The United Theological College

M.Th I Religion (Hinduism)

Course Title & Code : Religious Bhakti Traditions in India, MRH022
Book summarised : The Embodiment of Bhakti (Introduction and Part I only)
Author : Karen Pechilis Prentiss
Course Guide : Dr. John V. Mathew
Submitted by : Zoramsanga

(This assignment is a summary of the first portions – Introduction, Part I of the

book, The Embodiment of Bhakti written by Karen Pechilis Prentiss. In this book, the
author questions the old ways of studying bhakti by earlier Orientalist scholars. She
sets out to look at bhakti from a new perspective, and focuses her attention on
regional manifestation of bhakti, particularly the Tamil Siva-bhakti.)

Summary of Introduction
The author begins with a reflection on how Orientalist scholars often
misunderstood bhakti, and neglected its regional variations, in particular the Tamil
Siva-bhakti. She attempts to rectify this mistake in her book.
In the 19th century, missionaries and scholars were drawn to bhakti, maybe
because of its similarity to Christian monotheism and devotion to God. Bhakti, which
was popularly understood to mean ‘devotion to a personal deity’ was seen by some
scholars as a monotheistic reform movement in Hinduism. Some scholars, such as
Albrecht Weber and M.F. Lorinser, attempted to trace the origins of bhakti to
Christianity. This was, however, challenged by Indian scholars such as R.G.
Bhandarkar, who suggested that the rise of bhakti was because of developments in
Vaisnavism in India.
All these earlier works, important as they were, missed regional expressions of
bhakti. Tamil Siva-bhakti, which developed from the 7th to the 14th centuries, played
a key role in Tamil culture, involving people from all walks of life. The bhakti hymns
composed by the three famous hymnists – Campantar, Appar, and Cuntarar, from the
7th to 9th centuries, were central to this tradition. These hymns rooted bhakti in Tamil
lands, linking devotion to Tamil identity.
The Tamil nationalism movement in the early 20th century further supported
Tamil Siva-bhakti, emphasizing a unique Tamil cultural and religious heritage. This

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movement included the Tamil Renaissance, which aimed to restore classic Tamil
texts, and the Non-Brahman movement, which emphasized Tamil religious texts to
create a unique Tamil identity separate from Brahmanical influence.
Throughout its history, Tamil Siva-bhakti focused on embodiment, not just in
depicting deities but also in the lives of the devotees. The hymns and later
biographical literatures highlighted the personal experiences and diverse backgrounds
of the bhaktas. This tradition shows how bhakti, as a participatory religious path,
adapted to and influenced different historical and cultural contexts, becoming an
important part of Tamil heritage. Bhakti as ‘embodiment’ is very important for the
author of the book.
The author of the book aims to restore the historical study of bhakti by looking at
the unique medieval forms of Tamil Siva-bhakti.

Summary of Part One: Images of Bhakti

Orientalist scholars in the late 19th and early 20th centuries viewed bhakti in India
as a monotheistic reform movement, giving it theological and social significance.
These scholars, influenced by their backgrounds, compared bhakti to their own values
of monotheism and reform. They saw bhakti as part of Hinduism's evolution towards
becoming a universal religion, with monotheism as the ultimate reform.
Different scholars had varying views on the historical origins of bhakti. H. H.
Wilson saw it as a modern sectarian innovation, similar to Protestant reform. A.
Weber and M. F. Lorinser thought the monotheism of bhakti was an ancient idea in
India, but came from Christianity’s influence. However, R. G. Bhandarkar argued that
monotheism was a native development in Hinduism, even before Christianity. He
viewed bhakti as a Kshatriya reform of brahman religion, and this view became quite
influential.
George A. Grierson, in his 1910 Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics article,
summarized these views. He defined bhakti primarily as ‘adoration’ and traced its
development from nature worship (like Sun worship) to monotheistic worship.
Grierson agreed that early bhakti was a Kshatriya-led monotheistic movement
opposing brahman pantheism, evolving through interactions with various religious
philosophies and local traditions.
He further linked the reform of bhakti to figures like Ramanuja and Madhva, who
transformed it into a structured religious path called the Bhakti-marga, complete with

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doctrines, rituals, and sects. He claimed that medieval bhakti was influenced by
Christianity, especially in southern India, and later spread north. He pointed out that
Ramanuja was born at Perumbur and studied at Kancipura, near the Nestorian
Christian Shrine of St. Thomas at Mylapore. A follower of Ramanuja, Ramananda,
was further influenced by Christians, argued with his co-religionists, went north, and
took the bhakti movement with him.
Contemporary scholarship, however, has moved away from this orientalist view of
monotheism and reform. Modern scholars now see bhakti as a reinterpretation of
tradition within a unique religious context. They recognize bhakti as a revival and
recontextualization of Vedic traditions, emphasizing its emotional aspects as central to
its practice and interpretation.

a) One: Bhakti as devotion

Today, scholars see bhakti as a development that came after the Vedic period,
during the time when the epics and puranas were being formed. These literatures were
key in the transition from Vedism to Hinduism.
Madeleine Biardeau suggests that bhakti incorporates earlier Vedic traditions and
was influenced by texts like the Yajurveda, which emphasize action for salvation and
community activity as religious activity. She believes that the epics and puranas are
essentially detailed bhakti treatises. The Katha and Svetasvatara Upanishads are also
important as they describe God as an active presence among humans and discuss
concepts of election and grace. She explains that bhakti encourages involvement in
worldly affairs, but without selfish love (kama), combining secular life with the ideals
of the sannyasin.
Contemporary studies highlight that bhakti involves both emotional devotion and
intellectual engagement, challenging earlier Orientalist views that saw bhakti as
merely emotional. Bhakti is seen not just as a religious sentiment but as a structured
path to understanding and engaging with the divine, involving both emotional
attachment and intellectual inquiry.
Defining bhakti as ‘devotion to a personal deity’ reflects the monotheism of early
Orientalists; so, Krishna Sharma suggests defining bhakti only as ‘devotion’.
However, the author of the book points out that the origins and evolution of the words
‘devotion’ and bhakti are divergent and do not carry the same meaning. She further

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explains that the root of the word bhakti is bhaj, which means ‘partake, participate’.
She, therefore, suggests that ‘participation’ is a better translation for bhakti.

b) Two: Bhakti as a Movement

Bhakti can be seen as a movement to break free from oppressive traditionalism.
Mahadeo Govind Ranade proposed a populist perspective, comparing bhakti to
the Protestant Reformation. He emphasized its heterodox nature and social protest
against Brahmanical orthodoxy and caste distinctions. Ranade noted that bhakti was
led by saints and philosophers from non-brahman lower orders, challenging
traditional caste practices. However, scholars like Zvelebil question this image of
bhakti, pointing out that many bhaktas were brahmans themselves.
Some scholars explore the use of regional languages in bhakti literature as a
protest against Sanskrit formulations. They note that in Sanskrit texts like the
Bhagavad Gita and the Bhagavata Purana, the question-and-answer format separates
the interlocutor from the author, that is God and human. In contrast, the regional
bhakti poems highlight the poet's voice, bringing God closer to the worshipper.
The distinction between nirguna (abstract, formless) and saguna (with attributes)
bhakti also reflects conservatism and liberalism. Nirguna bhakti, exemplified by poets
like Kabir and Mirabai, took a radical stance against established norms, advocating
for spiritual liberation outside caste confines. In contrast, saguna bhakti poets, such as
Tulsidas, integrated traditional religious practices and emphasized devotion through
rituals and mythological narratives.
Modern scholars like Jayant Lele view bhakti as a ‘living tradition’ that affirms
the world but also has a critical approach to it, making it potentially revolutionary
through its critique of social norms. However, others like Ranajit Guha criticize
bhakti for perpetuating existing power structures, arguing that its reforms have failed
to challenge caste divisions.
There is also a regional aspect to bhakti as a movement. From existing textual
evidence, the first bhakti literature in regional languages appeared in South India
(Tamil, 7th century) and much later in North India (16th century). In the Bhagavata
Mahatmya, bhakti is personified as a weary woman journeying across India:
originating in Dravida, growing up in Karnataka, living in Maharashtra, and growing
old and weary in Gujarat during the Kali Yuga, a time of moral decline. Bhakti,
accompanied by her sons Jnana and Vairagya, seeks solace in Vrndavana, where her

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youthful vigour is restored through devotion to Krsna. The tale praises the Bhagavata
Purana as a transformative scripture, emphasizing its capacity to revive Bhakti and
her sons. It speaks unfavourably of regions like Gujarat and favourably of Vrndavana,
implying a hierarchy of spirituality linked to geography.
Pilgrimage is important in the biographical texts of regional-language bhakti
leaders. While these pilgrimages often cross regional boundaries, they are most often
around Tamil language areas, and some areas of Kerala and Karnataka. Stories of
regional-language bhaktas frequently talk about their encounters with fellow bhaktas
on pilgrimages, suggesting a lineage of bhakti saints. For instance, the Tamil Periya
Puranam highlights Tamil bhaktas like Campantar, Appar, and Cuntarar meeting
during their pilgrimage to Tamil lands, emphasizing the region's importance.
Similarly, the Hindi Bhaktamala by Nabhadas describes meetings of bhaktas in
various areas, portraying Ramananda’s journey from southern to northern India,
where he mentored disciples like Kabir.
The biographies of local bhaktas reinforce regionalism in bhakti practices. For
example, Tamil bhakti poets stress their own and God's Tamilness, elevating the Tamil
language as sacred. This regional identity is reflected in the biographies, which are
written in regional languages, reinforcing the bhaktas’ connection to their cultural and
linguistic roots.
Historically, scholarship has underrepresented the Tamil region in bhakti studies.
Orientalists often overlooked South India’s religious developments, preferring
Sanskrit texts and depicting Dravidian religions as primitive compared to Aryan ones.
Orientalist scholarship continued to depict South India as primitive, influenced by
missionaries' observations and their agenda to present Tamil culture as needing
reform. Contemporary scholars like David Shulman and George Hart may seek to
rectify past mistakes by early orientalists, but they still carry some of the stereotypes
in regard to South India.
A critical examination of these past perspectives is necessary to fully understand
Tamil Siva-bhakti. In studying Tamil Siva-bhakti, the author attempts to understand
Tamilness as defined by the Tamil agents themselves.

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