Napoleon Bonaparte

Introduction
Napoleon Bonaparte was a French military leader and emperor who conquered much of
Europe in the 19th century. He was Born on 15 August, 1769 in Ajaccio on the island of Corsica
which was acquired by France from the city state of Genoa, Italy. Napoleon rapidly rose through
the ranks of the military during the French Revolution. After seizing power in 1799 coup d’etat,
he crowned himself emperor in 1804. As a great strategist, he successfully waged war against
various coalitions of European nations and expanded his empire. However, after a disastrous
French invasion of Russia in 1812, NApoleon abdicated the throne after two years and was
exiled to the island of Elba. In 1815, he briefly returned to power in his Hundred Days campaign.
After a crushing defeat at the battle of Waterloo, he abdicated once again and was exiled to the
remote island of Saint Helena, where he died on May 5, 1821.
The Young Bonaparte
In 1770, the French gov­ernment accepted the Buonaparte family as nobles. The island’s
governor arranged for the young Buonaparte to receive an appointment to the royal military
school at Brienne, in Champagne. Due to his intelligency,he earned appointment to the artillery
sec­tion of the national military academy in Paris, passing the examinations in single year.
With the Outbreak of the French Revolution, Napoleon favored it for three reasons: he wanted
to see a curtailment of the abuses of the Old Regime; he hoped that the Revolution might end
his island's status within France as little more than a conquered territory; and he thought the
Revolution might provide him with an opportunity for pro­motion.
Napoleon’s Early Tilt towards Jacobins
He became a Jacobine. In France, he associated with Augustin Robespierre, the brother of
revolutionary leader Maximillien Robespierre(1758-94), a Jacobin who was a key force behind
the Reign of Terror(1793-94). It was was a period of violence against enemies of the revolution.
Robespierre was guillotined in July 1794 and Napoleon was put under arrest for his ties with
Robespierre. However, Napoleon was promoted to the rank of major general when he helped to
suppress a royalist insurrection against the revolutionary government on October 6, 1795.
Napoleon’s Rise to Power
Since 1792, France’s revolutionary govt. Had been engaged in military conflicts with the
enemies of revolution within France and various European nations outside. After appointed as
major general in 1795, Napoleon commanded a French army in 1796 that defeated the larger
army of Austria in a series of battles in Italy.In 1797, the France and Austria signed a treaty of
Campo Formio, resulting in territorial gains for the French.
The following years, the Directory said Napoleon to invade England. He suggested that France’s
naval forces were not ready to go up against the superior British Royal Navy. Instead, he
invaded Egypt in an effort to wipe out British trade routes with India. His troops scored victory in
the Battle of the Pyramids in July 1798. Napoleon cloaked his invasion as a “civilizing mission.”
However, his forces were stranded at the Battle of Nile in August 1798 when his naval fleet was
decimated by the British. In early 1799, he attacked Ottoman Empire-ruled Syria which ended
with the failed siege of Acre. That summer, with the political situation in France, he opted to
abandon his army in Egypt and return to France. In Paris, Abbe Emmanuel Sieyes was plotting
to overthrow the Direc­tory. Napoleon accompanied him.

Consolidation of Power in France

The Coup of 18 Brumaire, 1799 and establishment of the consulate
On November 9, 1799, Napoleon with a group overthrew the French Directory in an event
known a the coup of 18 Brumaire. The directory was replaced by three member Consulate and
Napoleon became first consul, making him France’s leading figure. The Constitution of 1799
was promulgated in December.
A Senate, appointed by the consuls, chose men from a list of 6,000 “notabilities” to serve in a Tri­
bunate. A Council of State, whose members were appointed by the first con­sul, would propose
legislation. The Tribunate would discuss the proposed legislation, and a Legislative Body would
vote on the laws but could not debate them. In simple words, the new constitution was
“Napoleon Bonaparte”. The constitution was approved through a plebiscite in which more than
99% all male electorate approved it. The plebiscite became a funda­mental Napoleonic political
institution, embodying his principle of “author­ity from above, confidence from below.”
The Consulate established strong executive authority, bringing political stability. Napoleon's
brother Lucien, as minister of interior, effectively extended executive control across the nation,
quelling opposition from royalists and Jacobins. Napoleon enforced strict press censorship,
reducing Parisian newspapers from seventy-three to thirteen through threats or bribes to control
public opinion.
In June 1800, Napoleon’s forces defeated Austria at the Battle of Marengo. This victory
increased his power as first console. Moreover, the war weary British agreed to peace with the
French at the Treaty of Amiens in 1802 ( pease lasted for one year only).
The Concordat
Napoleon sought peace with the Catholic Church, bringing it under state supervision while
facing hostility between clergy who had sworn allegiance during the Revolution and those who
had not. He believed religion should not dictate state affairs but saw it as essential for societal
order and morality. The Concordat signed in 1801 solidified Catholicism as the majority religion
in France, with bishops appointed by the pope on Napoleon's recommendation. The agreement
restored church influence and reestablished religious observance, aligning France with
traditional practices.
However, Napoleon's regulation of the Gallican Church through the Organic Articles diminished
papal authority and placed clergy under state control, sparking criticism from left-leaning
supporters like the Ideologues.
Despite this, Napoleon's policies also extended protections to Protestants and Jews in an article
of the Concordat.
Napoleon became Emperor
He was designated “consul for life” through a constitutional amendment in 1802. After two years
in 1804, he crowned himself emperor of France in a ceremony at the Cathedral of Notre Dame
in Paris. Napoleon worked to restore stability to post revolutionary france. He centralized the
government. He instituted reforms in such areas as banking and education. He sought to
improve relations b/w his regime and the pope. He introduced the napoleonic Code which
streamlined the French legal system.
Napoleonic Wars and Creation of an Empire
Napoleonic Wars During the Consulate Era
Short and Distinct Wars
The series of wars were usually short and distinct. Only Britain was at war continually at that
time. The four Great Powers( Britain, Austria, Prussia and Russia) did not fight Franch
simultaneously until 1813. It was only after Napoleon’s conquest of Italy when they decided to
defeat him for a peaceful Europe.
War of the Second Coalition(1798-1801)
Though Napoleon had brought stability to France, but France was still at war with the Second
Coalition: Great Britain, Austria, and Russia. In February 1800, when Austria refused to act on
the Treaty of Campo Formio (1797), Napoleon resumed military action. He defeated Austrian
army in June 1800. Following this victory, the Treaty of Luneville was signed in February 1801.
Austria agreed to uphold the terms of the Treaty of Campo Formio, acknowledging French
control over Italy and the Southern Netherlands (Belgium). The defeat of the Second Coalition
solidified French territorial gains and further established Napoleon's dominance in Europe.
Peace Treaty of Amiens (1802)
It was signed by Britain, France, Spain and the Batavian Republic on 27 March 1802, achieving
a peace in Europe for 14 months. Hoping to increase its trade with the continent, Britain agreed
to return Trinidad and Caribbean islands it had seized from France in 1793. However, France
remained in control of Holland, Austrian Netherlands, the west bank of the Rhine river and most
of the Italian peninsula. It was clearly victory for Napoleon. Britain gained nothing but only the
end of hostilities.
Later on, Britain violated treaty by failing to evacuate the island of Malta, thus provoking a new
war with Napoleon. He reorganized the confederation of Switzerland for a defensive alliance.
Haiti, the western side of the island of Hispaniola, had pro­claimed its independence from France
in 1801 under the leadership of Tous­saint LOuverture. Napoleon senr large army to subdue a
slave rebellion there. Napoleon restored French control of Haiti and reinstituted slavery in the
French colonies. French troops captured L’Ouverture and took him to France, where he soon
died. However, tropical disease killed most of the French troops occupying Haiti, and the British
prevented the arrival of reinforcements. The French army surrendered, and in 1804 Haiti, which
had been France’s richest colony, again became independent. Moreover, Seeking to recoup the
financial losses France had incurred from war, Napoleon sold the huge Louisiana Territory to the
United States in 1803 for 60 million francs.
During Empire Period (1804-1814)
NApoleon Crowned Himself Hereditary Emperor
He was designated “consul for life” through a constitutional amendment in 1802. After two years
in 1804, he crowned himself emperor of France in a ceremony at the Cathedral of Notre Dame
in Paris. Napoleon worked to restore stability to post revolutionary france. He centralized the
government. He instituted reforms in such areas as banking and education. He sought to
improve relations b/w his regime and the pope. He introduced the napoleonic Code which
streamlined the French legal system.
The Grand Empire
Beginning in 1805, Napoleon engaged in constant warfare. He achieved the largest empire
since the Roman times. France extended to the Rhine, including Belgium and Holland, the
German coast to the western Baltic and the Italian coast extending down to Rome. Meanwhile,
He appointed his relatives on the throne in the dependent satellite kingdoms of Confederation of
the Rhine. For example, His brother Joseph Bonaparte became king of Spain in 1808.
AYoungest brother, Jerome, became king of Westphalia. Another brother, Louis, remained king
of holland for 6 years.In Italian peninsula, his sister Caroline became Queen of Naples.
Lombardy, Venice and papal States were ruled by his step-son.
He abolished feudalism and reformed the social, political and economic structures. Grand
Duchy of Warsaw was created, comprising Illyrian provinces which were Trieste and the
Dalmatian Coast. All countries of the Grand Empire saw the introduction of some of the main
principles of the French Revolution except self government through elected legislative bodies.
Turning the Tide
Repression and exploitation eventually turned his conquered territories against him. Napoleon’s
policy of conscription into the French army, higher taxes in conquered territories but lower in
mainland France and continental system had their heavy toll on his empire. Enlightenment
reformers believed Napoleon had betrayed the ideals of the Revolution.
War of the Third Coalition (1805-07)
In 1803, Napoleon began preparations to invade Britain. In July 1805, Russia and Austria joined
Britain to form the Third Coali­tion against Napoleon.
In the battle of Trafalgar,on October 21, 1805, the French fleets were destroyed by the British
navy off the Spanish coast under the command of Lord Horatio Nelson. This British victory
established the supremacy of the british Royal navy in the continent.
The French armies were more successful on the continent. They defeated the Austrians at Ulm
in October 1805, capturing 50,000 troops.
While Britain emerged victorious on sea, France was victorious on land at the Battle of
Austerlitz in December 1805. Tsar Alexander 1 pulled Russian troops out of the battle. In the
wake of Austerlitz, the hesitant King Frederick William III (1797-1840) of Prussia abandoned his
tentative agreement to join the Third Coalition, instead signing an alliance with France. In this
way, the Third Coalition collapsed. As a result of victory, Austria had to accept territorial losses
in return for peace. In commemoration of the victory, Napoleon commissioned the Arc de
Triomphe in 1806. He was clearly emphasizing the conquest of an empire. Prussia was twice
defeated by Napoleon in 1806 at the battle of Jenna( October 14, 1806) and at Auerstadt.
Reorganization of Germany
In July 1806, Napoleon organized the Confederation of the Rhine, composed of sixteen German
states, excluding Prussia and Austria. Napoleon named himself “Protector” of the
Confederation, whose members agreed to accept French garrisons in southern Germany and to
support Napoleon if war broke out again. The Holy Roman empire became irrelevant and was
abolished, abdicating by Francis 2 as Holy Roman emperor. A new kingdom of Westphalia was
created. The serfdom was ended and peasants were given right to own land and move about
freely. Napoleon unwittingly awoke German nationalism due to France’s domination and
repression of the German States.

Treaty of Tilsit (June 1807)

After defeating the Russian army at the Battle of Friedland (June 1807), Napoleon met with Tsar
Alexander. They singed treaty of Tilsit which provisions were:

➔ Prussia lost territory in western Germany and in Poland

➔ Russia accepted Napoleon’s reorganization of Western and Central
Europe
➔ Russia accepted his Continental System
➔ the tsar received a promise of French sup­port in Russia’s current quarrel
with the Ottoman Empire.
➔ France agreed to back Russia’s long-standing ambitions in
southeastern Europe.
➔ Finally, the tsar agreed to close Russian ports to British ships

Defeating Austria in 1809

When Austria challenged Napoleon by invading Bavaria in 1809, Napoleon moved rapidly
against Vienna, capturing the Habsburg capital. He defeated the Habsburg army in July at
Wagram. Defeat forced Austria to surren­der Illyria to France and other territory to Bavaria and
Russia. With Austria defeated and weakened, Prussia discouraged and dismembered, Russia
neutralized, and Britain once again left alone to challenge France, Napoleon’s position in
Europe seemed invincible.
The Peninsular War (1808-14)
First great revolt against Napoleon’s power occurred in Spain. When he tried to replace Spanish
king, Ferdinand VII, with his brother, Joseph, the Spanish people waged a costly guerilla war
which was supported by Britishers and Portuguese forces from 1808 to 1814. The French were
finally driven back over the Pyrenees in an expedition led by Arthur Wellesley, later duke of
Wellington.Napoleon’s “Spanish ulcer” bled France.
Russian Campaign (1812)
Napoleon invaded Russia in June 1812 with his Grande Armee of 600000 in which only ⅓ were
the french. In fact, Russian’s withdrawal from the Continental System due to economic
hardships had caused the war. The Battle of Borodino, 1812, ended in a draw with the
Russians retreating in good order. Thus, Napoleon had overextended himself. He was forced to
retreat from Moscow after 5 weeks during the brutal Russian winter due to the “scorched earth”
tactic of the Russians. Meanwhile, Russians evacuated and then burned Moscow. The Russian
campaign turned out to be a great catastrophic one for Napoleon. Only 30,000 men in
Napoleon's army returned to their home: 400000 died of battle casualties, starvation, and
exposure whereas 100000 were taken prisoner.
War of the Fourth Coalition (1813-14)
Britain, Russia, Austria and Prussia formed another coalition against France. At the Battle of
Leipzig (Battle of Nations) , October 1813, Napoleon was finally defeated. Napoleon lost
500,000 out of 600,000 Grande Armee. Napoleon refused to accept terms of Austrian foreign
minister Metternich’s “Frankfurt Proposals” to reduce France to its historical size. Napoleon
abdicated as emperor on April 4, 1814 after allied armies entered Paris. Louis XVIII, a Bourbon
king, was now restored to the throne.
Under Charter of 1814, the king created two house legislature that represented the only upper
classes, first constitution in European history issued by Monarch. Most importantly, restoration
maintained most of the Napoleon’s reforms such as the Code of Napoleon, the Concordat with
the pope, and the abolition of feudalism.
By the first treaty of Paris on 30 May 1814, France surrendered all territories gained since the
wars of the Revolution had begun in 1712. NApoleon was exiled to the island of Elba.
The Battle of Waterloo
Napoleon returned to France on March 1, 1815, landing near Cannes with 1000 men. He won
support from the rural peasantry as he marched towards Paris and Louis XVIII fled the country
prior to Napoleon's arrival in the capital on MArch 20. In a treaty of alliance signed on MArch 25,
Britain, Prussia, Austria and Russia each vowed to maintain 150,000 men in the field until
NaPoleon had been overthrown. On June 18, 1815, the war was fought which ended the career
of napoleon and brought to its conclusion the long period of war. After a fierce battle< napoleon
surrendered to the captain on a British warship H.M.S Bellorophen and was sent to his second
exile on the island of St. Helena in the South Atlantic where he died on May 5, 1821.

The Continental System

Introduction
It was the blockade designed by Napoleon to paralyse Great Britain through the destruction of
British commerce. He decided to wage economic warfare against Britain after his loss at the
Battle of Trafalgar
In November 1806, Napoleon announced his Continental System. It prohibited trade with
Britain, which he hoped would strangle the British economy by closing all continental ports to
British ships. French merchants and manufacturers, as well as the state, would earn fortunes
supplying the captive markets of the continent.
The decrees of Berlin (November 21,1806) and Milan (December 17,1807) proclaimed a
blockade: neutrals and French allies were not to trade with British. Napoleon considered that
Britain is only country which was keeping alive the coalitions against France through “Pit’s gold”
- payments to European monarchs to continue fielding armies against the French. So, he
decided to attack the “nation of shopkeepers” by starving Britain of money snd destroying British
trade.
It was declared that Britain was in a state of blockade and that no vessel coming directly from
britain or her colonies would be allowed allowed into any port under French control.
Response from Britain
Britain issued the “order in council in response: neutrals might enter continental ports only if
they first stopped in Britain. The British government’s “Orders in Council” of November and
December 1807 demanded that trad­ing ships under all flags purchase a license in a British
port.It also instructed the Royal Navy to blockade French and allied ports. Regulations
encouraged these ships to be loaded with Britain goods before continuing on the Continent.
This decision placed Britain at loggerheads with the United States, one of France’s princi­pal
trading partners.
Napoleon retaliated with the Milan Decree, which declared that all neutral shipping using British
ports or paying British tariffs were to be regarded as British and seized.
Motivations Behind the Continental System
Economic Warfare Against Britain
Napoleon sought to economically cripple Britain by imposing a trade blockade across Europe,
preventing British goods from entering French-controlled territories and those of Napoleon's
allies. The goal was to disrupt Britain's international trade and weaken its economy, as France
lacked the naval power to challenge Britain directly at sea.
Strategic Isolation of Britain
By isolating Britain economically, Napoleon aimed to compel the British government to negotiate
peace terms favorable to France and its allies. The Continental System was part of Napoleon's
broader strategy to undermine Britain's global influence and force it into submission without
engaging in direct military confrontation.
Enhancement of French Hegemony and Establishment of the Grand
Empire
The Continental System was intended to consolidate French economic and political dominance
over Europe. By controlling trade and imposing economic restrictions on allied and conquered
states, Napoleon aimed to strengthen France's position as the preeminent power on the
continent and extend his influence over client states.
Support for French Industry
Napoleon sought to promote domestic industries within France by reducing competition from
British imports. The trade blockade was designed to stimulate French manufacturing and
agriculture, fostering self-sufficiency and reducing reliance on foreign goods.
Deterrence of Coalition Efforts
The Continental System was also a strategic response to the formation of coalitions against
France. By cutting off trade with countries aligned with Britain, Napoleon aimed to weaken the
cohesion of anti-French alliances and deter other nations from siding with Britain in the conflict.

Impacts
1) Provocation of Military Conflicts
Napoleon’s efforts to enforce the blockade stretched French forces too thin and provoked
military conflicts, most notably his calamitous invasion of Russia in 1812. This invasion was
partly motivated by Russia’s non-compliance with the Continental System and ultimately led to a
significant weakening of Napoleon’s forces. Moreover, this economic warfare was a factor to the
Anglo-American war of 1812.
 2) Rise of European Nationalism and Widespread Antagonism
to Napoleon’s Rule in Europe
The Continental System played a crucial role in the rise of European nationalism by
exacerbating economic hardships and fostering resentment against French hegemony. This
resentment was a catalyst for nationalistic feelings, as conquered peoples began to seek
autonomy and self-determination. People began to yearn for self-rule and the preservation of
their cultural identities, setting the stage for the nationalist movements that would reshape
Europe in the 19th century. For example, the enforcement of the Continental System in Spain,
coupled with French occupation, led to the Spanish War of Independence which was driven by a
strong Spanish nationalism.
3) Shift in Trade Patterns
The blockade against British trade forced European nations to find new markets and trading
partners, leading to significant changes in trade routes and economic relationships across the
continent. Some countries, like Russia, began to look more towards the North and the Baltic
Sea for trade. There was an increased focus on the Americas, both North and South, for raw
materials and markets. European powers also sought to expand their trade with Asia and Africa,
which involved longer sea routes that avoided British-controlled waters.
4) Downfall of the Napoleon
The system’s failure contributed to Napoleon’s eventual downfall, as he struggled to enforce it
and faced conflicts with other nations. The blockade was detrimental to the economies of
occupied nations and French allies, leading to widespread discontent. The system also incited
resentment among European nations, particularly Russia, whose decision to abandon the
blockade in 1810 led to the disastrous French invasion in 1812. Ultimately, the Continental
System’s failure undermined Napoleon’s authority, drained French resources, and contributed
significantly to the coalition that eventually defeated him.
5) Decline and Emergence of Various Regions
Regions that were heavily dependent on overseas commerce, particularly those engaged in
trade with Britain, experienced economic decline due to the blockade.For instance, the blockade
led to the decline of the Italian industries such as cotton printing, tobacco factories, corn mills,
and silk industries, which struggled without access to British markets and raw materials1.
Similarly, Norway saw an abrupt decline in its timber and iron industries due to the disruption of
maritime trade routes.
The blockade forced some areas to adapt by developing alternative industries and trade
relationships. In response to the scarcity of imported goods, some regions within the French
Empire saw the emergence of local industries to replace the goods previously imported from
Britain. The industrialized north and east of France, along with Wallonia (the southern part of
today’s Belgium), saw significant profits due to the lack of competition from British goods.
Moreover, With the cessation of sugar imports from the West Indies, there was a push towards
the cultivation of sugar beets within Europe.
Why did the Continental System Fail?
1. Smuggling and Black Market
The enforcement of the Continental System was met with widespread evasion. Smuggling
became rampant as European merchants sought to circumvent the blockade, leading to the
growth of a lucrative black market. For example, the Iberian Peninsula, where British goods
were smuggled into Spain and Portugal despite the blockade. British control of Malta allowed it
to become a central hub for smuggling goods into southern Italy. The Scandinavian and Baltic
regions also saw significant smuggling activities. This illegal trade not only undermined the
effectiveness of the blockade but also resulted in a loss of tax revenue for states under
Napoleon’s influence, further weakening their economies.
2. British Naval Dominance
Britain’s Royal Navy held uncontested control over the seas, allowing it to effectively enforce a
counter-blockade against France and its allies. With its naval dominance, Britain was able to
establish alternative trade routes to other parts of the world, particularly with the Americas and
the colonies.The British Navy protected British trade interests around the globe. It undertook
amphibious operations, capturing many of France’s Caribbean colonies and Dutch colonies in
the East Indies and Ceylon, which were integral to British strength and counteracting French
success on continental Europe. For instance, the British captured the French colony of
Martinique in 1809. As for the Dutch colonies, the British took control of several Dutch overseas
territories during the Napoleonic Wars, including the Cape Colony in 1806 and the Dutch East
Indies in 1811.
3. Resentment Among Conquered States
The imposition of the Continental System fostered resentment in states conquered or coerced
into compliance by Napoleon. The economic strain caused by the blockade, coupled with the
presence of French troops and heavy taxation to support Napoleon’s campaigns, led to growing
discontent and a desire for autonomy among these nations.The Kingdom of Holland, ruled by
Napoleon’s brother Louis Bonaparte, is an example where the enforcement of the Continental
System caused economic turmoil and resentment.
4. Redirection of Trade Routes to bypass Europe
The Continental System had several unintended consequences, including the stimulation of
British industrial innovation and the redirection of trade routes to bypass Europe. Britain
expanded its trade with North and South America, which became essential sources of raw
materials and markets for British goods. These developments, along with the economic decline
in Europe due to the blockade, contributed to Britain emerging from the Napoleonic Wars in a
stronger economic position than its continental rivals.
5. Nationalistic Resistance
The enforcement of the Continental System often clashed with burgeoning nationalistic
sentiments within Europe. As people across the continent began to identify more strongly with
their nation rather than with Napoleon’s empire, they increasingly resisted French-imposed
policies that were detrimental to their national interests.The Peninsular War (1807–1814) in
Spain and Portugal illustrates nationalistic resistance. The local population, with British
assistance, rose against French occupation and the enforcement of the Continental System,
leading to a prolonged and costly military campaign for Napoleon. This resistance weakened the
system’s implementation and ultimately contributed to its failure.
 6. British Naval Superiority and Geographic Advantage
Britain’s control of the seas and its geographical position as an island nation protected it from
Napoleon’s Continental System. The British Royal Navy was the most formidable naval force at
the time, ensuring that trade could continue via sea routes despite Napoleon’s blockade.
7. The System’s Inherent Flaws
The Continental System was flawed in its conception. It was an ambitious plan that required the
complete cooperation of all European nations, which was unrealistic.Economic interdependence
of Europe and the lack of allied commitment like Russia were also its flaws. The French navy
was not powerful enough to control the vast sea routes, and the blockade was too extensive to
be effectively policed, leading to its eventual collapse.
Impacts on Great Britain
Economic Disruption
The Continental System was designed as a blockade to paralyze British commerce. The Berlin
and Milan Decrees prohibited neutrals and French allies from trading with Britain, aiming to hurt
British industries. This led to a decline in British exports from 40.8 million shillings in 1806 to
35.2 million shillings in 1818. Liverpool imports fell from 143,000 sacks of raw cotton in 1807 to
23,000 sacks in 1808. Moreover, In 1808, grain imports fell to 5% of their 1807 level.
Social Unrest in Britain
The economic strain caused by the Continental System contributed to social unrest in Britain.
Corn prices rose from 66 shillings a quarter in 1807 to 94 shillings a quarter in 1808. The
blockade reduced demand for manufacturers which led to low wages and short time in working
or unemployment in the sector. In Britain in 1810, five companies went bankrupt and there was
a spate of business failures. It helped spur the Luddite protest movement, which was a reaction
against unemployment and the poor economic conditions of the time.
Overall Decline in British Exports
British exports to Europe fell 20 percent of the 1810 level. Gold payments doubled between
1808 and 1811. There were three bad harvests in a row: 1809, 1810 and 1811. This meant
hardship and starvation for many Britishers as well as the decline in exports. As a result, there
waa depreciation of the British currency and it also resulted inflation.
Political impact and Military Conflicts
Britain responded to the Continental System with Orders in Council, imposing a counter
blockade on France and its allies. This action was one of the main causes of the
Anglo-American War of 1812.
Expansion of Colonial Markets
While the Continental System aimed to weaken Britain, it ultimately had mixed results. Britain’s
economy suffered in the short term, but the nation compensated for the loss of European trade
by increasing trade with its colonies. Additionally, the blockade encouraged Britain to seek new
markets and invest in its naval strength, which played a crucial role in its eventual victory over
Napoleon.
 Napoleon as a Reformist
“If the military victories of Napoleon were ephemeral, then his
civil work was written on granite.”
(H.A.L. Fisher)
Economic Reforms
1) The Bank of France
He established the Bank of France in 1800 which facilitated the state’s ability to borrow money.
Stability was restored to the country by giving a monopoly of note-issue ti the new central bank
and backing it with gold and silver.He followed the Directory’s policy of abandoning the grossly
inflated paper money of the Revolution". This stabilized France’s currency.
2) Taxation System
He made it easier to assess and collect taxes by ordering a comprehensive land survey of the
entire country, which formed the basis for direct taxes. Additionally, he increased the number of
indirect taxes imposed on items like salt, tobacco, liquor etc.
3) Imposition of New Rules for Labour Market
The Penal Code of 1810 upheld the idea of "freedom of work," which reinforced the Le
Chapelier Law of 1791 prohibiting the formation of workers' or employers' associations. This
"freedom" in work relations meant that workers were legally under the authority of their
employers and could not go on strike. Additionally, workers were required to carry small
passports and had to show them to municipal officials, police, or employers upon request.
4) Control of Prices and Supply of Goods
During Napoleonic era, the export of corn was restricted and maximum prices for bread and
flour were introduced in 1812. There were no bread riots to threaten his rule. He was aware that
hunger was a much greater threat than desire for liberty.

System of Government
1) Centralized System
He centralized the whole of the system of local government in France. This was done by putting
Perfect and Sub-Perfects appointed by First Consul in sole charge of departments. These
Perfects were responsible to Napoleon alone. The mayors of the small communes were to be
appointed by these Perfects, whereas the mayor of towns with population more than 100,000
were to be appointed by central government.
2) Two Pillars of the Empire and Creation of New Titles
Napoleon relied on the army and bureaucracy as the main pillars of his empire. He created a
group of distinguished individuals known as "notables," rewarding them with prestigious titles
and positions for their loyal service. The highest ranking were the eighteen marshals, appointed
in 1804. Napoleon revived noble titles abolished during the Revolution, such as prince, duke,
count, baron, and chevalier. Over 3,600 titles were created during Napoleon's reign. Napoleon
also established the Legion of Honor in 1802 to recognize exceptional service to the nation,
organizing it like a military order with commanders, officers, and knights. This system allowed
individuals from conquered territories to find prestigious and rewarding careers within the
French Empire.
3) Development of Secretariat
Napoleon developed the secretariat of the state. He turned this into Ministry of Murat. the
development of the secretariat was instrumental in centralizing and streamlining administrative
functions within the French government.The secretariat served as the administrative backbone,
managing correspondence, drafting official documents, and coordinating activities across
different branches of government
4) Talent Based Career
Citizens theoretically were able to rise in government service purly according to their abilities.
He created new imperial nobility to reward the most talented generals and officials. He restricted
sale of the military commissions and civil offices.

The Code of Napoleon

It was the codification of the French laws. This code was formed by the powerful Council of
State. Under Napoleon, the legal system combined ideas from different sources such as liberal
principles, traditional customs, theories of the French Revolution, and Roman law. The Code
contained about 2287 articles embodying different spheres of individual and national life,
1) Prominence to the Roman Laws
The code gave prominence to the principles of Roman law. This step made Napoleonic Code
acceptable to other states of Europe.
2) The Family as a Mean of Guaranteeing Social Order
This code specially dealt with the laws of family such as marriage and divorce, status of women,
property etc. Napoleon believed strongly in the importance of the family as a crucial link
between the individual and the state. He saw families as essential for maintaining social order
and stability within society.
3) The Patriarchal Nature of the Society
Napoleon complained:
“In France women are con­sidered too highly. They should not be regarded as equal to
men. In reality they are nothing more than machines for producing children.”
The authority of the husband over his wife, children and the property of the family was
strengthened as against the revolution tendency towards equality of persons and equal division
of property. Under new codes, wives were subjected to husbands. Women had limited rights,
needing permission to buy or sell property or start a business, and their earnings belonged to
their husbands' descendants. Divorce was allowed but made more difficult to obtain. Women
faced harsher penalties than men for adultery. Napoleon believed women should not be equal to
men.
4) Equality of Civic Rights
In other respects, equality of civic rights was preserved. The code confirmed the right to own
private property and the land settlement of the Revolution.
5) The Code of Civil Procedure
Also prepared under Napoleonic order, it emphasized on reconciliation before litigation get
started. Capital punishment, imprisonment or deportation for life, confiscation of goods were
provided. Maximum and minimum penalties were also fixed. Jury system was maintained as a
means of judgement, but not of accusation. Accused persons had to be tried in public; they
were entitled to get the assistance of the council. No provision was made for the release of
person by Habeas Corpus.
6) The Code of Criminal Procedure and Penal Code
The Code of Criminal Procedure was issued in 1808 and Penal Code in 1810. Both of them
showed the sign of stern despotism which Napoleon had established to prevent political
offences.
7) The Commercial Code
It dealt with general commerce, maritime commerce, bankruptcy and commercial matters. To
critics, it was a very unsatisfactory code.
8) The Concordat (1801)
Napoleon himself was rather broad-minded: "If I were governing Jews, I would restore the
Temple of Solomon." He felt that spiritual forces controlled the lives of peasants and soldiers.
So, he decided to use these forces. He realized the value of organised religion as a means
towards social peace and order. "The people must have a religion and religion must be in the
hands of the government."
The result was the religious settlement of 1801. The main features of The Concordat are as
follows:
● 'The Catholic faith was recognised as the religion of the great majority of the population'.
● The clergy were to be paid as state officials
● Purchasers of former church lands were guaranteed possessions.
9) The Organic Laws
However, so that he should not be seen as restoring Roman Catholicism, Napoleon attached to
the settlement:
● A charter of Protestant Liberties
● Confirmation of the subjection of the Church to the secular power in France.

In defence of Concordat, Napoleon Bonaparte maintained that,

"Society is impossible without inequality, inequality is intolerable without a code of
morality and a code of morality is unacceptable without religion."

"Men who do not believe in God - one does not govern them, one shoots them."
● Pope gained great prestige by restoring the unity of faith. By giving the Pope the right to
demand the resignation of all the Bishops, Napoleon Bonaparte rendered illusory his
own right to nominate new ones.
● While more than half the French were enthusiastic about the Concordat, a small minority
including intellectuals and army officers opposed it.
10) Education
Napoleon introduced reforms of far-reaching effects in education. Some of these are
summarised below:
 ● Primary and elementary schools were to be maintained by every commune under the
supervision of Prefects or Sub-prefects.
● Grammar schools were to be provided with special training in Latin, French & elementary
science.
● Lycees or high schools were opened in all important towns.
● The University of France was established to maintain uniformity throughout the
educational system. Its chief official was appointed by the first Consul.
● Special schools, such as civil service schools, technical schools, military schools were
established.
● Opening the new schools - No one could open the new schools in the public unless
licensed by the University of France.
● The Institute de France had been established in 1795. Napoleon supported it and
appreciated its work in the field of physical science, fine arts, mathematics and literature.
● Female Education - Napoleon was however not in favour of giving the girs higher
education, instead they must be prepared for household responsibilities.
11) Public Works
A large number of public work was also done by Napoleon. It included;
● Splendid highways of France were constructed by 1811, almost 220 broad military roads
were constructed, 30 of these roads radiated from Paris to the borders of France.
● Two Trans-Alpine roads brought Paris in touch with Turin, Milan, Rome and Naples.
● Bridges - A large number of bridges were constructed. The most im- portant bridges
were at Austerlitz and Jena.
● Canals & Waterways - Former canals and waterways were perfected, marshes were
drained and important sea ports were enlarged.
12) Patronage of Art
The city of Paris was beautified. Broad avenues were planned. Paris began to lay claim as the
pleasure city of Europe. Palaces were enlarged.

Downfall of the Napoleon

CAUSES OF DOWNFALL OF NAPOLEON

1) Exhaustion
In Spite of being considered a super-genius, one should not forget the fact that after all, he was
a human being with ultimate limits to his energy. In the words of Dr. Sloane, 'The causes of his
de- cline may be summed up in a single word, 'exhaustion'.
2) The Failed Russian Campaign (1812)
The disastrous invasion of Russia in 1812 marked a turning point in Napoleon's fortunes. The
harsh Russian winter, supply shortages, and fierce resistance from Russian forces led to
massive French losses and undermined Napoleon's military prestige. He lost over 580,000
troops which weakened Napoleon’s military.
3) Peninsular War
The prolonged and costly Peninsular War (1808-1814) against in Spain and Portugal against the
Continental system drained French resources and tied down large numbers of troops. The
guerrilla warfare tactics employed by Spanish and Portuguese forces further weakened French
control in the Iberian Peninsula. Napoleon called this war, “ an ulcer that destroyed me”.
4) Continental System and Economic Impact
The Continental System, aimed at isolating Britain economically, backfired by causing economic
hardships and resentment among Napoleon's allies and subjects. Smuggling and economic
disruptions undermined the effectiveness of this policy. The enforcement of the system
compelled him to interfere in many countries and thereby aroused national resentment. The
Continenta;l System acted as a boomerang and destroyed his author.
5) Growing Nationalism and Resistance
Napoleon's authoritarian rule and suppression of national identities fueled nationalist sentiments
across Europe. Local uprisings and resistance movements emerged, challenging French control
and weakening support for Napoleon's empire. The local population, with British assistance,
rose against French occupation and the enforcement of the Continental System. Moreover,
when he tried to replace Spanish king, Ferdinand VII, with his brother, Joseph, the Spanish
people waged a costly guerilla war.
6) Defeat at the Battle of Leipzig (1813)
The decisive defeat at the Battle of Leipzig, also known as the Battle of Nations, in 1813 marked
a significant setback for Napoleon. The combined forces of European allies dealt a crushing
blow to the French army, leading to Napoleon's retreat and loss of strategic advantage. At the
Battle of Leipzig (Battle of Nations) , October 1813, Napoleon was finally defeated. Napoleon
lost 500,000 out of 600,000 Grande Armee. Napoleon refused to accept terms of Austrian
foreign minister Metternich’s “Frankfurt Proposals” to reduce France to its historical size.
Napoleon abdicated as emperor on April 4, 1814 after allied armies entered Paris.
7) Overextension of Empire and Multiple Warfronts
Napoleon's ambitious military campaigns and efforts to expand his empire across Europe led to
overextension of French resources and manpower. The constant warfare drained France
financially and exhausted its military strength. Moreover, He was fighting at multiple fronts with
Austria, Prussia, Great Britain and Russia which proved disastrous for his empire.
8) Hundred Days and Waterloo (1815)
Napoleon's return from exile during the Hundred Days reign sparked renewed hostilities. The
decisive defeat at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815 against British and Prussian forces led to
Napoleon's second abdication and final exile to St. Helena.