French Revolution (1789-1799)

Introduction
● The French Revolution, which began in 1789, marked the decline of powerful
monarchies and churches and saw the rise of nationalism. The French Revolution struck
the first solid blow in continental Western Europe against monarchical abso­lutism on
behalf of popular sovereignty. The roots of revolution extend back to the second half of
the seventeenth century, an era of hitherto unparalleled absolute monarchical authority.
● The revolution commenced with the financial crisis of the French monarchy. The
kingdom was burdened by substantial debt accrued through its participation in the
American Revolution and extravagant spending by King Louis XVI and his predecessors.
This fiscal strain was exacerbated by a regressive tax system where the burden fell
disproportionately on the commoners. The commoners’ resentment was further fueled by
the Enlightenment ideals of liberty, equality, and fraternity. As the crisis deepened, the
Estates-General was convened in 1789 for the first time since 1614, which set the stage
for the revolution.
● The initial phase of the revolution was relatively peaceful, aiming for a constitutional
monarchy. However, as the Third Estate grew more assertive, the revolution took a
radical turn. The storming of the Bastille on July 14, 1789, became the symbol of the
revolution, showcasing the power of the people. The subsequent years saw the abolition
of feudalism, the establishment of a republic, and the execution of the king. The
revolution concluded with the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte, who established himself as
the ruler of France and later crowned himself Emperor, signaling the end of the
revolution and the beginning of a new era in French and European history.
Causes of the French Revolution
The Ancien Regime: A System in Crisis
1) Economic Inequality
● At the time, France was a society divided into three distinct classes, or estates: the
clergy, the nobility, and the commoners.
● The clergy and nobility enjoyed significant privileges and exemptions from taxation, while
the burden of supporting the state fell disproportionately on the commoners, who were
subject to heavy taxes.
● The stark disparity in wealth and privilege created deep resentment among the
commoners, who were struggling to make ends meet.
2) Social Injustice and Class Struggles
● The second estate, the nobility, enjoyed various privileges, including exemption from
many taxes and the right to collect fees from peasants. In contrast, peasants were
burdened with feudal obligations, such as levies to the church and seigneurial dues to
the nobility.
● These obligations placed a heavy economic strain on the peasantry, leading to
widespread poverty and discrimination.
● On the other hand, the monarchy, under Louis XVI, was notorious for its lavish spending,
which drained the royal treasury and deepened the financial crisis. The divide between
 the opulent elite and the suffering masses fueled a sense of social injustice and class
struggle.
How Enlightenment Ideals Fueled the Catalyst for the French
Revolution?
1) Concepts of Liberty and Equality
Enlightenment philosophers like Voltaire, Rousseau, and Montesquieu espoused ideas of
individual liberty and the need for equal treatment under the law. The French population,
especially the commoners, was burdened by inequality and sought to abolish the privileges of
the nobility and clergy.
2) Challenge to Absolute Monarchy
Enlightenment thinkers criticized the absolute authority of monarchs and advocated for
constitutional government. The French monarchy, particularly under Louis XVI, was seen as
dictatorial and unresponsive to the needs of the people.
3) Call for Popular Sovereignty
Enlightenment principles emphasized the idea of sovereignty residing in the people. The
revolutionary slogan “Liberté, égalité, fraternité” (Liberty, equality, fraternity) reflected this ideal,
and it became a rallying cry for the French Revolution.
4) Spread of Ideas through Literature
Enlightenment ideas were disseminated widely through pamphlets, books, and newspapers.
The printing press facilitated the circulation of revolutionary thought, making it accessible to a
broader audience.
5) Inspiration from the American Revolution
The successful American Revolution, which drew heavily on Enlightenment ideas, served as a
practical example of how a colonial population could overthrow imperial rule. Thus, the
Americans inspired French revolutionaries.
6) Formation of Revolutionary Ideas
Enlightenment ideas helped shape the political and philosophical underpinnings of revolutionary
documents, such as the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, which articulated
the principles of the revolution.

Enlightenment ideas provided both the intellectual foundation and the moral impetus for the
French Revolution. They challenged the existing social and political order, empowered the
common people, and fueled the desire for a more just and equitable society. While the French
Revolution was a complex and multifaceted event influenced by various factors, Enlightenment
ideas played a central role in shaping its goals and ideals.

Who Was Louis XVI and What was his Role in the French
Revolution?
Louis XVI, born in 1754, was the King of France from 1774 until his deposition in 1792 during
the French Revolution. His role in the revolution was pivotal. Louis XVI inherited a kingdom in
financial turmoil and faced growing discontent among his subjects. He struggled to navigate the
complex political and social challenges of his time, including the Estates-General, the Tennis
Court Oath, and mounting revolutionary sentiment.
The Estates-General, the Tennis Court Oath, and mounting revolutionary sentiment were
interconnected events that played a crucial role in the French Revolution.
1) Convoking the Estates-General (May 1789)
When the “revolt of the nobility” against the monarchy’s attempt to force nobles to pay taxes
spread, Provincial parlements demanded that the Estates-General should be convoked. King
Louis XVI convened the Estates-General to address France’s dire financial crisis. It consisted of
representatives from the three estates: the First Estate (clergy), the Second Estate (nobility),
and the Third Estate (commoners). The commoners, representing the majority of the population
but having the least political power, were frustrated by their limited influence and unequal
representation. In December 1788, the king agreed to double the number of representatives of
the third estate but declined to give all members an individual vote. Moreover, On May 5, 1789,
the Estates-General met at Versailles. The king greeted the first two estates but made the
commoners waiting for two hours. After his speech, third estate members, who were not nobles
or clergy, put their hats back on, breaking tradition. On June 17, led byJean Sieyes Bailly, the
third estate declared itself the "National Assembly," claiming to represent the people's
sovereignty, challenging the authority of the king.
2) Tennis Court Oath (June 20, 1789)
On June 20, 1789, the National Assembly, mainly composed of Third Estate representatives,
found themselves locked out of their meeting hall and gathered at a nearby tennis court. There,
they took the Tennis Court Oath “not to separate, and to reassemble wherever circumstances
require, until the con­stitution of the kingdom is established and consolidated upon solid founda­
tions.”. The oath demonstrated their commitment to reform and their determination to challenge
the king’s authority.
3) Mounting Revolutionary Sentiment
These events, along with growing unrest in Paris and other parts of France, fueled revolutionary
sentiment. The storming of the Bastille on July 14, 1789, marked a turning point, as it
symbolized the rejection of royal authority and the outbreak of violence. The Declaration of the
Rights of Man and the Citizen, adopted by the National Assembly in August 1789, further
solidified revolutionary ideals and principles of liberty and equality.
Factors of Ineffectual Leadership: The Rule of Louis XVI
Louis XVI’s rule played a central role in the progression of the French Revolution. His ineffectual
leadership and inability to address the mounting issues in France significantly contributed to the
revolutionary fervor.
1) Economic Mismanagement
Louis XVI inherited a France plagued by financial problems, largely due to the irresponsible
spending of his predecessors. Rather than addressing these issues decisively, he continued to
engage in costly wars, including the American Revolutionary War, which strained the French
treasury.
2) Resistance to the Reforms
Despite recognizing the need for financial and social reforms, Louis XVI faced resistance from
the nobility and clergy when attempting to impose taxes on these privileged groups.In 1781,
Jacques Necker, finance minister, was dismissed by the King due to continual loans. The king
appointed new finance minister, Charles-Alexandre de Calonne, who attempted to address the
crisis with proposed tax reforms, including levying land taxes on nobles, but encountered fierce
opposition from parlements and the privileged classes who resisted any threat to their
exemptions from taxation. Calonne was dismissed in 1787 and replaced by Etienne-Charles de
Lomenie de Brienne, who also faced resistance from the Parlement of Paris to his reform
measures, leading to a deepening political and financial crisis that would ultimately contribute to
the outbreak of the French Revolution in 1789 because there was needed to reduce the
privileges of the nobles to solve the financial crisis. This noble revolt began the French
Revolution.
3) Failure to Control Unrest
As discontent and social unrest grew, Louis XVI struggled to maintain control. The outbreak of
the Estates-General and the subsequent storming of the Bastille revealed his inability to assert
authority and maintain order.
4) Detachment from the People
Louis XVI’s perceived detachment from the suffering of the commoners further eroded his
legitimacy. The famous phrase “Let them eat cake,” although often misattributed to Marie
Antoinette, highlighted the monarchy’s insensitivity to the hardships faced by the populace.
5) Ineffectual Decision-Making
Louis XVI’s indecision and vacillation in critical moments, such as the Estates-General and the
Tennis Court Oath, allowed the revolutionaries to gain momentum and push for more radical
changes.
6) Attempted Escape
Louis XVI’s ill-fated attempt to flee the country in 1791 (the Flight to Varennes) further damaged
his authority. Ultimately, he was put on trial by the National Convention and found guilty of
treason, leading to his execution by guillotine in January 1793. His downfall marked a turning
point in the French Revolution, paving the way for the rise of radical republicanism and the
Reign of Terror.
The Financial Crisis
The financial crisis was a fundamental reason behind the French Revolution. Several key
factors within the financial crisis contributed significantly to the outbreak of the revolution.
1) Heavy Taxation
The taxation system in France was highly inequitable. The commoners bore the brunt of the tax
burden, while the nobility and clergy enjoyed exemptions. The exacerbated social and economic
inequality created resentment among the common people.
2) Debts from Wars
France had accumulated substantial debts from its involvement in wars, including support for
the American Revolution. These financial obligations strained the economy and the
government’s ability to meet its financial commitments.
3) Bankruptcy and Default
By 1789, France was essentially bankrupt. The government struggled to meet its debt payments
and pay its expenses. Attempts to reform the financial system and impose new taxes often met
resistance from the privileged classes, resulting in chaos.
4) Ineffectual Reforms
Reform-minded ministers tried to tackle the financial crisis but their efforts often failed because
the nobility and clergy resisted their proposed changes due to their vested interests.
Social Unrest and Peasant Uprisings
1) The Storming of the Bastille
On the morning of July 14, 1789, thousands of ordinary people, including tradesmen, artisans,
and wage earners, took weapons from the Invalides, a veterans' hospital. Later that afternoon,
they stormed on the Bastille, believing it held gunpowder and ammunition.The Bastille was a
symbol of royal authority and tyranny, and its fall represented a popular uprising against the
monarchy and the Old Regime. Angered by food shortages, economic hardship, and political
oppression, Parisians stormed the fortress-prison to secure weapons, powder, ammunition and
free political prisoners. The Bastille event is considered the start of the violent phase of the
revolution. The anger and determination of the urban working class played a crucial role in this
uprising.
2) The Great Fear
In the summer of 1789, a wave of peasant uprisings and rural violence known as the “Great
Fear” swept across the French countryside. Peasants, fearing retaliation from the aristocracy,
rose, burned châteaux, and demanded an end to feudal privileges and taxes. On August 4,
1989, the National Assembly abolished the feudal regime including feudal privileges and
enacted land reforms.
3) Women’s March on Versailles
On October 5, 1789, a group of Parisian women marched to the Palace of Versailles,
demanding bread and the return of the royal family to Paris. Their actions forced the royal family
to relocate to Paris and made them more accountable to the revolutionary forces. That night
Louis XVI announced his acceptance of the Assembly’s momentous decrees of the night of
August 4.
Nonetheless, violence erupted at dawn when crowds tried to enter the chateau; royal guards
shot a man dead, and in retaliation, the crowds killed two guards. Women in the crowd sang
about returning with "The Baker, the Baker’s Wife, and the Baker’s Little Boy," highlighting the
belief that the king was responsible for providing bread. The National Assembly also moved
from Versailles to Paris. This women's march to Versailles exerted popular political pressure and
altered the course of the French Revolution.
4) Legislative Changes: The Declaration of the Rights of Man and
Citizen
Social unrest and peasant uprisings influenced the National Assembly to enact key legislative
changes, including the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen pn 26 August 1789,
which laid the foundation for democratic principles, and the abolition of feudal privileges in
1790.One of the most significant documents in Western politi­cal history, the Declaration
reflected some of the ideas that Thomas Jefferson had enshrined in the American Declaration of
Independence of 1776. Arti­cle One proclaims, “Men are bom and remain free and equal in
rights.” The Enlightenment’s influence is apparent in the document’s concern for indi­vidual
freedom, civic equality, and the sense of struggle against corporatism, unjust privilege, and
absolute rule, a discourse based upon a belief in the primacy of reason.
Laws were to reflect the notion of the “general will,” an Enlightenment concept, which would be
expressed by national representatives. The nation itself, not the monarch alone, was to be “the
source of all sovereignty.”
The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen in 1789, while invoking the concept of
"universal man," excluded women and did not advocate for gender equality. However, the
Revolution prompted the use of "citizen" as a greeting among men and women, and it also
sparked early calls for women's rights.
5) Reforming the Clergy and Church
The National Assembly reformed the Church during the French Revolution. They proclaimed
Louis XVI as "the king of the French," emphasizing popular sovereignty. Church property was
declared "national property" according to the advice of Charles-Maurice de Tal­leyrand and sold
off to address financial crisis, benefiting urban bourgeois and wealthy peasants. The Assembly
abolished religious orders on February 13, 1790 and enacted the Civil Constitution of the
French Clergy On July 12,1790, making the Church a state department with elected bishops.
This led to widespread resistance from clergy, dividing communities and contributing to a
counter-revolutionary movement. Many priests refused to swear loyalty to the Revolution,
leading to conflicts within the Church and society. Pope Pius VI denounced these reforms,
deepening tensions between the Church and the revolutionary government.
6) The Reforms of 1791
The Constitution of 1791 established a constitutional monarchy in France, limiting the king's
powers to a suspending veto while giving the Assembly control over war and peace decisions.
The Revolution abolished hereditary legal privileges and titles of nobility, but only "active
citizens" with sufficient tax payments could vote.Moreover, On June 14, 1791, the National
Assembly passed the Le Chapelier Law, which made it illegal for workers to organize strikes or
refuse to work for their employers together.Protestants and Jews gained citizenship and civil
rights, and guilds were abolished to promote free trade. Slavery was abolished in France but not
in the colonies, leading to rebellion in Hispaniola. Olympe de Gouges advocated for women's
rights, including education, property control, and divorce, highlighting the Enlightenment's
influence on gender equality.
7) Resistance and Revolution
Resistance to the Revolution emerged in France by the summer of 1791, particularly in the
south, west, and Alsace, where open opposition to revolutionary changes began. This
resistance spurred calls for more radical reforms. Some revolutionaries rejected the distinction
between active and passive citizens and advocated for greater democratic participation in
politics. The democratic thrust in the Revolution may have been influenced by the dismantling of
the monarchical state's privileged groups, fostering a tendency toward democracy. Political
factions formed clubs like the Jacobin Club and Cordeliers Club, which became centers for
radical ideas. The sans-culottes, defined by their rejection of aristocratic attire, were urban
workers and artisans demanding economic reforms, including price controls on bread. They
emphasized popular sovereignty through direct democracy and political engagement in clubs
and neighborhood meetings, rejecting aristocratic symbols and language in favor of egalitarian
ideals.
Radicalization and the Reign of Terror
1) Political Radicalization
As the French Revolution progressed, it took on increasingly radical dimensions. The initial
moderate phase, characterized by constitutional reforms and the establishment of a
constitutional monarchy, gave way to a more radical phase with the rise of political clubs,
notably the Jacobins.
The Jacobins, led by figures like Maximilien Robespierre (French Lawyer and Statesman),
advocated for more sweeping changes and the establishment of a republic. Their radical ideas,
combined with economic hardships and external threats to the revolution, led to the
radicalization of the revolutionary government.
2) Second Revolution
The French Revolution entered a new phase in 1792 as France faced foreign invasion and
internal turmoil. Rising fear of aristocratic betrayal and economic hardship led to revolutionary
uprisings in Paris. The monarchy was overthrown in August 1792 after mobs stormed the
Tuileries Palace, prompting the Assembly to proclaim the nation in danger and suspend the
monarchy. The September Massacres saw the killing of suspected counter-revolutionaries.
Despite initial defeats, French forces stopped the Prussian advance at the Battle of Valmy,
marking a turning point in the Revolution. The National Convention abolished the monarchy,
declared a republic, and initiated military successes against foreign powers. Louis XVI was
executed in January 1793. The Convention's actions fueled political divisions between Girondins
and Jacobins, leading to further unrest.
3) Counter Revolution
The Counter-Revolution began in regions where religious practices were strong and the French
Revolution faced resistance. In March 1793, a major uprising called the Vendee Rebellion
started in western France. The revolutionary government enforced mass conscription in August
1793, leading to widespread opposition to defending the republic through military service. In
areas south of the Loire River, counter-revolutionary forces emerged from isolated regions
where the old elite remained influential. The conflict was marked by extreme brutality, including
mass executions and pillaging, causing significant loss of life, with up to a quarter of the
population perishing during 1793-1794.
4) The Reign of Terror
Faced with foreign invasion and civil insurgency, the Jacobins further cen­tralized government
authority and implemented the “Terror” against those considered enemies of the Revolution in
1793. The Convention set aside a planned Constitution of 1793. It was marked by mass
executions of perceived enemies of the revolution, often through the use of the guillotine. The
Committee of Public Safety, led by Robespierre, displayed immense power and used it to
suppress dissent and maintain control.
Two young radical Jacobin leaders, Louis Antoine Saint-Just and Maximilien Robespierre, took
charge of the Reign of Terror during the French Revolution. Saint-Just targeted royalists,
hoarders, and Girondins, warning against half-hearted revolutions. Robespierre led the
Committee of Public Safety, relying on support from the sans-culottes but wary of their influence.
Historians debate Robespierre's legacy, seeing him either as a defender of the Revolution
against counter-revolutionaries or as a precursor to totalitarianism.
During the French Revolution, the "Law of Suspects" stripped accused individuals of their rights,
leading to widespread arrests and executions.
Radical revolutionaries launched a campaign of "de-christianization," closing churches and
removing religious symbols.
The Reign of Terror, led by the Committee of Public Safety, targeted perceived enemies of the
Revolution, resulting in thousands of deaths and imprisonments. The Terror eventually turned
against its own leaders, including Danton and the enrages, who questioned its necessity.
Robespierre attempted to establish a secular "Cult of the Supreme Being" to promote republican
values, culminating in events like the "Festival of Reason" where Notre Dame was transformed
into a temple of reason.
The Reign of Terror was driven by a combination of factors, including the fear of
counter-revolution, external threats from foreign powers, and internal power struggles. The
radicalization of the revolution and the brutality of the Reign of Terror ultimately led to the
downfall of Robespierre and the rise of a more moderate government.
External Pressures and War
1) European Coalition
The French Revolution not only sparked internal conflicts but also drew in external powers. The
revolutionary government’s radicalism and its stated goal of spreading revolutionary ideals
across Europe alarmed neighboring monarchies. In response, a coalition of European powers,
including Austria, Prussia, and Great Britain, declared war on France in 1792.
The French Revolutionary Wars, which lasted from 1792 to 1802, saw France pitted against a
coalition of European monarchies. While the revolutionary armies experienced both victories
and defeats, the war effort put immense strain on France’s resources and economy. The conflict
fueled nationalism and a sense of patriotism among the French people but also contributed to
the radicalization of the revolution.
2) Internal Divisions
The war also promoted internal divisions within France. The Revolutionary government faced
challenges from counter-revolutionary movements within the country, particularly in regions that
remained loyal to the monarchy. The radical policies of the government and the levée en masse,
a mass conscription of French citizens, further divided the population.
The war effort drained the nation’s resources and led to a cycle of violence and repression. As
the revolutionary government struggled to maintain control both internally and externally, it
became increasingly authoritarian, leading to the rise of the Committee of Public Safety and the
Reign of Terror.
Final Stages of the Revolution
After overthrowing the Jacobin dictatorship, moderate Jacobins and others in the Convention
established the Directory government, ending the Terror. The Directory faced political instability
due to Jacobins on the left and monarchists on the right, along with ongoing wars and economic
challenges. Despite consolidating some revolutionary gains, the Directory was eventually
overthrown by conspirators led by Abbe Sieyes and Napoleon Bonaparte. This led to the rise of
Napoleon and the end of the Directory era.
Thermidor
During Thermidor, moderates in the Convention led by figures like Paul Barras and Joseph
Fouche plotted against Robespierre and his allies due to fear of being targeted next. On July 27,
1794 (9th of Thermidor), Robespierre was arrested after addressing the Convention and calling
for another purge. Robespierre and Saint-Just were swiftly executed without trial, followed by
many of their allies. This marked the end of the Reign of Terror. The Thermidorians established
a new government, dismantling the Paris Commune and reducing the powers of the Committee
of Public Safety before abolishing it completely in November 1794.
The Directory: Politics and Society
During the Directory period (1795-1799), a bicameral legislative assembly and a collective
executive of five directors formed the government. The Council of Ancients and the Council of
Five Hundred comprised the legislative bodies, with most members elected from the existing
Convention. The five directors were chosen by these councils and served as the executive
authority.
By the constitution of 1795,the voting system allowed all male taxpayers to vote, but only a
small group of about 30,000 men were eligible to elect the electoral assemblies. Wealthier
citizens were favored in this indirect election system, limiting broader participation.
The period saw a shift away from Robespierre's ascetic Republic of Virtue, with wealthy youth
setting a new cultural tone characterized by opulence and sensuality. The social scene was
marked by formalities, lavish clothing, and the resurgence of church activities demanded by the
public.
Meanwhile, economic conditions were harsh, with rising bread prices and scarcity of basic
commodities. The wealthy benefited while the poor endured deprivations, exacerbated by
military requisitions and economic instability.
Instability
The Directory, which succeeded the Reign of Terror, failed to bring stability to France. Despite
peace agreements with Prussia in April 1795, French armies continued campaigns against
Austria in Central Europe and Italy, resulting in mass desertions and reduced troop numbers.
Social and political instability persisted. In 1795, the Directory suppressed popular
demonstrations demanding bread price controls. Royalists attempted insurrections, including
one in Paris supported by wealthier districts on October 5, 1795. General Napoleon Bonaparte
quelled an uprising with force.
François-Noel Babeuf plotted to overthrow the Directory. He, influenced by Rousseau,
organized the "Conspiracy of the Equals" in 1796, advocating for social egalitarianism and
common land ownership. He was arrested in 1796 and guillotined in 1797. The Directory used
this plot to purge Jacobins once again.
Caught between extreme factions and lacking strong civilian leadership, the Directory faced
ongoing uncertainty, intrigue, and coup rumors, contributing to its instability and eventual
downfall.
In 1797, the Directory faced challenges as royalists gained seats in the Council of Five
Hundred, prompting the government to annul the election results through a coup d’état on
September 4, 1797. The Directory, despite its failures, represented France's second attempt at
representative government, bridging the Old Regime's absolutism with modern representative
principles.
Napoleon Bonaparte's victories in Italy, culminating in the Treaty of Campo Formio on October
17, 1797, made France dominant in Europe. However, years of war had exhausted France,
leading to economic decline with rampant inflation and worthless assignats. Dissatisfaction grew
among the bourgeoisie when the Directory cancelled half of the national debt in 1797.
In May 1798, Napoleon sailed to Egypt to challenge British interests in India, triggering alliances
against France in the Second Coalition (1799-1802). Coalition forces, including Russia, Austria,
and Britain, pushed back French expansion in Italy and suppressed Irish uprisings against
British rule.
Amidst coalition quarrels, Russian Tsar Paul withdrew from the coalition in October 1799 due to
disputes with Britain over naval rights.
The Eighteenth Brumaire
In November 1799 (the 18th Brumaire), Abbe Sieyes and General Napoleon Bonaparte
orchestrated the overthrow of the Directory, citing the need for a stronger executive authority
amid ongoing instability. Talleyrand, the foreign minister, facilitated communication between the
parties. Bonaparte announced to the councils that a new constitution was required due to an
alleged Jacobin conspiracy.
Initially met with skepticism, Bonaparte's brother Lucien intervened to secure his authority,
ultimately consolidating power in Napoleon's hands. This event marked a pivotal moment in
French history, raising questions about Napoleon's role as either the heir or destroyer of the
French Revolution.
The End of the French Revolution
The end of the French Revolution can be traced to several key events and developments that
occurred over a decade. It marked a period of significant political and social change in France
and had a lasting impact on the country and the world.
1) Rise of Napoleon Bonaparte
After a series of political changes and power struggles in the years following the revolution,
Napoleon, a military general, seized power in a coup d’état in 1799. He established himself as
First Consul and later became Emperor of the French in 1804. His rule effectively marked the
end of the revolutionary era, as he centralized power and implemented a more authoritarian
regime.
2) The Napoleonic’s Expansionism
Under Napoleon’s leadership, France experienced a period of relative stability and expansion,
known as the Napoleonic Era. He implemented a series of legal reforms, known as the
Napoleonic Code, which had a lasting impact on French law. He also waged military campaigns
across Europe, which resulted in territorial changes and the spread of revolutionary ideals.
3) The Agreement of Concordat
In 1801, Napoleon signed the Concordat with the Catholic Church, reconciling the relationship
between the French government and the Church. The agreement allowed for religious freedom
and the return of the Catholic Church to France, marking a departure from the radical
anti-religious policies of the revolution.
4) The Treaty of Amiens
In 1802, France signed the Treaty of Amiens, temporarily ending hostilities with Great Britain
and bringing a brief period of peace to Europe. However, this peace was short-lived as conflicts
resumed, leading to the Napoleonic Wars.
5) The Bourbon Restoration
The end of Napoleon’s rule came in 1814 when he was exiled to the island of Elba. The
Bourbon monarchy was restored in the form of Louis XVIII. However, Napoleon escaped from
Elba in 1815 and briefly returned to power during the Hundred Days before his final defeat at
the Battle of Waterloo. This marked the definitive end of the Napoleonic era.
6) The Congress of Vienna
After Napoleon’s final defeat, European powers convened at the Congress of Vienna in
1814-1815 to redraw the map of Europe and restore order. They sought to contain revolutionary
ideas and restore conservative monarchies, effectively concluding the era of the French
Revolution.
The Legacy of the French Revolution
The French Revolution, which began in 1789 and continued through the early 19th century, had
a profound and far-reaching legacy that impacted not only France but also the world.
1) Democracy and Republicanism
The French Revolution introduced the idea of modern democracy and republicanism to the
world. The Revolution’s foundational document, the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the
Citizen, emphasized the principles of liberty, equality, and fraternity. These principles have since
become central to democratic governance worldwide.
2) End of Absolute Monarchy
The Revolution brought an end to the absolute monarchy in France, symbolized by the
execution of King Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette. It replaced the monarchy with a
republic and ultimately led to the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte as Emperor.
3) Secularism and Religious Freedom
The Revolution significantly reduced the power of the Catholic Church in France through
measures like the Civil Constitution of the Clergy. It promoted secularism and religious freedom,
laying the groundwork for the separation of church and state in France and inspiring similar
developments elsewhere.
4) Legal Reforms
The Napoleonic Code, implemented during Napoleon’s rule, established a uniform legal system
based on Enlightenment principles. The legal code influenced legal systems worldwide and
remains a cornerstone of French law.
5) Nationalism
The French Revolution fostered a sense of national identity and pride among the French people.
It contributed to the spread of nationalism across Europe and played a role in the unification of
Italy and Germany in the 19th century.
6) Spread of Revolutionary Ideas
The revolutionary ideals of liberty, equality, and fraternity inspired movements for social and
political change in many countries, including Latin American independence movements and
uprisings in various parts of Europe.
 7) Political Movements
The French Revolution influenced the development of political movements such as liberalism
and socialism. It also contributed to the rise of political ideologies like conservatism as a
response to the revolutionary disorder.
8) Terror and Repression
The Reign of Terror during the Revolution, marked by mass executions and political violence,
serves as a cautionary example of the dangers of radicalism and extremism in pursuit of political
change.
9) Conflict and Diplomacy
The Revolutionary and Napoleonic wars spread across Europe, leading to widespread conflict.
The Congress of Vienna (1814-1815) attempted to restore order in Europe and redrew the map
of the continent, with long-term consequences.
Reactions to the French Revolution in Europe

Britain
Initially, many British intellectuals and politicians supported the Revolution's ideals of liberty and
equality, viewing it as a blow against despotic monarchies. However, as the Revolution grew
more radical and violent, enthusiasm waned. In 1790, British writer Edmund Burke criticized the
French Revolution in "Reflections on the Revolution in France." He argued that Enlightenment
ideals threatened traditional institutions like monarchy and established churches, undermining
the natural order of society led by a ruling elite. The execution of Louis XVI in 1793 shocked
Britain, and fears of similar uprisings at home led to repression of radical political movements.
British government propaganda painted the Revolution as a threat to stability and social
order.Popular respect for the British monarchy soared as anti-French and anti-Catholic feelings

Austria and Prussia

The rulers of Austria (Emperor Leopold II) and Prussia (Frederick William II) were alarmed by
the Revolution's spread and feared its impact on their monarchies. They undertook suppression
of Jacobin sympathizers. They issued the Declaration of Pillnitz in 1791, expressing solidarity
with Louis XVI and threatening military intervention if the French royal family was harmed. This
declaration helped galvanize anti-French sentiment among European monarchs.
Holy Roman Empire and Italy
The spread of revolutionary ideas into the Holy Roman Empire and Italian states led to fear
among conservative rulers. Austrian and Prussian troops intervened in support of local
monarchs against revolutionary movements in places like the Austrian Netherlands (Belgium)
and Piedmont-Sardinia.
Russia
Catherine the Great of Russia initially saw the Revolution as a potential ally against Austria and
Prussia. However, she became increasingly wary of revolutionary ideas spreading into her
empire. Her successor, Paul I, joined the First Coalition against France in 1798.
Spain and Portugal
The French Revolution inspired both revolutionary and counter-revolutionary movements in
Spain and Portugal. The Spanish government cracked down on liberal and radical groups,
fearing domestic upheaval. Portugal faced similar challenges, with the monarchy reasserting
control against revolutionary ideas.
Netherlands
The French revolutionary ideas had an impact on the Dutch Republic, leading to political turmoil
and divisions between supporters and opponents of the Revolution. The French invaded the
Netherlands in 1795, leading to the establishment of the Batavian Republic.
Switzerland
Revolutionary ideas reached Switzerland, where they fueled political debates and conflicts
between conservatives and radicals. The French invaded Switzerland in 1798, leading to the
establishment of the Helvetic Republic.

Role of the Philosphers

France in 18th century had many revolutionary thinkers. The philosophers played an important
role in the French revolution. They inspired the common mass of France with their revolutionary
ideas and prepared them to fight against injustices. Among them were Voltaire, Rousseau,
Montesquieu and Diderot. Their revolutionary ideas encouraged people to fight for their rights.
They exposed the inefficiency of the monarch and his government and aroused the people to
challenge authority. Many events happened in the course of revolution. It began with very
important role of National Assembly from 1789 to 1791. Fall of fort of Bastille, declaration of
human rights including liberty, equality and fraternity, the great principles. Imprisonment of king
and queen then their assassination, end of Reign of Terror with Robespear etc. were main
events in course of revolution.
➔ They did not believe in the doctrine of the divine and the absolute right of the
monarch. In his two treaties of government John Locke refuted this doctrine
strongly.
➔ Rousseau carried the idea forward proposing a form of government based on a
social contract between people and their representatives.
➔ In the spirit of the laws, Montesquieu proposed a division of power within the
government between the legislative, executive and the judiciary.
➔ The ideas of these philosophers wet discussed in saloons and coffee houses and
spread among people through books and newspapers.
➔ These were frequently read clearly in groups for the benefit of those who were
illiterate. Thus the philosophers contributed a lot in bringing of the French
revolution.
Baron De Montesquieu (1689 to 1755)
He was born in noble family. Advocate Montesquieu was judge also. He studied history, political
science and law. The true intellectual revolution in France started with Montesquieu who
exposed the privileges enjoyed by the French aristocracy and the corruption rampant in the
royal court. In his book Spirit of Laws he openly attacked the absolute monarchy of France and
pointed out that the shortcomings of political institutions and mental outlook of the people
governed. He advocated constitutional monarchy that would serve the interests of the French
people. He also preached that liberty of individuals could never be safe guarded without
separation of powers of the government into three independent organs – legislature, judicial and
executive. Montesquieu exercised a profound influence on the people. His criticism of the
existing laws and institutions destroyed the prestige in which these institutions.
His work the Spirit of the Laws. was instrumental in creating a desire for freedom and helped to
spark the French Revolution.
Montesquieu's writings attacked the feudalistic basis of French society. He argued as Locke and
Thomas Jefferson that all people were created equal. This ideal eliminated the idea of the
Divine Right of Kings to Rule. If the King did not have the right to rule then the people had the
right to rebel which they did.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau- (1712 – 1778)
The French rationalist philosophy swung to a radical channel with the advent of Jean Jacques
Rousseau. In his writings he poured his contempt on selfishness and cunning way of the rich
and the educated. In his essay- what is the origin of inequality among men, Rousseau showed
how vanity and greed had corrupted men. Rousseau had an intense faith in the dignity and
goodness of man.
In his book- Social Contract, he investigated the origin of state and government. He adopted
Lock‟s main proposition of state of nature, the idea of contract and the sovereignty of the
people. He declared that Government, Law and State were the outcome of a contract with
people. The collective will of the people called the general will was the sovereign power. In
January of 1789, the Abbé Sieyès demanded that if France were really serious about the
general will, then it had to bolster the power of the Third Estate. By July of the same year, this
demand was manifested in the Decree upon the National Assembly, which now posited that the
"interpretation and presentation of the general will of the nation belong" to the National
Assembly. The very next month, the same National Assembly would issue its Declaration of the
Rights of Man, which expressly asserted, "The law is an expression of the general will."

The king remained on the throne under the obligation to obey the contract. If the king failed in
his duty, the contract was broken and the general could depose him will. The people had a right
to revolt against a bad government. According to Mmme De Stael (1766-1817), a famous
female French writer and intellectual, Napoleon ascribed the French Revolution more to
Rousseau than to any to other writer.. The influence of Rousseau is easily visible from the
beginning of the Revolution even when the idea of constitutional monarchy was being
implemented.
Rousseau‟s famous dictum that “Man was born free but everywhere is in chains” finds its echo
in the Declaration of Rights of Man and the Citizens adopted by the National Assembly of
France on August 26th, 1789. The Social Contract argued against the idea that monarchs were
divinely empowered to legislate. Rousseau asserted that only the people, who are sovereign,
have that all-powerful right.
The aim of all political association is the preservation of the natural and imprescriptible rights of
Man. These rights are liberty, property, security and resistance to oppression. The Principle of
all sovereignty resides essentially in the nation. Nobody nor individual may exercise any
authority which does not proceed directly from the nation.
He was also called as Messiah of the Revolutionary crisis. Among casual readers, he is known
as the muse of the Jacobins in the French Revolution.

Voltaire (1694-1778)
Voltaire (1694 – 1778) was a French historian and Philosopher who is famous for his attacks on
Catholic Church, and his advocacy of freedom of religion, freedom of expression, and
separation of church and state. He was known to be the “King of Satire” and this genius made
him immense popular.
His imprisonment by the government converted him into a social thinker and critic. He examined
the condition of contemporary society and highlighted the tyranny, cruelty and absurdities
prevailing in France. He wrote a famous critical history named “The Age of Louis XIV‟ and also
wrote numerous essays, tales and satires. The other famous work was the „Philosophical
Dictionary‟. He attacked the decadent customs and notions prevalent in the society.
But his main target was the Catholic Church. He criticized the French Church as privileged
nuisance, monument of bigotry and den of superstitions in his novel, Candide (1759). He said
that the church held human thoughts in perpetual bondage. He gave a battle cry to destroy it
and criticized the government and society. His powerful writings attacked the citadel of tradition.
He demolished its holiness and prestige.
By reading Candide highly educated class of France had felt a stirring of discontent about
church officials and French government. During French revolution French revolutionaries had
done vast reforms in the French church administration
Voltaire‟s idea of tolerance is tersely put in his famous dictum:
“I don‟t agree with a word you say but I shall defend to death your right to say it”
Durant Explains why revolution in France was violent in contrast to the revolutions which
happened in other European countries give philosophical appraisal of influence of thought of
Voltaire:
“The most profound and lasting influence of Voltaire has been on religious belief.
Through him and his associate France bypassed the Reformation and went directly from
the Renaissance to Enlightenment. Perhaps that is one reason why change so violent;
there was no pause at Protestantism”
His most notable works are A Treatise for Toleration and play titled Brutus (1730). In Brutus, he
has vividly depicted the horror of a tyrannical government of an ancient Roman King Brutus.
This play had a profound effect upon the revolution and some of the most common slogans of
the revolution were borrowed from Brutus.
French revolutionaries were highly influenced by his book titled ‘Letters concerning the
English Nation’ . Voltaire had written this book by using his experiences, observations and
knowledge’s gained in England during his stay in that well governed country. By reading this
book French enlightened class had gained knowledge about political system and also
parliamentary system, their tolerant society and constitutional monarchy of England. By praising
British constitutional monarchy Voltaire had criticized French absolute monarchy.
French revolutionaries had become enkindled by the content of this book. This book infused
Great Spirit in the hearts of the French revolutionaries. In this book he presented an authentic
picture that how religious tolerance had brought peace and stability in different country and how
religious intolerance had caused immense sufferings for the society.

French bourgeois class was the real makers of the French revolution. They had come to power
through the election of the Estates- General of 1789 and they had declared Estates-General as
‘National Assembly.’ On 9h July, 1789, National Assembly had declared itself as ‘National
Constituent Assembly’ (Philip Lee Ralph: 202). In 1791 National Constituent Assembly had
drawn up ‘French Constitution of 1791’ which was the first constitution of France. Because
France had no constitution till 1791 (R.R. Palmer and others: 358). By this constitution
revolutionaries had abolished French absolute monarchy and introduced constitutional
monarchy on Ist October, 1791. So this is easily understandable that French revolutionary
leaders especially constitution makers were highly influenced by Voltaire’s book.
Denis Diderot (1713-1784)
Denis Diderot was a prominent writer and philosopher of the Enlightenment era whose works
influenced the ideas of the French Revolution. As the editor of the Encyclopédie's art and
science sections, he connected scientific advancements with radical philosophical concepts like
materialism. Diderot focused on life sciences and challenged traditional notions of humanity,
advocating for reforms to address inequality, economic exploitation, and religious anarchy. His
writings resonated with the middle class and provoked the French government to impose
restrictions on the Encyclopédie.
Impact of Intellectuals on France
French Philosophers Voltaire, Rousseau and Montesquieu inspired the people with
revolutionary ideas of liberty and equality. Montesquieu rejected the theory of the „Divine Rights
of the King‟ and urged for separation of powers. Rousseau, in his book Social Contract,
announced that sovereign power lay in popular will. Their revolutionary ideas helped the people
for fight their rights. They exposed the inefficiency of the monarch and his government. The
French Revolution had a great and far-reaching impact that probably transformed the world
more than any other revolution. Its repercussions include lessening the importance of religion;
rise of Modern Nationalism; spread of Liberalism and igniting the Age of Revolutions.