F3-ELEMENTARY SURVEY, 2nd edtn.$&@ 2023 (3)

ELEMENTARY SURVEY AND MAP
MEANING AND TYPES OF SURVEY

 Surveying: Is an art or science of measuring and recording distances, angles, heights and sizes on the Earths’
surface to obtain data from which accurate plans and maps are made.
OR
 Surveying is also the art and science of making or taking measurements both linear and angular on the
Earth‘s surface at different positions for the purpose of producing a plan or map.
 Angular measurement means measuring the distance from a given reference point to an observed
object. The distance is measured in a clockwise direction from North.
 Linear measurement is the distance measured along the surface of the ground such as a horizontal
distance.
 Boundaries, areas, elevations, construction lines and geographical or artificial features are determined by
the measurement of horizontal and vertical distances/angles and by computations based on geometry and
trigonometry.
PURPOSES OF SURVEYING
1. To prepare/making maps or plans
 In order to show the existing situation of the area for development.
 Also for planning like town planning, telephone/electric lines, construction of transport routes
and buildings.
2. To calculate areas and distance
TYPES OF SIMPLE LAND SURVEY
 The types of Simple land Survey can be categorized basing on two (2) criteria. Which are;
a) According to the size and nature of the surface to be surveyed.
b) Basing/According to the specific objectives.
A. BASING ON THE SIZE AND NATURE OF THE SURFACE.
 There are two types of land surveying which are Geodetic and Plane.
I. GEODETIC SURVEYS (GEODES)
 This is the type/branch of surveying in which when taking measurements, the curvature (shape) of the
Earth is taken into consideration.
 The main purpose of this survey is to lay a foundation for other types of surveys and research.
CHARACTERISTICS OF GEODETIC SURVEY
i. It consider the curvature of the Earth.
ii. It determines the curved distance shape and size of the earth’s surface.
iii. It involves advanced mathematical calculation.
iv. It has high accuracy compared to plane survey
v. It is suitable for large area and large distance e.g. the whole Earth’s surface, continent or a
country.
II. PLANE SURVEY
 This is a branch of surveying which involves taking measurements on the earth’s surface without
considering spherical shape of the earth.
 It assumes that the Earth’s surface is a flat plane (It neglects the curvature of the Earth).
 Plane survey is used mostly in measuring small area like plots, village, small towns, buildings,
playgrounds.
CHARACTERISTCIS OF PLANE SURVEY
i. It is suitable for small area e.g. school, township or a village.
ii. It doesn’t consider the curvature of the earth
iii. It doesn’t involve advanced mathematical calculation.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PLANE SURVEYING AND GEODETIC SURVEY
PLANE SURVEYING GEODETIC SURVEYING
i. Effects of curvature of earth surface is i. Effects of curvature of the earth surface is taken
ignored. into account.
ii. The earth surface is assumed to be a flat ii. The earth surface is assumed to be spherical
plane
iii. It involves measurement of small area on the iii. It involves measuring of large areas.
earth surface.
GEO NOTES: F3-ELEMENTARY SURVEY, 2ND Edition, 2023 By Sir. Ruben Venance Mgeni (0621 334 851) Pg. 1 of 18
iv. It has lower degree of accuracy iv. It has high degree of accuracy
v. It is done mostly by individual organization v. It is done mostly by a state/government
department.
B. BASING/ACCORDING TO THE SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES.

 Survey according to the specific objectives include the following significant types;-
1. TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEY
 This kind of survey is carried out for the purpose of preparing topographical maps.
 It deals with measurements of physical features of the Earth’s surface, either natural or human-made
features.
 Features includes roads, rivers, oceans, mountains, plateaus, buildings, lakes and vegetation.
2. CADASTRAL SURVEY
 This is a type of survey that deals with boundaries. For instance, boundaries of towns, villages, districts,
regions or even countries.
 This includes measuring of beacons or markers that have been erected to demarcate the boundaries on
the ground.
 NB: If the boundaries are defined by the natural features such as rivers, valleys and mountain ranges,
a topographical survey is used to identify their location.
 It is mainly used for ownership purposes.
3. ENGINEERING SURVEY
 It is the type of survey dealing with the construction activities. The construction can be of buildings, roads,
railways, bridges or hydroelectric plants (projects).
4. MINING/GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
 Refers to a kind of survey conducted by the geologists with the aim of realizing the distribution of rocks
and minerals on or under the Earth’s surface.
5. HDROGRAPHIC SURVEY
 It is a kind of survey for water areas particularly seas and lakes.
 It is carried out for harbour construction, navigation, oil drilling and natural gas exploration as well as
exploitation at sea areas.
6. ASTRONOMICAL SURVEY
 This is the kind of survey which involves observation of heavenly bodies including the sun, moon and
stars to fix the absolute location, latitude and longitude on the surface of the earth.
 It involves the use of telescope, satellite.
7. PHOTOGRAPHIC CONTROL SURVEY
 Refers to the type of survey that creates reference marks visible from the air to allow aerial photographs
to be taken (rectified).
NOTE: All these types of survey, can be either geodetic or plane surveying depending on whether the
curvature of the Earth is taken into account or not.
SURVEYING PROCESS/STAGES/PROCEDURES INVOLVED IN CONDUCTING
SURVEY.
 The conduct of surveying in the field area involves the following three significant steps/procedures;
1. RECONNAISSANCE/PRE-VISIT SURVEY/PILOT STUDY
 Refers to the preliminary inspection or investigation that the surveyor should conduct before the actual
survey work.
 It involves walking around the area to be surveyed and select positions for the station, and making a sketch
plan of the site in the field to be surveyed.
IMPORTANCE OF THE RECONAISSANCE
a. It helps to get a full picture of the area to be surveyed.
b. Helps to know the types of equipment’s required/needed.
c. Helps to know personnel needed
d. It helps in choosing the appropriate method for land survey, e.g. chain survey, levelling
e. Helps to estimate the general budget to be used.
f. Helps a surveyor to know the challenges/obstacles found in the area.
g. It helps in choosing the scale for map making.
 In order for a surveyor to be more familiar with the area, he/she should consider;
 To mark the boundaries/demarcation of the area either by painting the selected trees, rocks or any
other hard materials found on that area.
 To identify the distance to be measured.
 To estimate the time to be used in surveying process
 Estimate the cost of surveying process/budget.
2. FIELD MEASUREMENTS
 This is the conduct of actual surveying. During this stage the surveyor takes all linear, angular and height
measurement with survey instruments.
 The linear measurements are done with the use of TAPES/CHAIN.
 Angular measurements (bearings) are taken from one station to another using a PRISMATIC
COMPASS and THEODOLITE.
 Heights are determined with the use of LEVELLING STAFF and LEVELLING INSTRUMENTS (Dumpy
level, Alidade, Theodolite etc.)
3. PRESENTATION/RECORDING OF DATA.
 In this stage, the data collected from the field during surveying, are presented in a form which allows the
information to be clearly interpreted and understood by others.
 These field records may be numerical values, sketches or explanatory notes. This process of recording
data in the field is known as booking of the field data.
 The process of entering the measurements taken at the field in a field notebook is commonly done by
SURVEYOR and not by assistant for the sake of avoiding unnecessary errors.
METHODS/WAYS/TECHNIQUES OF LAND SURVEY

 Among (with) all types of survey, Topographical survey is of the major concern in our level. It is
conducted by different ways or methods which includes;
a. Chain/Tape survey
b. Plane table survey
c. Prismatic compass survey
d. Levelling technique/survey
 To our level, only two methods will be discussed, these are Chain/Tape Survey and Levelling techniques.
1. CHAIN/TAPE SURVEYING
 Refers to the science of measuring series of straight lines on the ground with the use of a chain or tape
measure.
 In this methods, only linear measurements are measured (NO ANGLES MEASURED) and it is suitable in
smaller areas.
 Most of the chain survey work is carried out with STEEL BANDS and STEEL/LINEN TAPES.
 For accurate work, CHAIN or STEEL BANDS are used as they are very STABLE and do not expand when
stretched.
 STEEL/LINEN/SYNTHETIC TAPES are LIGHTER and EASIER to handle BUT LESS ACCURATE than CHAIN
or BANDS because they stretch and shrink with variations in temperature and applied tension.
EQUIPMENTS USED IN CHAIN/TAPE SURVEY

1. THE CHAIN:
 This instrument is made of steel wire with the length of about 20m or 30m.
 It has links connected by small rings (togs) in such a way it can be easily folded and carried in the field.
 It has brass handles at both ends for easy handling.
 The length from one ring centre to another is about 20cm (200mm).
 USES: It is used to measure distances on the ground along the line of traverse.
2. TAPES
 A measuring tape is made of steel or fiber glass, coated linen or synthetic material. Centimetres and
decimeters are usually indicated on the tape.
 The length of these tapes may be 2m, 5m, 10m, 30m or 50m.
 USES: This is used to measure short straight distances.
3. SURVEYOR’S BAND
 This instrument is like the tape, but its only difference is in terms of length which can be 30m, 50m,
up to 100metres.
 Also it is rolled in to a metal frame with a winding handle.
 USES: It is used to measure straight distances during surveying.
4. LAND MEASURING WHEEL

 It is a modern device which is used to measure linear distance on the ground.
5. CROSS STAFF.
 A cross staff is made of WOOD or METAL with eye slits at right angles.
 USES: It is used to set out right angles from the line of traverse.
6. RANGING POLES/RODS.
 These are poles of woods or light metal, about 2m, 2.5m or 3m long.
 They have pointed metal ends for driving into ground (or to enable them stick firmly in the ground).
 They are painted alternatively in RED and WHITE BANDS each 50cm (500mm) long so that they can
be easily seen from a distance.
 USES: Are used to mark areas/points required to be seen in linear measurements and to set out straight
lines of the field.
7. ARROWS.
 These are thin steel skewer-like rods of about 50cm long. They are coiled or rounded at one end and
pointed at the other end.
 Coloured RUGS should be tied to the circular end to make them more visible.
 USES: They are used for marking ends of a complete chain or tape, because the chain has to be laid
down several times. They are also used for counting the number of chains while measuring a chain line.
8. PEGS
 Pegs are generally made of wood. The size of the pegs ranges from 40cm to 60cm long, depending on
the type of survey work and type of soil of the place.
 The pegs should be driven vertically into the soil.
 USES: Used for marking permanent stations/positions.
9. CARPENTER LEVEL
 Within a carpenter level there are one or more curved glass tubes, called LEVEL TUBES.
 Each tube is sealed and partially filled with a LIQUID (water, oil or paraffin). The remaining space is
AIR, visible as a BUBLE.
 When the carpenter level is HORIZONTAL or VERTICAL, the air BUBLE is EXACTLY between the 2 marks
on the glass tube.
 USES: It is used to check if objects are horizontal or vertical.
10. PLUMB BOB

 This consists of a piece of metal (called BOB) pointing downwards which is attached to a cord.
 USES: A plumb bob is used to check if the objects are vertical.
11. MEASURING ROD

 It is a straight lath with a length varying from 2m to 5m. It is usually marked in the same way as a
measuring tape, indicating centimeters, decimeters and metres.
 USES: It is also used to measure short distances (especially in offsets).
12. FIELD NOTEBOOK AND A PENCIL.
 USES: A special notebook and a hard (HB) pencil are used for recording all the necessary information
during chain survey exercise.
13. OPTICAL SQUARE.

 USES: This instrument is used for setting out right angles of offsets from the line of traverse.
14. PRISMATIC COMPASS.

 USES: This is used to mark the North-South line during the survey.
CHAIN SURVEY TEAM

– It should have three people including the leader (chainman), the follower and the surveyor or booker.
I. THE LEADER
 His/her roles/functions:
a. Reading measurements taken in the field with the use of chain.
b. To pull the chain forward and inserting the arrows at every point or station.
II. THE FOLLOWER
a. To organize the instruments during the field work.
b. He/she directs the leader where to insert the arrow.
c. To collect the arrows.
III. THE BOOKER/SURVEYOR
a. His/her work is to record data as given from the leader.
PROCEDURES/STAGES IN CONDUCTING CHAIN SURVEY

i. Reconnaissance/Inspection/pilot study/preliminary
 It is a process of visiting the area to be surveyed before the actual survey.
ii. Establish survey team;
 Before conducting chain survey it is important to form survey team. During the survey the
follower should follow instruction from the leader and help one another in measurement while
the booker should record measurement and other information.
iii. Prepare the required equipment; e.g. chain, tapes, notebook
iv. Preparation of the means of transport
v. Budget preparation for the activity
vi. Determine/mark the stations for measurement
 The surveyor should fixes up the required point/station and it should be done during the
reconnaissance time. He/she should mark the demarcation or boundary of the area by painting
the selected rocks, trees or hard surface found on the area.
vii. Ranging
viii. Chaining;
 After fixing all point, chaining will be done where actual measurements will take place. The
leader should straightens the chain and insert an arrow at the end of the brass handle. Offsets
to locate the nearby location or details are taken by using the tape.
ix. Booking;
 This is the process of entering/recording the field data in the note book.
x. Office work;
 The surveying work in chain surveying is finalized in the office where plotting of the data to
produce plans, maps or charts for presentation to the audience is done.
HOW CHAIN SURVEY IS CONDUCTED?

 The main chain survey work has to start as follows;
1. The chain is thrown to extend it and disentangle any knots.
2. The leader takes ten arrows and a ranging rod, and the follower takes a ranging rod
3. The follower erects his ranging rod/pole at the first base point and places a brass handle of the chain
against the ranging rod.
4. A leader straightens the chain and inserts an arrow at end of the brass handle. Offsets and tie lines
can now be taken.
5. The leader drags the chain so that the follower‘s end is on the leader‘s arrow; then, the follower
moves to another point and places his ranging pole behind the arrow.
NB:
 This procedure/process of dragging the chain, signing and aligning is then repeated until the line
is completed.
 The same processes are also repeated with other lines until the whole area is surveyed.
Correct signals as seen by surveyor leader (a) Move chain to left (b) Move chain to right (c) Chain correct.
BOOKING IN CHAIN SURVEY

 Booking is the process whereby all measurements done in the field are entered or recorded in the field
note book. The records should be kept neat to avoid ambiguities.
HOW TO ENSURE GOOD BOOKING

(PRINCIPLES OF BOOKING)
1) All linear measurements have to appear at the centre of the column
2) Features on the right should be recorded on the right hand side while those to the left are to be
recorded to the left.
3) Field notes, off sets and tie lines are to be drawn neatly and clearly against the features
4) The field note book must be kept very carefully and neat.
5) Booking should always begin at the bottom of the page going upwards.
6) Begin booking at each time on a fresh page, for each chain line.
7) Rule two lines of about 15mm apart of each page at the center
8) Allow plenty of space for notations each page
9) The forward and back ward bearings must be known and they should be circled.
Methods of booking
There are two main methods of booking details in a field notebook after they have been taken from
the field by the conduct of chain survey
A. Single line booking;
 By the single line booking the details on linear measurements are entered along the
single line at the centre as illustrated below.
B. Double line booking
By the single line booking the details on linear measurements are entered inside along the
double lines at the centre as illustrated below.
RANGING AND CHAINING

 Ranging: refers to the activity of sub-dividing or prolonging the survey line by using ranging poles.
 This is done so as to get accurate measurements especially for long distances.
 For accurate ranging, it is necessary that all ranging poles are straight and set vertically
perpendicular to the ground.
 Example; if line AD is to be chained, ranging poles are first positioned at A and D; then B and C
are fixed on line with A and D.
 Chaining: refers to the activity of measuring the subdivisions/sub-distances formed in ranging process.
 This is done by using a chain. For example, the distance AB, BC and CD.
MEASUREMENTS ON SLOPING GROUND
 Since a map shows the horizontal distance between two points and not the distance along the slope,
measurements on sloping ground is done in the following ways;
a. By step chaining or short steps
b. By measuring the slope distance and angle of the slope.
 The angle of slope can be measured with a THEODOLITE or a CLINOMETER. When the angle of slope has
been measured, the HORIZONTAL distance is calculated using the TRIGONOMETRIC FORMULA:
𝑺 = 𝟏 𝑿 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝜽
NB: ℎ1 =the height of instrument (ranging pole)

Point fixation in chain survey.
Fixation of points a chain survey conducted is by following methods.
1. Trilaterization method. It fixes a point by two measured distances. Where the equal measured distances
from the baseline meet, the point is fixed.
2. Radiation method: It is also known as bearing and distance method or polar method. It is by taking
both bearing and distance of position point from the line traverse.
3. Intersection method; the position of point is given by the intersection of two rays of bearing and
distance.
4. Offset from baseline; are perpendicular lines from the base line (line of traverse) to the objects to be
measured. The objects/details can be a building, road, fences or forest.
 They are measured by lateral measurements with respect to the main survey lines.
Types of Offsets
i. Perpendicular offsets
 This is the distance measured at right angles from a known point on the main survey line to
the object.
 It is the common method of locating objects and the measurements are taken at right angles.
ii. Oblique offsets/Tie-line offsets
 These are the measurements which are not taken at right angles from the survey line/base line
to the objects.
 They are also taken to check the accuracy of perpendicular offsets, especially when the object
to be located is at a long distance from the chain line.
5. TRIANGULATION: This is the systematic process of dividing an area to be surveyed into many
triangles. Any area of land can be divided into a series of triangles which form a framework.
 Once the framework is laid down, details within the areas can be taken by either OFFSETS or TIES
(TIE LINES).
6. TIE LINES: these are the lines which joins an object from two fixed points/stations on the baseline. i.e.;
one point of an OBJECT is fixed from two points on a baseline.
Purposes of Tie lines
a) It enables checking of the network accuracy.
b) It enables to locate the interior details which are comparatively far away from the main
survey lines.
7. BASE LINE/LINE OF TRAVERSE (LT): This is the longest and most important chain line in chain
surveying which fixes up the directions of all other lines.
 Base line should pass through the center of the area and measured very accurately. This is because
the accuracy of the whole survey work depends upon the accuracy of the base line.
ERRORS AND ACCURACY

 What is an error?
 AN ERROR: Is a mistake or shortcoming that happens during the survey process leading to wrong
measurements.
 It is sometimes called DISCREPANCIES.
 What is an accuracy?
 Refers to a measure of closeness to a true value. OR
 It is the degree of conformity with a standard.
SOURCES OF ERRORS IN CHAIN SURVEY
 Errors in chain survey may be caused by several factors, which are;
1. Mistakes in reading from the chain.
 A single measurement error may be transferred to other measurements.
2. Faults in the equipment (chain).
 Like failure of the links to stretch properly due to clogging.
3. Sagging of the chain
 This may be due to lack of seriousness among the survey team when conducting the survey.
 The surveyors may fail to properly stretch the chain leading to discrepancies in measurements.
4. The use of too many chain lines or too long chain lines.
 This may also cause errors in chain survey
5. Incorrect positioning of the arrows along the chain line.
 This happens when the arrows do not touch the outer edge of brass handle or measuring tape.
6. Unclear calling of measurements to the booker.
NOTE: These sources of errors can be categorized/grouped into three main sources;
a) PERSONAL SOURCE:
 This is caused by the physical limitations and observing habit of the observer.
b) INSTRUMENTAL SOURCE:
 This is caused by imperfections in the design, construction and adjustment of the instrument.
c) NATURAL SOURCE:
 For example, physical conditions at the time of measurement such as temperature variation,
humidity and magnetic declination.
TYPES OR CATEGORIES OF ERRORS

1) SYSTEMATIC/CUMULATIVE ERRORS
 Refers to the errors caused by the physical condition at the time of measurement and the instrument
used.
 Examples of errors in this class includes; thermal expansion or contraction of the steel band
due to stretching, incorrect length of the tape (if not properly stretched) and zigzag position
of the ranging rods.
 They are said to be cumulative errors because they keep on accumulating as they survey progresses.
If not checked they have serious implications to the accuracy of the survey.
 They can either be POSITIVE or NEGATIVE.
 POSITIVE ERRORS: Tends to shorten the measurement
 NEGATIVE ERRORS: Tends to elongate the measurement.
How to eliminate cumulative errors
i. By checking the equipment prior to any survey
ii. By correcting the measured value mathematically
iii. Using standard tapes
iv. Making appropriate temperature conditions.
2) ACCIDENTAL/COMPENSATING/RANDOM ERROR
 These are errors derived from the lack of perfection in the human eye and or in the methods and
equipment used.
 Accidental error can be obtained due to variations in the tension when stretching the tape and when
holding the tape by ranging rod.
 The effects can be positive or negative.
How to eliminate Accidental errors
 It can be corrected by measuring the same distance 4 (four) times and taking average, so as to
obtain a good approximation of the true value.
3) GROSS ERRORS/MISTAKE
 These are the blunders or mistakes caused by either the surveyor or assistants due to carelessness,
negligence or incompetence.
 They are frequently made by inexperienced engineers or surveyors who are unfamiliar with the
equipment and the method they are using.
 For example,
a. Miscounting the number of tape length,
b. Wrong booking for instance, one could read fifteen (15) instead of (50) fifty;
c. Turning instrument incorrectly,
d. Displacement of arrows or station markers,
e. Reading tape upside down such as taking 6 to be 9.
How to eliminate gross errors
 They can be prevented by the person taking a reading calling out the reading and the booker
repeating it.
HOW TO AVOID CHAINING ERRORS
1. Ensure correct positions of arrows.
 They must touch outer edge of brass handle or measuring tape and perfectly upright.
2. Call measurements to booker clearly and ask him to repeat.
3. Avoid steep slopes and major obstacles.
 Use stepping method when chaining along the slopping ground.
4. Check/ensure all chain lines are included.
5. Keep chain lines short and measure them accurately
6. Check length of chain if is accurate against an accurate tape
 If there is an error then adjust to all readings.
7. Read markers on chain carefully.
8. Use as few chain lines as possible
9. Do not allow the chain to sag. It should be stretched properly.
CHAINING AROUND OBSTACLES

 OBSTACLES: Are the features or objects lying within the area to be surveyed along the survey line (base
line) which may hinder taking direct measurement such that one has to avoid them.
 These include hills, ponds, rivers, large building and thick forest.
TYPES OF OBSTACLES
A. Obstacles that do not obscure visibility and may be walked around. Examples are Ponds, wells.
B. Obstacles that do not obscure visibility but may not be walked around. Examples are Rivers and the
extended swamp.
C. Obstacles that obscure visibility but can be walked around. Example a tall building.
D. Obstacles that obscure visibility and may not be walked around. Examples are a hill, a thick forest, and
areas with extreme steep slopes.
WAYS/TECHNIQUES/METHODS OF OVERCOMING THOSE OBSTACLES
1. By using Rectangular method.
 This is the simplest method of passing an obstacle such as a pond or building by erecting
perpendiculars to the chain line.
 It is sometimes called simple system of Offsets. Consider the following application.
PROCEDURES
i. Fix poles at A and B exactly aligned along the chain line.
ii. Set out equal perpendiculars at A and B, such that AC = BD and they clear the obstacle.
iii. CD is equal to AB, so CD is measured as though it were AB.
2. By using Pythagoras theorem
 It is the method of passing an obstacle like small hills, a pond or large stone. It is sometimes called
trigonometric method.
PROCEDURES
a. From point A, measure the length of a random line chosen to avoid the hill or pond to C.
b. Then, chain a line at right angle from AB to C.
c. Calculate the distance of AB by Pythagoras theorem
Example: Let, AC = 4cm; CB = 3cm
Then; AB = √𝐴𝐶 2 + 𝐶𝐵 2
AB = √(4 × 4) + (3 × 3)
AB = √16 + 9
AB = √25
AB = 5
Thus, AB distance is 5cm
3. By using similar and equal triangle
 This is the method of passing an obstacle such as chaining across a river. This is used because the
previous two methods cannot work.
a) SIMILAR TRIANGLES
a. D and F lie along the Base line (Line of Traverse) XY and are marked.
b. AC is set off at a right angle to XY and a pole is fixed at B, midway between AC.
c. Insert a ranging pole at E so that AE and F are in the same line.
d. Set off a line from E which is at right angles to XY at D.
e. ̂ E and E𝑫
BE is parallel to DF, so triangles A𝑩 ̂ F are similar. Thus, BE = DF.
b) EQUAL TRIANGLES
i. At X , measure a line XQ and on it fix P such that XP = PQ.

ii. Measure YQ and fix R such that YR = RQ
iii. Thus; 𝑿𝒀 = 𝟐 × 𝑷𝑹 or (XY=2PR)
4. By using parallel line method.
 This method is mainly used where an obstacle obscures vision.
PROCEDURES
i. BAGH is along the chain line
ii. Set out equal perpendiculars AC and BD
iii. Look along DC and set out E and F in alignment, but beyond the obstacle.
iv. At E and F, set out perpendiculars EG and FH both equal to AC.
v. G and H are in line with BA and CE = AG.
USEFULNESS OF CHAIN SURVEY

1) It is suitable for small areas (of fairy open ground).
2) It is used to fill in details on a map whose large features have been surveyed by other methods.
3) Used in adding details to existing plans or large maps.
ADVANTAGES OF CHAIN SURVEYING
1. It is the simplest method of surveying
2. It is suitable for surveying clear and small areas, e.g. school compound.
3. It can be read easily and quickly.
4. It can be easily repaired or rectified in the field.
5. It needs few people to conduct the exercise e.g. 2 or three people.
6. It is free from rock attraction, unlike to prismatic compass survey.
7. Does not involve complication of mathematical calculations.
DISADVANTAGES OF CHAIN SURVEY
1. It is not suitable for surveying large areas.
2. It is the oldest and slow method of surveying.
3. Errors may be encountered due to the use of many chains.
4. More difficult areas cannot be chain surveyed, like dense forest, folded areas and mountain areas.
5. It is time consuming;
6. The equipment’s used are heavy and difficult to carry and use, e.g. chain.
2. LEVELLING SURVEY/TECHNIQUE
 Refers to the process of determining the actual heights of points on the Earth’s surface.
OR
 It is the technique of determining differences in elevation of points on the Earth’s surface, by measuring
vertical distances directly on a graduated rod with the use of a levelling instrument such as a Dumpy level
or Theodolite.
 The height of one point can only be given with reference to the height of another point.
 Stable reference points for heights are called BENCHMARKS (BM) which have heights fixed with
reference to MEAN SEA LEVEL.
 All altitudes seen on maps by contours, spot heights, trigonometric points and benchmarks have been
determined by surveying process known as LEVELLING.
TYPES OF LEVELLING
 There are two types of levelling, depending on what is measured relatively to heights. These include;
I. DIFFERENTIAL LEVELLING
 It is the levelling technique that involves determination of the elevation differences between two points
apart on the surface.
II. PROFILE LEVELLING
 It is the process of determining the elevation of a series of points at measured interval along a survey line,
e.g. along a route way.
EQUIPMENTS USED IN LEVELLING
1. LEVELLING INSTRUMENTS:
 These are level sighting instruments towards the stations with levelling staff.
 There are many types of levelling instruments used in levelling like DUMPY LEVEL, TILTING LEVEL,
THEODOLITE, ABNEY LEVEL, CLINOMETERS and ALIDADE.
2. LEVELLING STAFF
 It is a graduated wooden or Aluminium rod used with a levelling instrument to determine the
differences in heights between points.
 It is also called levelling pole. It has a movable marker
3. SPIRIT LEVEL
 It is used to determine true horizontal or vertical directions.
4. THE ABNEY LEVEL
 It is an instrument which consists of a spirit level and sighting tube. It is used to measure the angle
of inclination of a line from the observer to the target.
5. TRIPOD STAND
 The spirit level is mounted on it.
6. PEGS
 It is used for fixing or making permanent stations or points at a certain field.
7. Also other instruments used in chain survey, such as arrows, chain/tape, field sheets.
THE PROCEDURES OF CONDUCTING LEVELLING

i. A staff is put at station one or base station.
ii. The sighting instrument is put in the direction of travel. A back sight is recorded.
iii. The distance from the base station to the instrument is measured.
iv. The staff is moved ahead of the sighting instrument at an equal distance as before.
 This will be station TWO. A foresight is taken and recorded.
v. The sight instrument is moved ahead of the STAFF and a Back sight is taken and recorded.
vi. The procedure is repeated until the exercise is over.
METHODS OF LEVELLING
 There are two (2) methods of measuring heights;
a. Rise and fall method
b. Height of collimation method
A. RISE AND FALL METHOD
I. RISE METHOD.
 This is used when there are two points and the different levels such that the height of the lower point (A)
is known while that of the higher point is not known.
 The level is set up on its tripod stand at point ‘X’ between point ‘A’ and ‘B’. Then, the telescopic staff is
erected at pint ‘A’ and reading is taken to it (BACKSIGHT).
 After that, the level is swung round in a horizontal plane and the telescopic staff is set at point ‘B’ and a
reading is taken (FORE SIGHT).
NB: Because the height of point ‘A’ is known, the difference (RISE) is then added to the height of point ‘A’
to get the height of point ‘B’.
 From the figure above; (ASSUME THAT; the height of point A is 635.562m, and the readings at A (3.561m)
(BS) and B (1.352m) (FS). Then, the difference will be calculated as follows;
𝟑. 𝟓𝟔𝟏𝒎 − 𝟏. 𝟑𝟓𝟐𝒎 = 𝟐. 𝟐𝟎𝟗𝒎 (𝑹𝑰𝑺𝑬)
 So, the height of ‘B’ can be calculated as 𝟔𝟑𝟓. 𝟓𝟔𝟐𝒎 + 𝟐. 𝟐𝟎𝟗𝒎 (𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆) = 𝟔𝟑𝟕. 𝟕𝟕𝟏𝒎
II. FALL METHOD.
 This is also done by considering the reference height to another point, where the HEIGHT of the higher
point (A) is KNOWN.
 The same procedures are repeated as in rise method. Back sight and Foresight are taken and SUBTRACTED
to get the difference- which is FALL.
 The calculated difference (FALL) is then subtracted from the height of point A to get the height of point B.
 From the figure above; assume that the height of point A is 6500m, and the readings at A is 300m (BS)
and at B is 700m (FS), then the difference will be calculated as follows;
𝟕𝟎𝟎𝒎 − 𝟑𝟎𝟎𝒎 = 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝒎 (𝑭𝑨𝑳𝑳).
−The difference/fall (400m) is then subtracted from 6500m (the height of A) to get the height of B.
𝟔𝟓𝟎𝟎𝒎 − 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝒎 = 𝟔𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒎
B. HEIGHT OF COLLIMATION/INSTRUMENT METHOD
 The height of collimation/instrument (HI or HC) is found by adding the staff reading of a point of
known level (BACK SIGHT) to that point of known height (BM).
 The levels of all other points are found by SUBTRACTING the staff readings of these points from the
Height of collimation line.
 When levelling using the HC/HI method, BACK SIGHT, FORESIGHT and INTERSIGHT readings are
taken. These readings are then subtracted from the height of the collimation line.
A. BACKSIGHT READING
 Is the reading taken back to the telescopic staff at point ‘A”.
B. FORE SIGHT READING

 This is the reading taken forward to the telescopic staff at point ‘B’.
C. INTERSIGHT READING
 It is an intermediate reading taken between ‘X’ and ‘Z’, that is at point ‘Y’.
CALCULATING THE LEVELS OF POINTS

 The heights of points B and C can be calculated using the height of collimation method as elaborated
below;
 From the figure above;

 Height of point ‘A’ is known = 6000m (above Mean sea level).
 Height of point ‘B’ and ‘C’ are not known.
 HC = 6700m, that is; 6000m + 700m (BS of point A).
 Then, point B & C; their heights are obtained by subtracting their READINGS (levels) from the HC line.
 Therefore, Point B’s height = 6700𝑚 − 500𝑚 = 6200𝑚.
Point C’s height = 𝟔𝟕𝟎𝟎𝒎 − 𝟑𝟎𝟎𝒎 = 𝟔𝟒𝟎𝟎𝒎.
CHANGE POINT (CP)

 Where there is marked variation in landscape a surveyor may be forced to use more than one line of
collimation resting at different heights. This is called Change point.
SOURCES OF ERRORS IN LEVELLING
i. Incorrect setting up of instrument e.g. level and staff not held vertically
ii. Movement of staff from position when changing level station.
iii. Error due to natural sources
iv. Error of collimation
CORECTION OF ERRORS
a. Training the staff men, so as to have experienced or skilled staff men.
b. By holding the rod firmly.
PRECAUTIONS IN LEVELLING
i. The staff should be kept vertically for accurate reading.
ii. The bubble in the dumpy level should central to obtain an accurate line of sight.
iii. Using carefully the foot screws in the leveling instrument
iv. To avoid errors, read the staff in the increasing direction of readings.
IMPORTANCE OF LEVELLING
1) Levelling is used for production of contour lines (isolines)
 After the establishment of spot heights, benchmarks (BM).
2) Levelling is used to produce longitudinal section of roads, railway lines, drainage ditches, sewage systems
and irrigation farming.
3) Used to determine the heights of elevation of land surface e.g. mountains, hills, valleys, plateaus.
4) Used for location and determination of house foundations, and industrial sites.
5) Used for location and construction of playgrounds e.g. football, tennis and basketball.
DISADVATAGES OF LEVELLING
a. It is a time consuming process
b. It requires a skilled and technical person
c. It involves tedious calculations
d. To plot the levels on a map or sheet is a very complex process.
IMPORTANCE OF SURVEYING
1. It helps to prepare a topographical map, showing the hills, valleys, forests etc.
2. It provides basic information about certain geographical area.
3. To establish boundaries of private and public land.
4. Help to determine altitudes, sizes and distance of different areas.
5. To establish position (location) of both natural and artificial features.
6. It is important in mining areas, example, in determination of mining sites.
7. Surveying is very important in military techniques e.g. in war period
8. Helps to plan and control various kinds of engineering projects. Example roads, railways, water supply,
buildings etc.
END.
REFERENCES
1. Msabila, D.T. & Kinunda, J.E. (2010). Comprehensive Geography for Secondary Schools: Form 3 . Dar es Salaam: Nyambari
Nyangwine Publishers.
2. Mzezele, S. & Kibuuka, P. (2011). Geography in Focus: Form 3. Dar es Salaam: Oxford University Press.
3. Pritchard, J. M. (1984). Practical Geography for Africa, 5th ed. Longman Group Ltd.
4. TIE, (2021). Geography for Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form Three. Tanzania Institute of Education.

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ELEMENTARY SURVEY AND MAP

MEANING AND TYPES OF SURVEY

B. BASING/ACCORDING TO THE SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES.

METHODS/WAYS/TECHNIQUES OF LAND SURVEY

EQUIPMENTS USED IN CHAIN/TAPE SURVEY

4. LAND MEASURING WHEEL

10. PLUMB BOB

11. MEASURING ROD

13. OPTICAL SQUARE.

14. PRISMATIC COMPASS.

CHAIN SURVEY TEAM

PROCEDURES/STAGES IN CONDUCTING CHAIN SURVEY

HOW CHAIN SURVEY IS CONDUCTED?

BOOKING IN CHAIN SURVEY

HOW TO ENSURE GOOD BOOKING

RANGING AND CHAINING

NB: ℎ1 =the height of instrument (ranging pole)

ERRORS AND ACCURACY

TYPES OR CATEGORIES OF ERRORS

CHAINING AROUND OBSTACLES

i. At X , measure a line XQ and on it fix P such that XP = PQ.

USEFULNESS OF CHAIN SURVEY

THE PROCEDURES OF CONDUCTING LEVELLING

B. FORE SIGHT READING

CALCULATING THE LEVELS OF POINTS

 From the figure above;

CHANGE POINT (CP)

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F3-ELEMENTARY SURVEY, 2nd edtn.$&@ 2023 (3)

F3-ELEMENTARY SURVEY, 2nd edtn.$&@ 2023 (3)