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But we have not yet done with his achievements on this subject;
for some of the most remarkable and beautiful of the reasonings
which he connected with this problem, belong to the next step of his
generalization.
That all such forces, cosmical and terrestrial, were the same single
force, and that this was nothing more than the insensible attraction
which subsists between one stone and another, was a conception
equally bold and grand; and would have been an incomprehensible
thought, if the views which we have already explained had not
prepared the mind for it. But the preceding steps having disclosed,
between all the bodies of the universe, forces of the same kind as
those which produce the weight of bodies at the earth, and,
therefore, such as exist in every particle of terrestrial matter; it
became an obvious question, whether such forces did not also
belong to all particles of planetary matter, and whether this was not,
in fact, the whole account of the forces of the solar system. But,
supposing this conjecture to be thus suggested, how formidable, on
first appearance at least, was the undertaking of verifying it! For if
this be so, every finite mass of matter exerts forces which are the
result of the infinitely numerous forces of its particles, these forces
acting in different directions. It does not appear, at first sight, that the
law by which the force is related to the distance, will be the same for
the particles as it is for the masses; and, in reality, it 413 is not so,
except in special cases. And, again, in the instance of any effect
produced by the force of a body, how are we to know whether the
force resides in the whole mass as a unit, or in the separate
particles? We may reason, as Newton does, 45 that the rule which
proves gravity to belong universally to the planets, proves it also to
belong to their parts; but the mind will not be satisfied with this
extension of the rule, except we can find decisive instances, and
calculate the effects of both suppositions, under the appropriate
conditions. Accordingly, Newton had to solve a new series of
problems suggested by this inquiry; and this he did.
45 Princip. B. iii. Prop. 7.
Thus, then, the theory of the universal mutual gravitation of all the
particles of matter, according to the law of the inverse square of the
distances, was conceived, its consequences calculated, and its
results shown to agree with phenomena. It was found that this theory
took up all the facts of astronomy as far as they had hitherto been
ascertained; while it pointed out an interminable vista of new facts,
too minute or too complex for observation alone to disentangle, but
capable of being detected when theory had pointed out their laws,
and of being used as criteria or confirmations of the truth of the
doctrine. For the same reasoning which explained the evection,
variation, and annual equation of the moon, showed that there must
be many other inequalities besides these; since these resulted from
approximate methods of calculation, in which small quantities were
neglected. And it was known that, in fact, the inequalities hitherto
detected by astronomers did not give the place of the moon with
satisfactory accuracy; so that there was room, among these hitherto
untractable irregularities, for the additional results of the theory. To
work out this comparison was the employment of the succeeding
century; but Newton began it. Thus, at the end of the proposition in
which he asserts, 46 that “all the lunar motions and their irregularities
follow from the principles here stated,” he makes the observation
which we have just made; and gives, as examples, the different
motions of the apogee and nodes, the difference of the change of
the eccentricity, and the difference of the moon’s variation, according
to the different distances of the sun. “But this inequality,” he says, “in
astronomical calculations, is usually referred to the prosthaphæresis
of the moon, and confounded with it.”
46 B. iii. Prop. 22.
The habit to which Newton thus, in some sense, owed his 418
discoveries, this constant attention to the rising thought, and
development of its results in every direction, necessarily engaged
and absorbed his spirit, and made him inattentive and almost
insensible to external impressions and common impulses. The
stories which are told of his extreme absence of mind, probably refer
to the two years during which he was composing his Principia, and
thus following out a train of reasoning the most fertile, the most
complex, and the most important, which any philosopher had ever
had to deal with. The magnificent and striking questions which,
during this period, he must have had daily rising before him; the
perpetual succession of difficult problems of which the solution was
necessary to his great object; may well have entirely occupied and
possessed him. “He existed only to calculate and to think.” 49 Often,
lost in meditation, he knew not what he did, and his mind appeared
to have quite forgotten its connection with the body. His servant
reported that, on rising in a morning, he frequently sat a large portion
of the day, half-dressed, on the side of his bed and that his meals
waited on the table for hours before he came to take them. Even with
his transcendent powers, to do what he did was almost irreconcilable
with the common conditions of human life; and required the utmost
devotion of thought, energy of effort, and steadiness of will—the
strongest character, as well as the highest endowments, which
belong to man.
49 Biot.
[2d Ed.] [In the first edition of the Principia, published in 1687,
Newton showed that the nature of all the then known inequalities of
the moon, and in some cases, their quantities, might be deduced
from the principles which he laid down but the determination of the
amount and law of most of the inequalities was deferred to a more
favorable opportunity, when he might be furnished with better
astronomical observations. Such observations as he needed for this
purpose had been made by Flamsteed, and for these he applied,
representing how much value their use would add to the
observations. “If,” he says, in 1694, “you publish them without such a
theory to recommend them, they will only be thrown into the heap of
the observations of former astronomers, till somebody shall arise
that by perfecting the theory of the moon shall discover your
observations to be exacter than the rest; but when that shall be, God
knows: I fear, not in your lifetime, if I should die before it is done. For
I find this theory so very intricate, and the theory of gravity so
necessary to it, that I am satisfied it will never be perfected but by
somebody who understands the theory of gravity as well, or better
than I do.” He obtained from Flamsteed the lunar observations for
which he applied, and by using these he framed the Theory of the
Moon which is given as his in David Gregory’s Astronomiæ
Elementa. 51 He also obtained from Flamsteed the diameters of the
planets as observed at various times, and the greatest elongation of
Jupiter’s Satellites, both of which, Flamsteed says, he made use of
in his Principia.
51 In the Preface to a Treatise on Dynamics, Part i., published in
1836, I have endeavored to show that Newton’s modes of
determining several of the lunar inequalities admitted of an
accuracy not very inferior to the modern analytical methods.
but our eyes are at least less intently bent on the astronomers who
succeeded, and we attend to their communications with less
curiosity, because we know the end, if not the course of their story;
we know that their speeches have all closed with Newton’s sublime
declaration, asserted in some new form.