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SUBJECT FORENSIC SCIENCE

Paper No. and Title PAPER No.11: Forensic Anthropology

Module No. and Title MODULE No.7: Skeletal Age and Ossification

Module Tag FSC_P11_M7

FORENSIC SCIENCE PAPER No.11 : Forensic Anthropology

MODULE No.7: Skeletal Age and Ossification

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Learning Outcomes

2. Introduction

3. Ossification of bones

4. Sutural Closure of Skull

5. Age Changes in Bones in Adults and Old age

6. Summary

FORENSIC SCIENCE PAPER No.11 : Forensic Anthropology

MODULE No.7: Skeletal Age and Ossification

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1. Learning Outcomes
After studying this module, you shall be able to –

 Know about the skeletal age and the various ossification centres
 Understand the age changes in bones in adults and old age

2. Introduction
Skeletal age can be determined from the ossification of bones that is helpful in the
determination of age. The human bones develop from a number of ossification centers. At 11-
12th week of intrauterine life, there are 806 ossification centers that at birth are reduced to
about 450. Adult human is made up of 206 bones. The time of appearance of center of
ossification and the process of union of the epiphysis with the diaphysis at the metaphysis
have a sequence and time that is utilized towards determination of age.

Radiological survey of ossification centers may provide considerable help in estimating age
of a person. However, we cannot place too much reliance over such method as many factors
affect the process of appearance and fusion of bone. Roughly this method provides one
parameter in conjugation with others to deduce age of a person and it cannot be superior
criteria when considered in isolation. Similarly it has to be remembered that the progression
of fusion of bone is a process and not an event, so it may be liable for variation. The factors
affecting the appearance and fusion of these centers are:

 Hereditary factors
 Growth and development
 Geographical variation
 Climate
 Dietary habits
 Association with diseases

FORENSIC SCIENCE PAPER No.11 : Forensic Anthropology

MODULE No.7: Skeletal Age and Ossification

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3. Ossification of bones
Ossification centers are studied up to the age of 20-22 years, thereafter the skull vault sutures,
union and activity of sternum; changes in shape of mandible, changes in pubic symphysis are
taken into account. The ossification begins centrally in an epiphysis that spreads peripherally
and gradually takes up the osteological details of the bony part, it is going to constitute e.g.,
upper end of femur, lower end of radius and ulna etc. The union of epiphysis with diaphysis
in long bones is interpreted as united, recently united, uniting and non-united, depending on
the stage of union.

When the epiphyseal lines persist, it is called as recently united. The anatomical evidence of
bony union differs from radiological union by about three years and radiographs give an
earlier time of union. In the living subjects while determining the age of subjects to help the
Courts of law in cases of disputes relating to age, the radiological examination of the bones is
undertaken.

Table 1: The important ossification centers and their fusion

Centers of bones Appearance Fusion

 Clavicle - Medial end 15-19 years 20-22 years
 Sternum 5 month IUL 60-70 years
 Manubrium Body 5 month IUL 14-25 years from below
(Ist segment) upwards; 3rd and 4th-15 years
 IInd segment 7 month IUL
 IIIrd segment 7 month IUL 2nd & 3rd-20 years
 IVth segment 10 month IUL 1st & 2nd-25 years
3 years >40 years with the body
 Xiphoid process
Humerus (upper end)
 Head 1 year. All three unite at 6 years 18 years
 Greater tubercle 3 years 4-5 years with head
 Lesser tubercle 5 years 5-7 years with greater
tubercle
Humerus (Lower end) Capitulum, trochlea & lateral
 Medial Epicondyle 5-6 years epicondyle form conjoint
 Capitulum 1 year tendon at 14 years, unites
 Trochlea 9-10 years with shaft at 15 years
 Lateral Epicondyle 10-12 years Medial epicondyle unites at
16 years
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Radius
 Upper end 5-6 years 15-16 years
 Lower end 1-2 years 18-19 years
Ulna
• Upper end 8-9 years 16-17 years
• Lower end 5-6 years 18-19 years
• Head Ist metacarpal 2 years 15-17 years
• Head other 1½ to 2½ years 15-19 years
metacarpals

Hip bone
• Triradiate cartilage 11-13 years 14-15 years
• Iliac crest 14-15 years 18-20 years
• Ischial tuberosity 15-16 years 20-22 years
8 months IUL 25 years
• Sacrum
Femur (Upper end)
• Head 1 year 17-18 years
• Greater trochanter 4 years 17 years
• Lesser trochanter 14 years 15-17 years
Femur (Lower end) 9 month IUL 17-18 years
Tibia
• Upper end 9 month IUL 16-17 years
• Lower end 1 year 16 years
Scapula
• Coracoid base 10-11 year 14-15 years
• Acromion process 14-15 year 17-18 years

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MODULE No.7: Skeletal Age and Ossification

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Table 2: Age of ossification of hand and foot bones

Type of bone Age of ossification

Capitate 2 months
Hamate 3 months
Triquetral 3 months
Lunate 4 months
Scaphoid 4-5 months
Trapezium 4-5 months
Trapezoid 4-5 months
Pisiform 9-12 years
Calcaneum 5 months
Talus 7 months
Cuboid 10 months
Lateral cuneiform 1 year
Medial cuneiform 2 years
Intermediate cuneiform 3 years
Navicular 3 years

While determining the age of a subject for medico-legal purposes, the standard value
obtained from examination of the number of subjects should be the guiding criteria, as
individual variations for bony union tend to occur. The degree of growth and development of
bones to some extent is affected by the dietary, environmental, hereditary and endocrinal
factors in different individuals belonging to different regions and culture.Ossification occurs
earlier in tropical climates compared to temperate zones. In females, epiphyseal union occurs
1-2 years earlier than males.

Maturation score for estimation of skeletal age:

To minimize the errors of epiphyseal union, Mckern and Stewart in 1957 suggested a scheme
of scoring involving seven combinations of various segments. The total score is applied to
prediction equation for more accurate age estimation.

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The scoring is given based on the degree of epiphyseal union that is:

Degree of union Scoring

No union 1
¼ th union 2
½ union 3
¾ th union 4
Complete union 5

4. Sutural Closure of Skull

The estimation of adult age based on cranial suture closure was one of the earliest methods of
ageing the skeleton to be developed. Much of the work in the beginning was conducted by
Todd and Lyon in the mid-1920s (Todd and Lyon, 1924–1925). Since this time, several
authors have macroscopically analysed the ecto and endocranial morphology of the sutures.
While researchers describe sutural ossification as an age-related physiological process, in
relation to age estimation for forensic purposes many find that it is highly variable and
therefore unreliable as a method of age determination. Despite this, closure of sutures of skull
has some bearing with the milestone of life. Absence of any signs of closure of any suture of
the skull, points to the strong possibility of the age having not exceeded 30 years. Evidence of
commencing union of the sutures is always noticed first in the endo-cranial surface, then on
the endo-cranial one.

As a rule, inner surface closes several years before the outer. The sutural closure occurs
earlier in males than females. Estimation of age from closure of sutures of skull can be given
within the range of 10 years between 30-60 years and even more in higher age groups. The
chronological ages for sutural closure are as follows:

• Lateral and occipital fontanelle closes at 2 months after birth

• Posterior fontanelle closes at 6-8 month of birth
• Anterior fontanelle closes at 1½-2 years of birth
• Metopic suture closes at 2-4 years but may extend upto six years.
• Basiocciput and basi-sphenoid fuses at 18-20 years.
• Sagittal suture is the first to start closing endo-cranially at about 25 years at its
posterior portion close to parietal eminence. The fusion is complete both ecto-
cranially and endo-cranially by 35-40 years.

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• Coronal suture starts closing endo-cranially by 25-30 years in its lowest part, close to
the junction with the sphenoid. It is completely closed at 40 years.
• Lambdoid suture starts closing endo-cranially at 25-35 years and terminal closure
occurs by 45-50 years.
• Pterion starts closing at 40 years and completely closes by 65 years.
• Mastoido-occipital starts closing at 45 years of age and complete closure occurs by 80
years. Asterion also closes by 80 years and Parieto-temporal suture closes by 70
years.

5. Age Changes in Bones in Adults and Old age

Changes in Scapula
Scapula is a delicate bone and is often too damaged to be helpful. It requires experience to
interpret and also the changes do not seem to be constant. The changes are not as closely
identified with age as expected. The changes in the scapula are divided in to two categories:

a. Changes due to ossification after maturity:

i. Lipping of glenoid fossa begins at 30-35 years

ii. Lipping of clavicular facet begins at 35-40 years.
iii. Appearance of ‘plaque; or ‘facet’ on the underside of acromian process thus
prolonging the acromial tip from 2-8 mm at 35-40 years.
iv. Increasing demarcation of the triangular area at the base of scapular spine begins at
45- 50 years.
v. Appearance of crista scapularis that tend to become broader at the base and prominent
at the apices with advancing age.

b. Changes due to atrophic process after maturity:

i. Surface vascularity: This is seen as number of fine lines in less than 25 years old. This
visibility is slowly diminished and finally disappears with advancing age.
ii. Deep vascularity: Deep vascularity is seen as fine lines but only by trans-illumination
by the age of 25-30 years and they tend to diminish with advancing age.
iii. Atrophic spots are areas of bone atrophy that starts appearing around 45 years and
usually start in infraspinous area.
iv. ‘Buckling’ and ‘pleating’ of infraspinous area is due to irregular atrophy of bone and
is the result of diminished vascularity. It begins around the age of 40 years and there
is absorption of cancellous tissue.

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MODULE No.7: Skeletal Age and Ossification

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Changes in Pubic Symphyseal Surface

Ageing is responsible for the fundamental contribution and provides a better guide than skull
sutures for age estimation. Todd’s system states estimation of age from 10 stages of
metamorphosis. Mckern and Stewart that is a more reliable method have replaced Todd’s
system. In this method symphysis pubis is divided into three components of which, six stages
(0-5) are studies of metamorphic changes. A total score of three components is obtained
which in turn is translated into age provided the individual is male.

I. Component 1(Dorsal half of joint surface)

Stage 0—Dorsal margin absent.

Stage 1—Slight margin formation starts in middle 3rd .

Stage 2—Dorsal margin extends over the entire border.

Stage 3—Formation of plateau (filling of grooves and resorption of ridges) begins in middle
third of the dorsal surface.

Stage 4—Visible billowing still present and plateau extends over most of the dorsal surface.

Stage 5—Billowing disappears completely and the surface becomes flat and slightly granular.

II. Component 2 (Ventral half of joint surface):

Stage 0—Ventral bevelling absent.

Stage 1—Ventral bevelling present at the superior extremity and ventral border.

Stage 2—Bevelling extending downwards.

Stage 3—Bony extension (ventral rampart) begins from either or both extremities.

Stage 4—Ventral rampart extends still further but gaps are still visible.

Stage 5—Ventral rampart is complete.

III. Component 3 (Combination of both-whole surface):

Stage 0—Symphyseal rim is absent.

Stage 1—Dorsal rim appears at superior end of the dorsal margin, it is smooth and raised
above the symphyseal surface.

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MODULE No.7: Skeletal Age and Ossification

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Stage 2—Dorsal rim is complete and ventral rim starts forming.

Stage 3—Symphyseal rim is complete and the surface is finely granular.

Stage 4—Rim begins to break down, is sharply defined. The surface becomes smooth and flat
with no lipping of ventral edge.

Stage 5—There is further breakdown of rim and rarefaction of symphyseal surface.

Joint lipping begins along the vertebral edge during the last two stage of component 3 at
about 35-40 years.

Rough Estimate of Age from Pubic Symphysis

1) When the symphyseal surface is even, age is < 20 years.
2) When the surface is markedly ridged and irregular called billowing, the ridges
running transversely across the articular surface; the age is 20-25 years
3) Billowing gradually disappears and the articular surface becomes granular with sharp
anterior and posterior margins by 25-35 years of age
4) Articular surface is smooth and oval by the age of 35-45 years
5) Narrow and beaded rims develop in and around the margins of articular surface and
some erosion of the surface starts by 45-50 years
6) There is varying degree of erosion with breaking down of ventral margin by > 50-60
years
7) Surface becomes irregularly eroded after about 60 years of age.

Age Changes in the Vertebra

1) By the time the deciduous dentition is completed, the arch unites posteriorly and at
the same time the arches and bodies of lowest lumbar vertebra begins to fuse.
2) The posterior parts begin to fuse by 6 years and at the same time the arches of the first
cervical vertebra unite posteriorly.
3) The upper and lower surfaces of immature vertebra show a series of radial furrows up
to 10 years.
4) The furrows gradually fade on the upper and lower surfaces between 21-25 years.
5) Lipping of vertebra is seen usually after 45 years.
6) Osteophytic outgrowth from anterior and lateral margins becomes visible by 40-45
years. The second cervical vertebra up to the age of about three years consists of three
pieces that is two lateral portions that constitute the arch, the body and the dens.

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MODULE No.7: Skeletal Age and Ossification

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Age Changes in Internal Bone Structure

Two structural components are studied i.e.:

• Cancellous tissue: For studying this, humerus and femur are mainly considered and out of
the two, humerus is used on priority basis. The methods used are radiological examination of
bones and longitudinal section of bones in which resorption pattern of cancellous tissue is
examined.

The proximal end of the medullary cavity of humerus assumes a cone shape, the tip of which
gradually reaches the surgical neck of the bone during the period of 40-50 years and further
ascends up to epiphyseal line by 60-75 years.

• Cortical tissue: The cortical elements osteon, osteon fragments, lamellar bones and non-
haversian canals are studied microscopically and the age could be ascertained with in the
margin of 5 years. By counting the osteons in cross section of bone, the age can be
ascertained but it is not an accurate and reliable method.r

6. Summary
 Skeletal age can be determined from the ossification of bones that is helpful in the
determination of age.
 Radiological survey of ossification centers may provide considerable help in
estimating age of a person.
 Ossification centers are studied up to the age of 20-22 years, thereafter the skull vault
sutures, union and activity of sternum; changes in shape of mandible, changes in
pubic symphysis are taken in to account.
 While determining the age of a subject for medico-legal purposes, the standard value
obtained from examination of the number of subjects should be the guiding criteria, as
individual variations for bony union tend to occur.
 Ossification occurs earlier in tropical climates compared to temperate zones. In
females, epiphyseal union occurs 1-2 years earlier than males.

FORENSIC SCIENCE PAPER No.11 : Forensic Anthropology

MODULE No.7: Skeletal Age and Ossification

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