The Congress of Vienna (1815)

Treaty of Paris
The Treaty of Paris, signed in March 1814 before the Congress of Vienna, restored the Bourbon
monarchy in France by placing Louis XVIII on the throne. Despite France's defeat, the treaty
was relatively lenient, allowing France to retain lands acquired before November 1, 1792,
including parts of Savoy, Germany, and the Austrian Netherlands, along with Avignon. France
ceded territories such as the Austrian Netherlands, Dutch Republic, German states, Italian
states, and Switzerland. Additionally, it lost Caribbean islands to Britain but faced no
reparations. However, unresolved territorial issues remained in central and southern Europe.
Introduction to Congress of Vienna
The Congress of Vienna, convened in 1814-1815, was a landmark diplomatic gathering that
aimed to redraw the map of Europe following the Napoleonic Wars and restore stability to the
continent. Hosted by the Austrian Chancellor Klemens von Metternich, the Congress brought
together representatives from major European powers to negotiate and finalize a new political
order. The Congress sought to address territorial disputes, establish a balance of power, and
prevent future conflicts by promoting principles of conservatism and monarchical legitimacy.
This diplomatic assembly not only reshaped the geopolitical landscape of Europe but also set
the stage for a century of relative peace and stability known as the "Concert of Europe."
At the Congress, Austria was represented by Franci 1 and he Austrian chan­cellor Prince
Klemens von Met­ternich. Foreign Secretary Viscount Robert Castlereagh represented Britain.
Russian king Tsar Alexander 1 joined the Congress. Prussia was represented by Fredrick
William 3; the poe was represented by Cardinal Salby and France by bishop Talleyrand.

Purposes
● To restore the old monarch under the principle of legitimacy
● To prevent further aggression from France
● Division of territories among the Great Powers
● to achieve a balance of power
● to make future revolution­ary movements impossible
1) Restoration under the principle of Legitimacy
Led by figures such as Klemens von Metternich of Austria, the Congress aimed to restore the
pre-Napoleonic order by reinstating legitimate monarchs who had been deposed during the
French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars. Metternich and the French delegate, Talleyrand, were
the chief advocate of the restoration. The principle was applied in France, Spain, Piedmont,
Tuscany, Modena, and the Papal States. The Congress restored the Bourbon dynasty to the
throne of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies (Naples and Sicily). There, Ferdinand I introduced a
constitution, but signed an alliance with Austria and promised not to introduce any further
reforms without the latter’s per­mission.
2) The Prevention of Aggression by France
the territories of the former Austrian Netherlands( Belgium) and Holland were now united in the
the Kingdom of the Netherlands, serving as a northern buffer state. Though it was done on the
purely defensive lines, there was also another motive in the minds of the Congress Statesmen.
Holland had not been loyal to Napoleon even under the rule of his brother. But in Belgium, the
French invasion had been greatly aided by the existence of a revolutionary pro-French
movement in 1793. So, it was hoped that the Dutch would be able to hold this in neck in the
future. Therefore, this motive was defensive as well as anti-revolutionary.
Moreover, The king of Piedmont who had taken refuge from Napoleon in the island of Sardia,
was restored to his throne. In order to strengthen his kingdom, the valuable port and formerly
free republic of Genoa was added to it.
The Congress statesmen had similar defensive motives in agreeing to Prussia taking over the
rhine provinces. This means that Prussia now undertook the defence of the Rhine frontier
because Austria had entirely withdrawn from Northern Europe when she gave ip the Austrian
Netherlands.
Prussia received territories on the left bank of the Rhine River to discourage French aggression
to the east.
To protect against French aggression along its eastern border, Switzerland was reestablished as
a neutral confederation of cantons, acted as a buffer between France and neighboring
territories.

3) Division of Territories among Victors

The two most important territories in dispute between the powers were Poland and Saxony. The
Tzar Alexander of Russia demanded that the whole of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw created by
Napoleon. He also demanded those parts of Poland which had been taken over by Prussia at
the end of the previous century. On the other hand, Prussia demanded the whole of the
Kingdom of Saxony as compensation. This caused the first serious quarrel among the Great
Powers at Vienna.
It was Talleyrand who formed an alliance between France, Britannia and Austria to go to war
against Prussia and Russia if the two powers persisted in their demands. Thus, Talleyrand
brought France, the defeated power, right into forefronts of european politics once again.
Moreover, Napoleon escaped from the island of Elba in MAach 1815 to fight again which made
them willing to compromise themselves.
Final Shape of Division of Territories
Russia kept Finland which she had captured from Sweden in 1808 and Bessarabia which she
had taken from Turkey. In return, Sweden was given Norway which was taken from napoleon’s
ally Denmark. Moreover, The Tsar was also give a great part of Poland.
Prussia lost much Polish territory in this arrangement. However, she was compensated with 40
percent of Saxony,Polish speaking Posen, the port city of Gdansk, the Duchy of Westphalia, and
Swedish Pomerania. Prussia received territories on the left bank of the Rhine River to
discourage French aggression to the east. But she lost its outlet to the North Sea with the return
of East Friesland to Hanover
Austria lost the Austrian Netherlands. In exchange, she was given Lombardy and Ventia in
northern Italy. She also received Illyria and Dalmatia on the east coast of the Adriatic and the
Bavarian Tyrol.
Britain was not interested in mainland gains, Instead, she took a number of naval potential
bases and staging posts for trade such as Heligiland in the North Sea, Malta, the Ionian islands,
Ceylon and Cape Colony.
4) Maintain the Balance of Power
This was a principle designed to prevent any one state gaining a dominant position in Europe.
Russia was anxious due to alliance of Austria, France and England against Prussia nad Russia
which could threat for the balance of power. Metternich was anxious to limit power of Russia in
Balkan region. At last, a compromise settlement was reached over Saxony and Poland which
ensured that no single power should dominate the Eastern Europe.
Thus, Austria gained new provinces of Lombardy and Venetia as compensation for the loss of
Belgium. In this way, Prussia gained in the north, Austria gained in the South, and Russia
gained in the north and un the balkans. Through this working of the principle of the power, all
the four great powers emerged from the Congress of Vienna stronger than before without
anyone being able to exert complete dominance.
On June 9, 1815, the Congress established a German Confederation comprising thirty-five
states, which were loosely united under a Federal Diet based in Frankfurt. This Confederation
included states like Prussia, Austria, Bavaria, Hanover, Württemberg, and others, along with
free cities like Hamburg, Frankfurt, Bremen, and Lübeck. Members of the Confederation
pledged mutual assistance in case of attack or threat.

Assessment on the Congress of Vienna

1) Countering the Future French Aggression
The Vienna settlement used unrealistic methods to prevent further aggression from France.
States that were culturally, historically and religiously different were forcefully amalgamated to
form bufferstates. Its an example was the Kingdom of Netherlands in which the Bekgians were
forced against their will to be under Dutch control. This provoked the Belgians to revolt in 1830
which destabilize Europe from 1830 up to 1839
However, the unrealistic methods were mandatory to prevent the French aggression at that time
because small states were individually too weak to stand against French aggression.
There was another problem that these Great Powers were too much concerned about the
French aggression, ignoring the fact that one of them could also become aggressive. They over
strengthened Prussia that enabled her to embark on aggression against France later. The case
of Germany was also same.
2) Neglecting Liberalism and Nationalism
The Congress of Vienna ignored the forces of Nationalism and Liberalism that were weeping
across Europe. The settlement disregarded the plight of oppressed nations like the Finns,
Serbs, Italians and Poles who wanted to regain their independence. For example, Germans and
Italians were subjected to Austrian’s control which led to the 1830 and 1848 revolutions. Poland
was shared by Austria, Russia and Prussia which forced the Poles to revolt in 1830 and 1863.
3) The Principle of Legitimacy
The Principle was ignored where it was not in the interests of the allied powers. For example,
legitimate rulers in Poland, Finland, Denmark and Belgium were not restored. Worst of all, it
made the “Vienna Tyrants” to restore and protect oppressive and tyrannical rulers such as the
Bourbon Monarchy in France, Ferdinand 1 in Naples and Ferdinand 7 in Spain.. Consequently,
there were revolutions against these rulers later years.
4) The 1814 Constitutional Charter
It narrowed the Franchise(voting power) by making the criteria property qualification for voting.
It made only 100,000 Frenchmen out of a total population of 29 million eligible to vote. The
Charter gave the opportunity to the propertied nobles and clergy to dominate the French
Parliament. Apart from France, the Vienna peacemakers did not provide charter to other
restored rulers. It was unrealistic to impose such charter on the revolutionary middle class in
France
5) The Confederation Parliament
The confederation parliament in the German states was inadequate in meeting the expectations
of the Germans. It was used by Metternich and Austria to dominate and divide the Germans.
Metternich was vested with powers to appoint the president of the parliament. This undermined
the right of the Germans .
6) Imbalance of Power
The balance of power was defective because it was for the four big powers at the expense of
smaller powers. The independence of smaller states was undermined in order to balance their
power. Moreover, the balance of power favoured Austria and Britain compared to Russia and
Prussia which led to conflicts in later years. So, the balance of power was myth, not a reality.
7) Instability in the Smaller States
The Vienna settlement did not restore peace in small states. The smaller states could not take
part in decision making during the Congress. Because it was dominated by the big powers.
Worst of all, they were kept under the influence of the big powers. Thai became the major
source of unrest in Europe from 1820 to 1871 when the Italian and Germans unified.
8) Russian Imperialism
The Vienna settlement attracted Russia into European affairs which intensified her ambitions to
dominate the Ottoman Empire. Russia was granted the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, Bessarabia,
parts of Saxony which became security threat for Britain and Austria. Thsi brought more tension
within the Ottoman Empire that led to wars sucha s the Greek war and the Crimean War. These
were precisely because the settlement had drawn Russian interest from the East to Central and
Western Europe.
9) Ignoring the Ottoman Empire
The Vienna settlement ignored the ottoman Empire which led to violent events that constituted
the Eastern Question. The Ottoman Empire was controlling many smaller states and key
religious,strategic and economic areas that were very significant to other powers in Europe.
Later, it led to violent events such as the Greek War if independence, Syrian question, Crimean
war and the Balkan wars of 1877-78.
10) Promulgation of Metternich’s Era of Conservatism
(1815-48)
Prior to 1815, the influence of Metternich’s conservatism was confined to the Austrian empire.
However, Metterbich exploited the Vienna settlement using his conservative anti-liberal policies.
He manipulated the Vienna settlement with his ides to dominate the entire continent and led to
conflicts in small states. His conservative policies undermined political freedom, nationalism and
liberalism which were responsible for the outbreak of revolutions in Europe.
11) Delayed the Unification of Italy and Germany
The Vienna settlement created more division and disunity in Europe which delayed the
unification of Italy and Germany. It legalized Austria’s control over the Italian and German states
which led to more violent movement that undermined peace of Europe. This is the reason why
the Vienna Congress is sometimes called an absurd gathering.
12) Collapse of the Congress System
The Vienna settlement is blamed of laying a very weak foundation that contributed to the
downfall of the Congress system.It implemented unrealistic policies which the congress system
could not defend. These were the restoration of unpopular rulers and forceful amalgamation of
states against their interest.

Klemens von Metternich (1773-1859)

Introduction
He was an Austrian statesman, minister of foreign affairs and a champion of conservatism who
restored Austria as a leading European power, hosting the Congress of Vienna in 1814-15. He
was a staunch enemy if the French Revolution. He described it as,
The disease which must be cured, the volcano which must be extinguished, the gangrene
which must be burned out, the hydra with jaws
open to swallow up the social order”
He was against the ideas of Liberalism and Nationalism.
1) Metternich and Europe
The Vienna Settlement of 1815 set Europe in a situation where was a need for great vigilance,
unswering will and remorseless determination. Metternich rose ro the situation and wanted the
situation tackled through conservatism. He implemented conservative policies for the
preservation of the status quo. He used the alliance of unpopular rulers to counter revolutionary
ideas.
2) Metternich and the Concert of Europe
Viewing the international scene in Europe after Waterloo, Metternich reached the conclusion
that the restored monarchs must establish alliance to establish machinery for concerted action.
The outcome was the quadruple alliance with theAustria, Prussia and Britain signatories to
it.The great powers decided to meet time to time with a view to discuss the problem facing them
and thereby maintain the peace of europe
In 1818, the first Congress held at Aix-la-Chapelle. An attempt wa made to guarantee territorial
status qou but it was unsuccessful due to Britain’s opposition. Later in 1820, the Protocol of
Troppau was adopted in spite of Britain’s opposition. It gave right to interfere in the affairs of
other states. The protocol enabled Metternich to police the whole Europe and crush the
liberalism and nationalism. It was in the presence of this policy that Austria was able to crush
the rebels in Naples and Piedmont.
The era of Congresses ended in 1822 after the Congress of Verona when Britain left the
congress on the question of Spain and her American colonies.
However, Metternich had secured what he wanted, thousands of persons were imprisoned,
exiled and executed.
3) Metternich and Germany
Metternich encouraged the confederation of 39 German states and exploited the jealousy of
smaller states to serve Austrian interests. To put check on the activity of the secret society in
Germany, Charlsbad decrees were enacted in 1819. Censorship was imposed on the press and
the universities were to be under state control. Special commission was set up to trace out the
conspiracies and crush them. The system worked well with few unrests during 1848 revolutions.
According to Professor Hayes, "Metternich's hold on Germany was complete."
4) Metternich and Spain
Ferdinand was restored in 1815. He followed a reactionary policy and canceled the Liberal
Constitution of 1812. In 1820, there was a revolution in Spain and the people demanded the
restoration of the Constitution of 1812. Ferdinand pretended to agree but he corresponded with
the Great Powers to help him. France was allowed to interfere in Spain under the Congress of
Verona of 1822. The king was restored. Metternich was happy with the French armies entering
the Spain and restoring Ferdinand to absolute power.
5) Metternich and Italy
Metternich referred to Italy as merely a "geographical expression." He got for Austria Lombardy
and Venetia which were incorporated into Austrian Empire. Members of the Habsburg family
were to be on the thrones of Parma, Modena and Tuscany. In 1820, Metternich helped to
restore the rulers of Naples as a result of revolt. He did it because Austria had a secret alliance
with Naples, signed in 1815. Austria also crushed revolt in Piedmont in 1821 as well. To quote
Hayes, "Italy was bound hand and foot to the
triumphant reactionary chariot of Austria."
6) Metternich and Russia
To begin with Tsar Alexander I held liberal ideas and consequently it was difficult to handle him.
However, the ideas of Alexander underwent a change after 1815. The revolutionary conspiracy
among officer of Czar bodyguards, the murder of Kotzebue in 1819 and assassination of Duck
de Berry of France frightened Alexander and he converted to the view that all liberal ideas were
dangerous. On the other occasion of the Congress of Troppau of 1820, he declared publicly that
he was follower of Metternich. From 1820-1825, Alexander was under complete influence of
Metternich. It was due to this Influence that Alexander
could not help Greeks when they revolted against Turkey.
7) Metternich and Eastern Question
Alexander could not help Greek in their revolt against Turkey because of Metternich pressure.
Even Hipsilanti, the leader of the revolt, was sent to prison for seven years by Metternich. The
Greek also revolted in 1820 on Morea and Aegean island, but met the same fate. Again
Alexander could not help them. Metternich cynically remarked that revolt should be allowed
"to burn itself out beyond the pale of civilization."
8) Metternich and France
After having brought about the fall of Napoleon, Metternich tried to encircle France in an 'Iron
ring'. With that object in view, Belgium and Holland were combined, the Rhineland was given to
Prussia and Genoa was given to Piedmont. When France paid indemnity in 1818, it was
decided to withdraw the army of occupation. France was accepted as a member of Quadruple
Alliance which was transformed into the Quintuple alliance. Metternich was on his guard when a
revolution took place in France in 1830.
9) Metternich and Britain
I Metternich co-operated with Great Britain in the common task of the overthrow of Napoleon.
When that was accomplished, Metternich and Castlereagh co-operated in the Congress of
Vienna. Great Britain joined the Quadruple Alliance with Austria and other countries for the
purpose of maintaining the status quo. However, differences arose between the two
countries on the question of the right of one country to interfere in the internal affairs of other
countries. The difference of views was visible in the Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1818. In
1820, Castlereagh opposed the Protocol of Troppau. Although Castlereagh committed suicide
on the eve of the Congress of Verona, Great Britain opposed French intervention in Spain and
left the Congress. That led to the break-up of the Congress system. Canning also opposed the
Spanish move to re-establish her hold over her colonies in South America. He was assisted by
the American Government which enunciated the famous Monroe Doctrine.
10) Metternich and Austria
Metternich followed a reactionary policy in Austria-Hungary. He did all that he could to crush
liberalism and nationalism within the country. His conviction was that conservatism and reaction
was the only policy which was demanded by the circumstances of the Austrian Empire.
Prevention was the key note of his internal administration. "Govern and change nothing" was
the beginning and the end of his programme.
To achieve his objective, Metternich established the censorship of the Press. An elaborate
system of espionage was maintained throughout the country. The universities were put under
the strict control of the government. Foreign travel was discouraged and every effort was made
to segregate Austria from the rest of Europe. According to Karl Marx,
"All around frontier wherever the Austrian State touched upon the civilized country, a
cordon of literary censors was established in with the cordon of custom house officials,
preventing any foreign book or newspaper from passing into Austria
or three times thoroughly shift and founded pure of even the slightest
contamination of the malignant spirit of the age."
When the February Revolution took place in France in 1848, the reins of power were in very
feeble hands in Austria. The Emperor was semi-imbecile. Metternich was aged. The counsellors
were timid and ignorant. No one was ready to lead to make generous concessions, There was
hesitation and timidity on all sides. During the first fortnight of March 1848, the struggle was
over. Students and professors led a demonstration to the Emperor on
12 March 1848 and on 13th March, there was a conflict between the mob and the troops.
Ultimately, the troops joined the revolutionaries. Metternich resigned and ran away from the
country declaring that a deluge would follow him. The flight of Metternich was of great
importance. It marked the era of the revolution's glory. The strongest symbol of reaction had
fallen so quickly. The fall and flight of Metternich meant that a tide was sweeping
over Europe and kings were running berore it in rerror.

THE CONCERT OF EUROPE AND CONGRESS

SYSTEM
"The 'Concert of Europe' viewed by the conservative powers as a dam against revolution,
was thought of by Britain rather as a sluice gate, allowing
for a measured flow of national and liberal views."
David Thomson
Introduction
The Concert of Europe is the term to describe various attempts made by the major powers to
cooperate, after 1815, in settling possible causes of conflict between themselves in order to
prevent the possibility of another large-scale war. The idea of Concert of Europe was suggested
firstly by Austrian Chancellor Kaunitz. After the Congress of Vienna, the scar of revolution was
so great that European powers decided to explore certain ways and means so as to secure the
permanence of Vienna settlement. With that objective in view, Great Britain, Austria, Prussia
and Russia entered on 20 Nov. 1815 into the Quadruple Alliance for the maintenance of the
treaties with France and for the consolidation of the intimate relations. The powers also agreed
to hold periodical meetings to the discussion of measures which shall be judged to be the most
salutary for the maintenance of peace of Europe." It was in this way that Concert of Europe was
formed. This provided the basis for the four further Congresses which followed the congress of
Vienna itself, namely Aix-la-Chapelle (1818), Troppau (1820), Laibach (1821) and Verona
(1822).
1) Congress of Aix-La-Chapelle(1818)
The first congress met in 1815 at Aix-la-Chappell. The Congress was attended by Francis I,
Alexander I, Frederic William III, Castlereagh, and metternich. Richelieu represented France.
The Congress was recognized as the Supreme Council of Europe and accordingly it entertained
appeal, in all kinds of cases. Main achievements of the Congress are giver below

France: The question of France was on top of the agenda before the congress. As France had
paid off the whole of indemnity it was decided to withdraw Allied Army of occupation from the
French soil and to include France into Concert of Europe. Thus Quadruple Alliance was
transformed into Quintuple Alliance, which was called by Metternich as “moral Pentarchy”.
Difference of opinion arose While Russia wanted the entry of French into Alliance associated
with the principle of Holy Alliance, Britain and Austria wanted France to enter into treaties with
all the four power, separately. Lately Britain’s viewpoint prevailed.
Denmark. The Congress also called upon the king of Sweden to ex plain why he had ignored
the treaty rights with regard to Norway and Denmark.
Monaco and Hesse: The ruler of the Monaco was ordered to improve the administrative
system of the country. The Elector of Hesse petitioned to the Congress that he be allowed to
take up the title of the King, but it was refused.
Spain: Spain’s request for help to restore her colonies in South America was turned down
largely due to Britain vested trade inter ests with these colonies.
Miscellaneous: A number of other issues such as the position of Jewish citizens in Austria
and Russia, the question of slave trade, and that of Bashes Pirates also came under discussion.
But the mutual jealousy prevented the pow ers to reach on any consensus.
2) Congress of Troppau(1820)
In 1820, revolts broke out in Spain, Portugal and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. It was over
these events that the line was first clearly drawn between the attitude, of Castlereagh and
Metternich toward intervention. Everywhere in troubled areas people wanted their kings to give
them liberal constitution. The great powers condemned the revolution.
It was recognized by all the powers that Austria had a special interest in Italy and consequently
she should be allowed to suppress the revolt in Naples.
According to Castlereagh, Austria could interfere in Naples on the grounds she had great
interest at stake in Italy. The stability of Lombardy and Venetia was endangered by the revolt
and these were within the Austrian Empire itself. The same was the case with Pampa, Modina
and Tuscany which were ruled by Hapsburg family.
The Troppau Protocol, October, 1820
The agreement between Austria, Russia and Prussia known as the Troppau Protocol was
signed in October, 1820. Based on the “principles of the [Holy] Alliance,” it proclaimed the right
of the signatories to intervene militarily in any country in which political changes were brought
about by revolu­tion. It declared: “If, owing to such alterations, immediate danger threatens other
states, the Powers bind themselves by peaceful means or, if need be by arms to bring back the
guilty state into the bosom of the Great Alliance.”
It is obvious that Alexander, Metternich and the King of Prussia a popular revolution anywhere
would threaten them, and the revolutionaries were sure to be “guilty.”
The French government supported the Protocol with some reservations, but Castlereagh
indicated his opposition to the whole scheme and declared that it could never apply to Great
Britain. Britain did not definitely break away from the Quintuple Alliance at Troppau, but the
differences of opinion started to weaken the Congress System.
3) Congress of Laibach (January 1821)
The congress was held at Laibach in Austria was really the adjourned congress of Troppau.
Ferdinand of Naples was invited to attend the Congress, which he did after promising the
Neapolitans that he would observe the new constitution which the revolution in Naples had
established. No sooner had he got beyond the frontier of Naples than he denounced the new
government and all its works. After meetings between Ferdinand and Metternich at Laibach, an
Austrian army marched south, defeated the Neapolitans and restored Ferdinand with all his
previous despotic powers while the revolutionary leaders and many of their s supporters were
executed or thrown into the dungeons of Naples. Similarly, a liberal revolution Piedmont was
suppressed by an army of 80,000 Austrians with 100,000 Russians held in reserve. In this way,
Metternich carried out the aims of the Troppau Protocol.
These actions of the Protocol powers threatened to drive Great Britain right away from the
European system. But this break-up was temporarily prevented by the commencement of the
Greek War of Independence 1821. At the same time there was the situation in Spain arising
from the 1818 revolution to be considered
4) Congress of Verona(1822)
Following the suicide of Castlereagh in 1822, Britain further distanced itself from the Congress
system. The fourth and the last congress was held at Verona, Italy in 1822. There were two
questions before the congress, namely
The Greek Question and The Spanish Question
(1) The Greek Question
The Greeks had revolted against Turkey and thus the question came up for consideration before
the Congress of Verona. But the three major powers remained divided on this issue.
Russia: It strongly sympathized with the Greeks and wanted to intervene on behalf of Greek
and wanted to intervene on behalf of Greek
Austria: She was opposed to intervention as it would had increase Russia’s influence in the
Balkans
Britain: It was also against Russian intervention because it would have meant Russia’s
increased influence in the Balkans
Due to these conflicting interests, it was not taken up before congress
(2) Spanish Question
There was a revolt in Spain in 1820 and the king of Spain, Ferdinand V was forced to abolish
the inquisition, and proclaim a constitution. However, he appealed to the King of France for help
against his subjects. This appeal of one Bourbon to another Bourbon looked like the revival of
the old Bourbon family pact and obviously England felt uneasy. At the Congress of Verona,
France announced her intentions to intervene supported by the powers like Russia, , Prussia
and Austria but was strongly opposed by Britain. The Duke of Wellington, the British
representative, strongly insisted upon a rigid abstinence from any interference in the internal
affairs of Spain
The result was that when British point of view was rejected, it got herself isolated from the
congress and thus the era of congress came to an end.
Canning, the British foreign minister, was happy at the idea of the break up of the Concert of
Europe. He said “The issue of Verona split the one and the indivisible Alliance into three parts
as distinct as the constitution of England, France and Muscovy.” Again, “Things are back to a
wholesome state again. Every nation for itself and God for us all.”
In December 1824, Canning officially recognized the independence of the new states. Then in a
speech in House of Commons he declared, “I called a new world into existence to redress the
balance of the old”. In fact, he exaggerated what he had done.
1. The independence of the new states was virtually guaranteed already. As long as Royal
Navy parroted South Atlantic, the intervention was impossible
2. The Monroe Doctrine declared by the then president of the United States in 1823 had
already made it clear that any European interven tionin South America would be
opposed by the United States.
CAUSES OF FAILURE

1) Divergent Outlook
The principle of intervention in the internal affairs of the other states divided the powers into two
camps. Great Britain opposed this principle in 1818. But in spite of that, the protocol of Troppau
was made in 1820. Again in 1822, Great Britain opposed the intervention of France in Spain,
and despite her protests, France had her way and she did intervene in Spain. Her action was
supported by Austria, Russia and Prussia. She could not tolerate the attitude of other powers.
She withdrew and with her withdrawal the Congress System came to an end.
2) Difference of Political System
Powers comprising the Concert of Europe fundamentally differed with one another in their
political System as well. While Austria, Prussia and Russia were staunch supporter of
absolutism and wanted to preserve it. On the other hand, England firmly supported
parliamentary system. France was also a supporter of constitutionalism. So it was obvious that
autocracy and constitutionalism could not get along together
3) Mutual Jealousies
Mutual jealousies arose among powers from the very beginning. In the Congress of Aix-la-
Chapelle, the powers disagreed on the question of slave trade and the suppression of the
pirates. They also disagreed in 1820 on the question of intervention. There was no internal
harmony among the powers. Merely an outward show of cooperation was maintained for some
time. Such a state of affairs could not be maintained, and the matters were precipitated by the
intervention of France in Spain.
4) France: No more a Common Enemy
It was also stated that the Concert of Europe was a product of the Napoleonic wars and its
objective was to provide against a common enemy France. However, when the French danger
was over, the unity among the Allies was gone, and every power decided to deal individually
with her diplomacy
5) Lack of Popular Support
The Concert of Europe was an organisation of the reactionary powers. Almost all of them,
except Great Britain, believed in the principle of ‘status quo. At that time, the revolutionary
feelings of liberty, equality and fraternity were quite rampant in the whole of Europe. The
members of the Alliance under the leadership of Metternich, were determined to suppress these
feelings. England opposed it and withdrew from the congress. Consequently, the peoples of
European countries revolted against the working policy of the Concert of Europe. These revolts
played a decisive role in the failure of this system.
6) Withdrawal of Britain
Autocracy and constitutionalism cannot go together. The Concert of Europe degenerated into a
clique for the preservation of autocracy and the suppression of democracy and nationalism in
every shape and form. Lord Castlereagh and Lord Canning had made it clear in different
meetings of the Alliance. Lord Canning was more of an extremist than Castlereagh. He was the
supporter of the policy of interference to prevent interference. Once he said: “The main objective
of Great Britain is neither to make interference in the internal affairs of any state, nor to help
such powers who want to interfere. Our great aim is to secure world peace.” In fact, Austria and
Russia used the Alliance as a tool for the suppression of the progressive movements in Europe.
They were not in favour of any change in the political system of Europe. But Lord canning
proved to be a great obstruction for them. Thus, it was the conflict of the two contradictory
principles.