Core ideas and principles 412
Different types of multiculturalism 418
Chapter 16 Nationalism 428
Core ideas and principles 428
Different types of nationalism 433

Contents v

9781398369153.indb 5 14/04/23 7:52 AM

 Theme 3 Global politics 445
Chapter 17 Comparative theory 446
Main ideas of realism 446
Main ideas of liberalism 448
Divisions between realism and liberalism 450
Anarchical society and society of states 452
Realism and liberalism in contemporary global relations 453
Chapter 18 The state and globalisation 457
The nation state and national sovereignty 457
Globalisation 462
Debates on globalisation 469
Chapter 19 Global governance: political and economic 479
What is global governance? 479
United Nations 480
North Atlantic Treaty Organization 488
Economic global governance 492
How does global economic governance deal with poverty? 500
The role of global civil society and non-state actors 504
Chapter 20 Human rights and environmental
global governance 507
Human rights 507
Environmental global governance 521
Chapter 21 Power and developments 532
Different types of power 532
Different status of power 536
Polarity 541
Different systems of government 543
Liberal economics, the rule of law and democracy 548
How have changes to the balance of power impacted on conflict,
poverty, human rights and the environment? 550
Chapter 22 Regionalism and the EU 553
Regionalism and its different forms 553
Development of regional organisations 555
European integration and developments 562
EU enlargement 562
Acknowledgements 576
Index 578

vi Contents

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 ME 1
THE UK GOVERNMENT
AND POLITICS

9781398369153.indb 1 14/04/23 7:52 AM

 1 Democracy and participation
King Charles III walks behind
the coffin of his mother,
Elizabeth II, on which are
placed the crown, the orb
and the sceptre — symbols
of the sovereign’s status as
head of state. However, in a
democracy such as the UK,
the authority of the monarch
is almost entirely symbolic
2 Theme 1 UK government and politics
9781398369153.indb 2
In 1947, in the House of Commons, Winston Churchill quoted the famous saying
that ‘democracy is the worst form of government except for all those other forms’.
Although his support for democracy might seem somewhat qualified, Churchill
understood that the way in which democracy roots power in the people makes it the
best form of government available. This is because the people hold their government
accountable for what it does on their behalf and so choose the politicians whom they
want to be represented by. Democratic governments can claim legitimacy because
they govern with the consent of the people. This places an obligation on the public
to obey the law because it ref lects the wishes of society.
In autocratic forms of government, power is permanently vested in one individual
or group, giving them ultimate power over their people. These sorts of government
rule by force rather than consent and so cannot claim democratic legitimacy.
14/04/23 7:53 AM
 The UK’s progression towards full democracy can be traced as far back as Magna
Carta (1215) and possibly even to the Anglo-Saxons, giving the UK a good claim to
have the longest history of democratic development in the world.
In the USA, at the height of the American Civil War in 1863, President Abraham
Lincoln (1861–65), in his Gettysburg Address, established the principle of democratic
government as ‘government of the people, by the people, for the people’.

Current systems of democracy in the UK

Here we look at two forms of democracy in the UK — representative democracy
and direct democracy.

Representative democracy
The UK is a representative democracy, which means that the voters elect
politicians to make decisions on their behalf. There are many complicated political Key term
decisions that need to be made in a modern democracy, and the public do not have Representative
the time and understanding to vote on all of them. It is the job of professional democracy A form of
politicians to acquire this sort of political understanding so that they can make democracy in which voters
informed decisions in the interests of the whole nation. elect representatives to
In a representative democracy, elected politicians are made accountable to the make political decisions
electorate in regular elections. This means that the voters retain sovereignty because on their behalf. These
they decide whether or not to renew the mandate of their representatives. representatives are then
held accountable to the
Representative democracy is based on the principle that elected politicians public in regular elections.
should represent the interests of all their constituents. As a result, Members of
Parliament (MPs) spend a significant amount of time in their constituencies listening
to the concerns of the people in public meetings and surgeries. However, an elected

Children celebrate Queen

Elizabeth II’s Platinum
Jubilee at a street party in
Kingston-upon-Thames

1 Democracy and participation 3

9781398369153.indb 3 14/04/23 7:53 AM

 politician should not be a delegate simply carrying out the will of others. Instead,
when making decisions, they should weigh up the feelings of the people they
represent with their party’s manifesto and their wider understanding of an issue. In
other words, representatives should act according to their best judgement rather than
only following the voters’ wishes.
The Westminster Parliament contains 650 MPs, all of whom are accountable to their
constituents in regular general elections. Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland also
have their own devolved governments that legislate on most of their domestic affairs,
while elected mayors and local councils provide another layer of representation for
the public.

Advantages of representative democracy

The main advantage of representative democracy is that government is carried out by
professional politicians who are required to be well informed about political issues.
They are more likely to make politically educated decisions than most members
of the public, who may be swayed by emotion and may not fully understand the
complexities of a question. For example, before a parliamentary bill is enacted, it
will have been drawn up by ministers and civil servants, been debated in both
the House of Commons and the House of Lords, and been further analysed in
committee stage when amendments may be added to it.
In a representative democracy, elected politicians balance conf licting interests
when reaching decisions. This is important in protecting the rights of all citizens,
especially minorities, and ensuring that the implications of a decision for all members
of the community have been thoroughly examined. Over controversial issues,
parliament balances the benefits to the majority with the more negative impact on
the minority; this sort of balancing is one of the key elements of a representative
democracy.

In focus
The representative function of
an MP
In his speech to the electors of Bristol in 1774, Edmund
Burke (1729–97) explained, ‘Your representative owes you,
not his industry only, but his judgement and he betrays
instead of serving you if he sacrifices it to your opinion.’
Given that Burke was a known opponent of slavery, and
the wealth of Bristol’s merchant class was founded on
the slave trade, this was a courageous statement that,
if elected, Burke would act according to his conscience
rather than do what his electors would like him to do. His
support of the American revolutionaries similarly put him
at odds with most of his constituents. His justification
of his right to choose his own position is often used
to underpin the principles on which representative
democracy is based. A statue to Edmund Burke in Bristol. He served as MP
for the city from 1774 to 1780

4 Theme 1 UK government and politics

9781398369153.indb 4 14/04/23 7:53 AM

 A representative democracy also comprises the principle of accountability, which
means that in regular elections the voters can decide whether to renew the mandate
of their representatives. In other words, if the public do not approve of the policies
or performance of a government, they can elect another one.

Disadvantages of representative democracy

Critics of representative democracy, as it operates in the UK, argue that MPs
represent a metropolitan elite that does not represent the more traditional values
of the population. This can mean that MPs can be disengaged from the public
and so do not adequately represent their interests. For example, in the 2016 EU
membership referendum 52% of the public voted to leave the European Union,
whereas 74% of MPs had been in favour of remaining.
Powerful pressure groups, lobbyists and the London-based media also establish a
self-perpetuating Westminster ‘bubble’, which disconnects representatives from the Key term
issues that are important to their constituents. Lobbyist Represents the
interests of a particular

In focus group or cause and seeks

to influence politicians in
According to the Russian anarchist thinker Mikhail Bakunin (1814–76), representative its favour.
democracy is a sham since it seeks to falsely legitimise the rule of the ‘intellectual governing
minority, who, while claiming to represent the people, unfailingly exploits them’. The anarchist
political activist Emma Goldman (1869–1940) is also reputed to have said, ‘If voting changed
Knowledge check
anything they’d make it illegal.’ In 2014, the comedian and activist Russell Brand echoed 1 Define democracy.
these arguments at the Cambridge Union when he stated that UK parliamentary democracy 2 What is representative
is ‘designed to sustain the current power structure. . .be under no illusions. . .that is its democracy?
primary objective’. 3 According to Edmund
Burke, what is the role
of an MP?
MPs can have outside interests, including second jobs (so long as they declare them), 4 How many MPs are
which can further contribute to a conf lict of interests and possibly compromise their there in the Westminster
ability to fully represent their constituents. In 2021, Owen Paterson resigned as an Parliament?
MP after he was criticised by the Commissioner for Parliamentary Standards for
lobbying on behalf of companies that employed him. The same year Sir Geoffrey
Cox MP, the former Attorney General, was also criticised for earning £900,000
for legal work he undertook in addition to his MP’s salary. Although no conf lict of
interest was found, some suggested that this was an excessive amount to earn when
his primary job was to represent his constituents.
Critics also claim that the Westminster Parliament is highly unrepresentative because
it is elected through first-past-the-post (FPTP). As a result the Conservative and
Labour parties dominate the House of Commons at the expense of smaller parties
such as the Liberal Democrats, Greens and the UKIP/Brexit party, which have
struggled to gain appropriate representation even when they have polled highly.
The House of Lords is unelected and so unaccountable to the public, further
undermining Parliament’s representative function. The social make-up of Parliament
is still primarily white, male and middle class.

How unrepresentative is the Westminster Parliament?

A popular criticism of the Westminster Parliament is that it is socially exclusive
and therefore unrepresentative of the interests of contemporary society. Although

1 Democracy and participation 5

9781398369153.indb 5 14/04/23 7:53 AM


Knowledge check
5 What is the electoral
system used to elect
the Westminster
Parliament?
6 List three advantages
of UK representative
democracy.
7 List three criticisms
of UK representative
democracy.
Key term
Direct democracy A form
of democracy in which
citizens themselves, rather
than their representatives,
make political decisions.
The most significant
modern example of direct
democracy is a referendum.
6 Theme 1 UK government and politics
9781398369153.indb 6
Table 1.1 The 2019 Parliament
2019 Westminster Parliament National average (2019)
Female 34% 51%
Minority ethnic 10% 14%
LGBTQ+ 7% 2.7% (estimated)
Privately educated 29% 7%
the 2019 general election did elect the most diverse House of Commons ever, as
Table 1.1 illustrates, men and those educated in private schools are still substantially
over-represented in Westminster.
The social background of MPs is much more middle class than it was in the
parliament elected in 1945. Eighty-five per cent of MPs also attended university
and 19% graduated from either Oxford or Cambridge. Some argue that MPs do
not need to share the same characteristics as a group to represent their interests. For
example, legislation advancing LGBTQ+ rights has been passed by predominantly
heterosexual parliaments.
A powerful criticism of UK representative democracy is that it is least likely to
engage the poorest and most marginalised in society. In 2018, the Hansard Society
estimated that 83% of higher (A/B) social groups were prepared to participate in
politics, compared with 41% for less prosperous (D/E) social groups. Only 2% of
homeless people were registered to vote in 2018.
Direct democracy in the UK
Direct democracy is a form of democracy in which decisions are directly made by
the public without their opinions being channelled through representatives. In a direct
democracy there is no distinction between government and citizen. Instead, there is
continuous engagement by the public in the democratic process. With over 40 million
voters in the UK, it would be impossible for it to be completely governed according to
the principles of direct democracy. However, elements of direct democracy have been
introduced into the UK’s system of representative democracy to engage the public more
closely in issues that directly concern them.
14/04/23 7:53 AM
 As Table 1.2 illustrates, there are several different sorts of direct democracy used
in the UK. Referendums are the most important because of the far-reaching
consequences they can have.
Table 1.2 Types of direct democracy
Example Why and when have they been used?
Referendums Referendums enable the public to directly
express their views on single issues. In 2014, in
the Scottish independence referendum, 55.3%
voted in favour of Scotland remaining in the UK
and 44.7% voted in favour of independence. In
the EU referendum in 2016, 52% voted in favour
of leaving the EU and 48% voted in favour of
remaining
Electronic If a petition on the government website reaches
petitions 100,000 signatures it will be considered for
debate either in Westminster Hall or the chamber
of the House of Commons. This does not mean
that legislation will have to be forthcoming.
However, it does mean that Parliament has to
engage with issues the public feel strongly about.
In 2021 several important issues were raised by
e-petitions such as making it a legal requirement
for night clubs to search guests on entry
Consultative These can be set up when governing bodies want
exercises to assess the likely reaction to their proposed
policies. Communities that will be affected have
been consulted over the expansion of Heathrow
and the HS2 rail link
Open primaries In open primaries, the public directly decide
who the candidate should be. David Cameron
encouraged open primaries to open up politics.
Thirteen Conservative candidates were selected
in this way for the 2015 general election.
However, for the 2019 general election the
Conservatives selected only one of their
candidates through an open primary
9781398369153.indb 7
Advantages and disadvantages
Providing the public with a direct choice can
help to settle controversial issues. Since the
public have voted directly, the result can claim
greater legitimacy than a decision reached by
their representatives. However, critics note that
referendums require a detailed understanding of
issues, which the public may lack. The ongoing
debate over Scottish independence and the
UK’s relationship with the EU also suggests
that referendums do not conclusively resolve
contentious issues
In 2020, England footballer Marcus Rashford’s
#EndChildFoodPoverty gained over 1.1 million
signatures, generating huge public enthusiasm
and persuading the government to commit to
free school meals for low-income families during
school holidays
However, e-petitions can also raise false
expectations and consume parliamentary time.
There are issues on which Parliament cannot
legislate (an e-petition to revoke Sir Tony Blair’s
knighthood gained more than 1 million signatures
but was rejected because knighthoods are
bestowed by the monarch) or will not legislate (a
petition demanding Article 50 be revoked so that
the UK would remain in the EU gained 6.1 million
signatures in 2019). The publicity e-petitions
generate is nonetheless important in informing
and progressing public debate
These provide an important way of engaging with
the public on issues that directly affect them.
However, since they are consultative exercises,
the public’s opinion is not binding. Critics further
claim that the most socially disadvantaged
groups are least likely to engage, making
consultative exercises unrepresentative
If the public have direct influence over who the
candidates for political office will be, people
less closely affiliated with political parties are
more likely to enter politics. Whether or not
this is a positive development divides opinion.
Sarah Wollaston was the first Conservative
parliamentary candidate to be selected in this way
in 2009. As a Conservative MP she proved very
independent-minded and eventually abandoned
the party to join the Liberal Democrats
1 Democracy and participation 7
14/04/23 7:53 AM
 Table 1.2 continued

Example Why and when have they been used?
Election of the All the main political parties now allow their
leadership of members to decide who the leader of their party
political parties will be. This is a significant power since it may
determine who the prime minister will be.
In 2022, Liz Truss defeated Rishi Sunak for the
leadership of the Conservative Party by 57%
to 43%. In 2020, Sir Keir Starmer was elected
leader of the Labour Party with 56% of the vote of
party members
Recall of MPs Act If an MP has been imprisoned, suspended from
2015 the House by the Committee on Standards or
convicted of making false expenses claims then
a recall petition signed by a minimum of 10% of
their constituents can trigger a by-election.
In 2019 the Peterborough MP Fiona Onasanya
was sentenced to a three-month jail term for
perverting the course of justice. 25% of registered
voters demanded her recall and she did not
contest the subsequent by-election.
In 2019 Chris Davies was convicted of making
fraudulent expenses claims. 19% of the
registered electors of Brecon and Radnorshire
signed a recall petition. Davies contested the
subsequent by-election, which he lost
Advantages and disadvantages
Supporters argue that this makes the leadership
accountable to the whole party. This is an
especially powerful argument in the Labour
Party, which sees itself both as a political party
and as a popular movement. Critics claim it
gives too much influence to party activists, who
are generally more radical than the electorate.
For example, Labour Party members re-elected
Jeremy Corbyn as leader in 2016 by 61.8% even
though Labour MPs had previously passed a vote
of no confidence in him by a staggering 172/40
votes. Although Liz Truss’ policies proved very
popular with Conservative Party members they
were hugely divisive among Conservative MPs,
leading to political chaos and her resignation
after only 45 days in office
Power of recall makes MPs accountable to their
constituents in matters of serious misconduct
or illegal behaviour. However, the circumstances
in which it can be activated are so extreme that
critics argue its impact has been negligible

Advantages of direct democracy

Knowledge check
8 Define direct
democracy.
9 List three types of
direct democracy.
10 What are the reasons
for which an MP can
be recalled?
Supporters of direct democracy argue that it engages the public and makes politicians
more responsive to what people really think. This creates a closer connection
between the public and political decision making.
By providing the public with more opportunities to make decisions it creates greater
engagement in the political process, encouraging a more politically educated and
civically involved citizenry.
A greater use of direct democracy ensures that our representatives are kept better
informed of developing public attitudes through referendums, consultative exercises
and electronic petitions.

Disadvantages of direct democracy

Critics of direct democracy respond that referendums dangerously simplify
questions to a binary ‘yes/no’ when the issues are much more complex than that.
For example, the UK’s departure from the EU raised highly complicated issues such
as the UK’s relationship with the EU customs union and the EU single market, and
the border status of Northern Ireland. None of these issues was addressed in the 2016
referendum, which posed only this question: ‘Should the United Kingdom remain
a member of the European Union or leave the European Union?’

8 Theme 1 UK government and politics

9781398369153.indb 8 14/04/23 7:53 AM

 A direct democracy can challenge the Burkean principle that representatives should
act according to their conscience, not the wishes of their constituents. A high-profile
example of this is Theresa May, who supported Remain in the 2016 referendum but
went on to lead a government committed to withdrawing from the EU.
Direct democracy does not balance conf licting interests or protect the rights of
minorities. This is why Clement Attlee referred to referendums as ‘a device of
demagogues and dictators’.
Direct democracy can also encourage the public to vote on issues on which they are
not sufficiently knowledgeable to make well-informed decisions.

Is the UK suffering from a participation crisis?

It has been suggested that a general failure to engage in politics means that the
public are so content with politics that they see no pressing need to engage. This
is an extremely dangerous argument because it suggests that politicians should
aspire to complete public disengagement from politics, which would be the end of
participatory democracy.

Public trust in MPs

When Neil Kinnock became an MP, his father told him, ‘Remember, Neil, MP stands
not just for Member of Parliament but also for Man of Principle.’ Unfortunately,
over the years a number of MPs have not lived up to these high standards. In 2009,
MPs collectively were held up to contempt and ridicule over allegations that they
were overclaiming on their expenses. A perennial criticism is that MPs can exploit
their public position for private gain. In 2010, a former Labour minister, Stephen
Byers, was secretly filmed telling a consultancy firm that he was like ‘a cab for hire’.
In 2021, Conservative minister Owen Paterson resigned as an MP after the House
of Commons Standards Committee suspended him for 30 days for ‘an egregious
case of paid advocacy’. Media interest in such stories has done much to damage the
credibility of Westminster and fuel voter disengagement. In 2021, according to a
YouGov poll, 80% of those surveyed believed there was a fair or significant amount
of corruption in UK politics, with just 1% saying there was no corruption.
Voting is one of the most obvious and important ways of engaging in politics.
Between 1964 and 1997 the average turnout in general elections was 74.5%.
l Voter turnout dramatically decreased to just 59.4% in 2001 when the Blair
government seemed almost certain of being re-elected given its strong record
on governing competence and William Hague’s uninspiring leadership of the
Conservative Party.
l In the next four general elections more pressing issues were at stake and so voting
steadily increased, reaching a high point of 68.7% in 2017.
l However, the average turnout in general elections from 2005 to 2019 was
65.7%, which was 8.8% less than from 1964 to 1997. This suggests a concerning
downward trend.
Significantly, political engagement is least likely from the most socially disadvantaged.
For example, in the 2019 general election, 68% of A/B voters voted, but only 53% of
D/E voters. Three of the five constituencies with the lowest turnout in that election
were in Kingston upon Hull, where 45% of neighbourhoods are among the most
deprived 10% in England. This suggests a crisis of engagement among the most
marginalised social groupings.

1 Democracy and participation 9

9781398369153.indb 9 14/04/23 7:53 AM

 Table 1.3 The turnout in British general elections, 1964–2019
General election date Turnout (%)
1964 77.1
1966 75.8
1970 72
February 1974 78.8
October 1974 72.8
1979 76
1983 72.7
1987 75.3
1992 77.7
1997 71.4
2001 59.4
2005 61.3
2010 65.2
2015 66.1
2017 68.7
2019 67.3

From Table 1.3 it is clear that the numbers voting in general elections are, on average,
significantly lower than they have been.
Historically, the turnout in national elections in the UK has been considerably
higher than that in US presidential elections. However, in the 2020 US presidential
election the turnout was 67%, which was equivalent to the UK general election in
2019. Voter turnout in recent UK general elections has also been noticeably lower
than in several other European democracies where voting is not compulsory and
yet turnout is consistently high. This suggests that UK politicians should not be
complacent about voter participation (Table 1.4).
Devolved governments, elected mayors and elected crime and police commissioners
provide the public with greater opportunities to engage with the political process
at a regional or local level. However, recent voter turnout at such elections
indicates that the problem of voter engagement is not confined to Westminster. For
example, turnout in elections for the devolved parliaments is no higher than for the
Westminster Parliament and in the case of the Welsh Parliament (Senedd Cymru) is
significantly lower (Table 1.5).
Table 1.4 Turnout in selected national elections
Election Turnout (%)
2022 French presidential election First round 73.7
Second round 72
2021 Norwegian parliamentary election 77.1
2021 Dutch general election 78.7
2021 German federal election 76.6
2020 US presidential election 67

10 Theme 1 UK government and politics

9781398369153.indb 10 14/04/23 7:53 AM

 Table 1.5 Turnout in Scottish and Welsh Parliament elections
Scottish Parliament Welsh Parliament (Senedd Cymru)
1999: 59.1% 1999: 46%
2021: 63.5% 2021: 46.5%

Although there has been a slight increase in voter turnout for elected mayors, they
have not succeeded in generating significant enthusiasm from the electorate (Table
1.6). Police and crime commissioners were elected in 2021 with, on average, a
turnout of just 33.2%, although that was considerably higher than the 15.1% turnout
in 2012 when they were introduced.
Table 1.6 Turnout in mayoral elections
Election Turnout (%)
2021 London 42.2 Key term
2021 Bristol 41.2
Participation crisis
2021 West Midlands 31.2 A point at which the public
2021 Greater Manchester 34.7 have become disengaged
from politics and voting
The membership of political parties (Table 1.7) is also significantly lower than it was in the levels have fallen so low
1950s. In 1953, for example, the membership of the Conservative Party was 2,806,000 that the legitimacy of
and the Labour Party 1,005,000. This does not necessarily indicate a participation elected governments can
crisis, since voters are less likely to fully identify with one party because of partisan be questioned.
dealignment and therefore have less motivation to join one.
Table 1.7 The membership of political parties in the UK, 2021
Party Membership
Labour 430,000
Conservative 200,000
Liberal Democrat   98,000 Table 1.8 Turnout in the
Scottish National Party 119,000 1975 and 2016 EEC/EU
referendums
However, other evidence suggests claims of a participation crisis are exaggerated. Referendum Turnout (%)
When issues are sufficiently important to the public they can still vote in very 1975 EEC 64.6
large numbers. The Scottish independence referendum in 2014 recorded an 84.6% referendum
turnout. There was also an increase of 7.6% in voting from the first to the second 2016 EU 72.2
referendums on the UK’s membership of the EEC/EU (Table 1.8). referendum
The public may also be choosing to participate in politics in different ways.
Parliamentary e-petitions can generate huge support, as evidenced by the 6.1 million
people who signed the Revoke Article 50 and Remain in the EU petition in Knowledge check
2019. Given that voters are increasingly disengaged from traditional party politics,
11 Define participation
e-petitions provide a fresh way of public participation. For example, in 2021,
crisis.
Parliament debated a variety of e-petitions ranging from the protection of hedgehogs
12 What groups are least
to revoking the television licence.
likely to vote in UK
The hundreds of thousands who marched in London in 2019 to demand that the elections?
UK remain in the EU, and the 100,000 who joined protests in Glasgow during 13 What was the turnout
the COP26 climate change conference in November 2021, further demonstrate the in the two most
strength of political activism. Black Lives Matter has stimulated a powerful debate recent UK general
about racism in the UK, highlighting how social movements can encourage intense elections?
political dialogue, especially among young people.

1 Democracy and participation 11

9781398369153.indb 11 14/04/23 7:53 AM


A march by LGBTQ+ group Stonewall. Political activism and
engagement are important, but should not be seen as a
replacement for voting
2.4 million followers and former UKIP/Brexit Party leader Nigel Farage had 1.6
million followers on Twitter.
Key terms
Legitimacy Legitimate
authority means power
that has been legally
acquired and is exercised
according to the rule of
law. A dictator can claim
power but not legitimate
power.
Democratic deficit
When there is so little
democratic participation
by the public and so
little trust in political
institutions that only a
minority of citizens engage
in politics. Consequently,
elected governments can
no longer claim legitimacy.
12 Theme 1 UK government and politics
9781398369153.indb 12
Pressure groups such as Amnesty International, which
campaigns on behalf of political prisoners, and the
environmental pressure groups Friends of the Earth
and Greenpeace continue to engage large numbers of
the public. Online pressure groups such as 38 Degrees
and Change.org further encourage participation by
presenting an accessible mechanism to create and sign
online petitions.
The public also has a significant online engagement with
politics. The biggest Twitter account in the UK in 2021
was BBC Breaking News, with 10 million followers more
than the singer/songwriter Harry Styles. In 2022, the UK
prime minister Twitter account had 5.8 million followers,
and politicians with radical agendas generate considerable
enthusiasm. Former Labour leader Jeremy Corbyn had
It should be acknowledged that in a democracy the legitimacy of government derives
from the vote of the public. Others forms of political activism and engagement are
important but should not be seen as a replacement for voting.
In what ways is UK democracy in need of reform?
Critics of the UK’s system of representative democracy argue that radical steps need
to be taken to re-inspire enthusiasm for the democratic process. Trust in politicians
and political party membership has declined and the turnout in general elections
has substantially decreased (Table 1.3). New ways need to be found to make
politics relevant to the public. This is vital because if voting trends remain low,
the legitimacy that elected politicians can claim will be significantly reduced. For
example, in 2021, no mayoral election gained more than a 50% turnout, while the
Welsh Parliament (Senedd Cymru) was elected on just a 46.5% turnout.
How convincing are proposals for the reform of
UK democracy?
Critics suggest that there are several ways in which politicians could be made more
responsive to the public. The USA has a tradition of initiatives whereby voters can
exert inf luence over the direction of public policy, and a related model could enhance
the participatory nature of UK democracy. Various proposals could encourage
greater accountability and address claims of a democratic deficit and so lead to an
increase in participation. All are controversial, however.
People’s referendums
Claims that politicians are insufficiently accountable to the public could be addressed by
greater use of direct democracy so that the people themselves are able to make choices.
These could include more referendums. Currently, referendums are called by the
government when it decides that the people need to legitimise an important decision
such as whether the UK should leave the EU (2016). Consequently, critics claim that
the public are being asked to vote on issues only when the government wants them to.
Other ways of determining when a referendum is called might engage the public more.
14/04/23 7:53 AM
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