summa

UEE2276
BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS

ENGINEERING
K.Murugesan
Associate Professor/EEE
Sri Sivasubramaniya Nadar College of
Engineering (SSNCE)
Kalavakkam- 603110
OBJECTIVES
• To study the concepts of utilization of electrical
power.
2
UNIT-3 UTILIZATION OF ELECTRICAL POWER
Unit-3:
Renewable Energy sources-Wind and solar panels. Illumination by lamps-
Sodium Vapour, Mercury vapour, Fluorescent tube. Batteries- NiCd, Pb Acid
and Li-ion Charging and Discharging Characteristics. Protection- Earthing,
Fuses. Energy Tariff calculation for domestic loads.
3
Session-1
Wind Energy
4
Energy sources
Energy
Sources
Conventional Renewable
a. Coal a. Solar
b. Fossil fuel b. Wind
5
Conventional Power Generation
What is conventional power generation?
➢Conventional power plant is the general term

applied to the production of electrical energy from
coal, oil, or natural gas using the intermediary of steam
using generator.
➢The generator is usually a synchronous machine

having a small number of poles (two or four) and
running at high speeds (1500–3600 rpm).
6
Non Conventional Power Generation
What is non conventional power plant?
Non-conventional power plants are:
➢Wind power plants: The kinetic energy of wind is used

to create power.
➢Solar power plants: Generates power by collecting

solar radiation.
➢Geothermal power plants: Uses the natural heat

found in the deep levels of the earth to generate
electricity. 7
Limitations of Conventional Power
Generation
Air Pollution:
The burning of firewood and fossil fuels result in air pollution.
8
Limitations of Conventional Power
Generation
➢Growing worldwide demand for energy, and problems of scarcity

and environmental impact associated with conventional sources
are at the base of a very probable energy crisis in the next two or
three decades.
➢Petroleum will become increasingly expensive and scarce, while

the climatic effects of massive use of all fossil fuels will by then be
clearly felt.
➢current nuclear installations will have reached the end of their

useful life.
9
Renewable energy sources-
wind and solar panels.
10
Renewable energy sources-
wind and solar panels.
11
Renewable energy sources-wind
12
Wind is a form of solar energy caused by a combination of three
concurrent events:
1. The sun unevenly heating the atmosphere
2. Irregularities of the earth's surface
3. The rotation of the earth.
➢The terms "wind energy" and "wind power" both describe the
process by which the wind is used to generate mechanical power
or electricity.
➢ This mechanical power can be used for specific tasks (such as

grinding grain or pumping water) or a generator can convert this
mechanical power into electricity. 13
➢A wind turbine turns wind energy into electricity using the
aerodynamic force from the rotor blades.
➢When wind flows across the blade, the air pressure on one side
of the blade decreases. The difference in air pressure across the
two sides of the blade creates both lift and drag. The force of the
lift is stronger than the drag and this causes the rotor to spin.
➢The rotor connects to the generator, either directly or through a

shaft and a gearbox that speed up the rotation and drive a
physically smaller generator.
➢This translation of aerodynamic force to rotation of a generator

creates electricity.
14
Types of Wind Turbines- axis
1. Horizontal-Axis Turbines 2. Vertical-Axis Turbines
15
Types of Wind Turbines- sizes
Utility-scale Offshore Single small
wind Turbines Wind Turbines Turbines
➢From 100 KW to ➢Capture powerful ocean

several MW winds ➢below 100 KW
➢Grouped together ➢generate vast amounts ➢residential, agricultural,
into wind plants, which of energy. small commercial and
provide bulk power to industrial applications
the electrical grid. ➢hybrid wind systems 16
Wind Power from Wind Turbine
Power from Wind Turbine
How Wind Turbine works - demo
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qSWm_nprfqE
17
Advantages& Disadvantages of Wind Energy
Advantages Disadvantages
1. Wind power is cost-effective.
(1) High initial cost
2. Wind creates jobs.
(2) Technology immaturity
3. Wind enables industry growth
and competitiveness of a country
(3) Aesthetic impact
4. It's a clean fuel source.
(4) Wildlife
5. Wind is a domestic source of
energy (5) Remoteness of location
6. It's sustainable
(6) Noise
7. Wind turbines can be built on
existing farms (7) Safety at Sea
18
Challenges of Wind Energy
➢ Wind power must still compete with conventional
generation sources on a cost basis.
➢ Good wind sites are often located in remote locations, far

from cities where the electricity is needed.
➢ Wind resource development might not be the most

profitable use of the land.
➢ Turbines might cause noise and aesthetic pollution.
➢ Turbine blades could damage local wildlife.
19
Renewable energy sources-Solar
➢Solar energy refers to capturing the energy from the Sun and
subsequently converting it into electricity.
➢We can then use that electricity to light up our homes, streets,
and businesses, and power our machines as well.
➢We can also use the term solar power with the same meaning.
20
Renewable energy sources-Solar
How do we get solar energy?
➢The sun's energy can be captured to generate electricity or heat

through a system of panels or mirrors.
➢Solar, or photovoltaic, cells convert sunlight directly into electricity.
➢Solar thermal collectors use heat-absorbing panels and a series of

attached circulation tubes to heat water or buildings.
21
How Solar panel works?
22
How Solar panel works?
➢Solar panel works by capturing the sun’s energy and turning it
into electricity for your home or business.
➢Sun releases tiny packets of energy called photons, which travels
the 93 million miles from the sun to Earth in about 8.5 minutes. Every
hour, enough photons impact our planet to generate enough solar
energy to theoretically satisfy global energy needs for an entire year.
➢When photons hit a solar cell, they knock electrons and loose from
their atoms.
➢If conductors are attached to the positive and negative sides of a
cell, it forms an electrical circuit.
➢When electrons flow through such a circuit, they generate
electricity.
➢Multiple cells make up a solar panel, and multiple panels (modules)
can be wired together to form a solar array. The more panels you can
deploy, the more energy you can expect to generate.
23
What are Solar Panels Made of?
➢Photovoltaic (PV) solar panels are made up of many solar cells.
➢Solar cells are made of silicon semiconductors. They are

constructed with a positive layer and a negative layer, which
together create an electric field, just like in a battery(DC).
What Does a Solar Inverter Do?

➢A solar inverter takes the DC electricity from the solar array and
converts that to AC electricity. It is a brain of the system.
➢ (1) Central Inverters (2) Micro Inverters
24
Types of solar PV systems
25
Advantages of Solar Power
1. Solar power is pollution free energy sources and causes no greenhouse gas
emission after installation
2. Renewable clean power that is available every day of the year, even cloudy
days produce some power
3. Virtually no maintenance as solar panels last over 30 years
4. Creates jobs by employing solar panel manufacturers, solar installers, etc. and
in turn helps the economy
5. Excess power can be sold back to the power company if grid intertied
6. Ability to live grid free if all power generated provides enough for the home/
building
7. Can be installed virtually anywhere in a field or on a building
8. Use batteries to store extra power for use at night
9. Solar can be used to heat water, power homes and building, even power cars
10. Safer than traditional electric current
11. Efficiency is always improving so the same size solar that is available today will
become more efficient tomorrow
12. Aesthetics are improving making the solar more versatile compared to older
models.
13. Federal grants, tax incentives, and rebate programs are available to help with
initial costs
26
Disadvantages of Solar Power
1. High initial costs for material and installation and long ROI
2. Needs lot of space as efficiency is not 100% yet
3. No solar power at night so there is a need for a large battery bank
4. Depending on geographical location the size of the solar panels vary for the
same power generation
5. Cloudy days do not produce much energy
6. Solar panels are not being massed produced due to lack of material and
technology to lower the cost enough to be more affordable
7. Solar powered cars do not have the same speeds and power as typical gas
powered cars
8. Lower production in the winter months

27
Session-2
Illumination
28
Illumination by Lamps
29
Illumination by Lamps-Introduction
• Illumination
• Light
• Terms used in Illumination
30
Definitions
1.Illumination:
 When the light falls upon any surface, that phenomenon is
called Illumination
 It is defined as the number of lumens, falling on the surface per
unit area (E).
 Unit-lumens/m^2 or Lux or metercandle.
E=F/A lumens/m^2 or lux (lx)
31
Terms used in Illumination
1.Light:
Light is a form of radiant energy from a hot body which
produces the visual sensation upon the human eye(Q).
Unit-lumen-hours.
It is produced by passing current through filaments or through
gases or gas tubes.
32
2. Luminous Flux (F) :
The total quantity of light energy emitted per second from a
luminous body.
Unit-lumens (or cd-sr), used to specify the o/p and efficiency of a
given light source.
33
3. Luminous Intensity(I): Luminous intensity in any given direction is
the luminous flux emitted by the source per unit solid angle,
measured in the direction in which the intensity is required.
Unit – candela (cd) or lumens/steradian
I=F/ω lumens/steradian or candela
34
4.Lumens : Lumen is the unit of luminous flux and is defined as
the amount of luminous flux given out in a space represented by
one unit of solid angle by a source having an intensity of one
candle power in all directions.
Lumens = Candle Power x solid angle = CP x ω
5. Candle power : Candle power is defined as the no of lumens

given out by the source in a unit solid angle in a given direction.
CP= Lumens/ ω
35
5. Candle power : Candle power is defined as the no of lumens
given out by the source in a unit solid angle in a given direction.
CP= Lumens/ ω
36
6. Illumination: When the light falls upon any surface , the
phenomenon is called the illumination.
 It is defined as the number of lumens, falling on the surface per
unit area (E). Unit-lumens/m^2 or Lux or metercandle.
E=F/A lumens/m^2 or lux (lx)
37
7. Lux or Meter Candle : it is defined as the luminous flux falling
per square meter on the surface which is every where
perpendicular to the rays of light from a source of one candle
power and one metre away from it.
8. Foot-Candle: it is defined as the luminous flux falling per square

foot on the surface ,which is every where perpendicular to the
rays of light from a source of one candle power and one foot
away from it.
 1 Foot-candle = 10.76 metre candle or lux
38
9. Candela: It is the unit of Luminous intensity
It is defined as 1/60 th of the luminous intensity per cm^2 of a
black body radiator at the temperature of solidification of
platinum(2043 0 K).
10.Mean Horizontal Candle Power (MHCP): it is defined as the
mean of candle powers in all directions in the horizontal plane
containing the source of light.
11.Mean Spherical Candle Power (MSCP): It is defined as the

mean of candle powers in all directions in and in all planes from
the source of light.
12. Mean Hemi-Spherical Candle Power (MHSCP): It is defined
as the mean of candle powers in all directions above or below the
horizontal planes passing through the source of light.
39
13. Reduction Factor :
Reduction factor of a source of light is the ratio of Mean
Spherical Candle Power to its Mean horizontal Candle Power.
Reduction Factor = MSCP/MHCP

14. Lamp Efficiency:
It is defined as the ratio of the luminous flux to the power input.
(Lumens per watt).
15. Specific Consumption :
It is defined as the ratio of the power input to the average candle
power. (watts per candela)
40
16. Brightness or Luminance (L) : when the eye receives a great
deal of light from an object we say it is bright, brightness is an
important quantity in illuminations.
 Brightness is defined as the luminous intensity per unit
projected area of either a surface source of light or a reflecting
surface.
 L= 1/Acosθ candla/m^2 or nits
17. Glare : It is defined as the brightness within the field of vision

of such a character as to cause discomfort , interference with
vision or eye fatigue.
41
18. Space –height ratio = horizontal distance between two
adjacent lamps / Mounting height of lamps above working plane.
19. Utilisation Factor:

Total lumens reaching the working plane / Total lumens given out
by the lamp
20. Maintenance Factor = Illumination under normal working

conditions / Illumination when every thing is perfectly clean
42
Problems on the board
Example-1. The flux emitted by a lamp in all direction is 1000
lumens . Calculate its MSCP.
Solution
Given data
Total flux emitted in all direction F = 1,000 lumens
F 1000
MSCP = = = 80
4 4
43
Example-2.
The lamp having mean spherical candle power (MSCP) of
1000 is suspended at a height of 10 meters. Calculate the (i)
total flux of light, and (ii) the illumination just below the lamp.
Solution
Given data MSCP = 1000 and height h = 10 m
(i) Total Flux of the light is given by
Total _ Flux = MSCP  4 = 1000  4 = 12566.37lumens
(ii) The illumination just below the lamp is given

by MSCP 1000
Illu min ation _ below _ Lamp = 2
= 2
= 10 Lux
h 10
44
Example-3.
When a 240 V lamp takes a current of 0.8 ampere, it produces
a total lux of 2880 lumens. Calculate (i) mean spherical candle
power (MSCP) of the lamp and (ii) efficiency of the lamp .
Solution
Given data
Voltage = 240 V, Current = 0.8A Total lumens= 2880
(i) mean spherical candle power (MSCP)

Total _ Lumens 2880
MCSP = = = 229.18
4 4
(ii) efficiency of the lamp

Lumens Lumens 2880
 _ lamp = = = = 15
Wattage V I 240  0.8
45
Example-4: A lamp of 600 candle power is placed at the
centre of a room, 20m X 10m X 5m. Calculate the illumination
in each corner of the floor.
Solution
Given data
Candle power = 600 Dimension of room = 20m X 10m X 5m
To calculate the illumination in each corner of the floor, In Figure
O, O’ show the position of the lamp
Diogonal _ Length _ Room( AC ) = 20 2 + 10 2 = 22.36m
O
Length _ AO = R = 11.182 + 52 = 12.36m
θ 5
D m C Let θ be the angle between the normal and
line of flux, then
5
10 m
cos  = = 0.4083
12.247
O’
Illumination in each corner is given by E
B
A 20 m CP 600
E= 2
cos  = 2
0.4083 = 1.6325lux
R 12.36 46
Example-5 Two lamp of 200 and 300 candle powers are arranged as
shown in figure. Calculate the illumination in the middle of the lamps.
Solution
B
Given data
CP of Lamp A= 200 & CP of Lamp B Norma
= 300 A θ2
l 25 m
Illumination at P due to lamp A is θ1
15 m
P
CP 100 m
EA = 2
cos 1
AP Illumination at P due to lamp B is
where CP
EB = 2
cos  2
BP
AP = 152 + 50 2 = 52.2m
where
15
cos 1 = = 0.288 BP = 252 + 50 2 = 55.9m
52.2
25
200 cos  2 = = 0.4472
EA = 2
 0.288 = 0.0211lux 55.9
(52.2) 300
EB =  0.4472 = 0.0429lux
(55.9) 2
47
So, the total Illumination at point P =0.0211 + 0.0429 lux
Example-6 A room 20 m X 15 m is to be illuminated by 8
lamps and the average illumination is to be 50 lumens/sq. m.
If the utilization factor is 0.45 and depreciation factor is 1.2,
Calculate the mean spherical power per lamp.
Solution
Given data
Room dimension = 20m X15m, Average illumination = 50 lumens/sq m,
No of Lamp =8 ,UF = 0.45 and depreciation factor = 1.2
The area to be illuminated = 20 X 15 =300 sq.m.
Total no lux required = 300 x50 =15000 lumens
Total lumens given out by lamps = (15000 x1.2)/ 0.45 = 40000 lumens
MSCP of each lamp is
15000 1.2
MSCP = = 697.88lumens
0.45  4  8 48
Session-3
Working Principle of
Gas filled lamps
49
Construction and working of a sodium vapour
lamp
1. High pressure sodium vapour lamp
50
Construction and working of a sodium vapour
lamp
2. Low pressure sodium vapour lamp
51
Construction of a sodium vapour lamp
• Lamp is of low luminosity, so the length of the lamp is large (U- tube) .
• Two oxide coated electrodes.
• The tube contains a little sodium and neon gas.
• U-tube is enclosed in a double-walled vacuum flask to keep the temperature
within working range.
• Capacitor is connected to improve the power factor
52
Construction feature of a sodium vapour lamp
1.The outer envelope is made from borosilicate glass. The inner surface of
the outer glass case is coated with indium oxide. This heat-reflective
coating of indium oxide allows visible light to pass but reflects infra-red
radiation back inside the tube as a result of which both light output and
temperature inside the tube increases.
2.The arc tube of the LPSV lamp is made of glass and bent in the form of a
U-shape in order to increase the length of the arc. The arc tube is
supported at both ends. The arc tube contains a mixture of metallic sodium
53
and inert gases argon and neon.
Working of a sodium vapour
lamp
54
Low Pressure Sodium Vapour
55
Low Pressure Sodium Vapour lamp
Outer envelope coated with an infrared
reflecting layer of indium tin oxide
Cathode Same as A fluorescent
(made from coated tungsten)
Standard Lamp Glass

(Soda Lime)
Borate Glass Inner sleeve

(0.02mm)
56
Low Pressure Sodium Vapour
The operation is explained step by step in details below:

1.Electric power is given to the lamp and it is energized.
2.The electrodes produce an arc and this arc strikes through the conductive gas
and the lamp produces a reddish-pink light, characteristic of neon.
3.Current flowing through the inert gas mixture of argon and neon generates heat.
4.This heat vaporizes the metallic sodium.
5.With the passage of time, the quantity of sodium in the arc stream increases and
this produces the characteristic monochromatic orange color at a wavelength of
489.6 nm.
For proper operation of LPSV lamp, typical pressure is about .005 torr and a
temperature range between 250° to 270°. Kept at horizontal position (±20°)
57
• Rated life is shorter than other types of discharge lamps
• Average life – 3000 hours
• Other Discharge lamps – 18,000 hours
• Efficiency 40 to 50 lumens/W
• Wires or conductive coatings around the arc tube can assist with
starting
• Voltage variation will not affect the lamp operation.
58
Control Equipment
Limit current when operating
Provides high voltage to

start lamp Ignitor
N
59
Session-4
Fluorescent lamp
Working principle
60
Fluorescent lamp Principle Of Operation
A vacuum is created inside the tube
0.3% of the outside Atmosphere
A glass cylinder is filled with • Mercury Vapour

• Argon
• Xenon
• Neon
• Krypton
61
Principle Of Operation
An arc is established between the two ends of the tube through the gas
The current is carried by free electrons and +ions
62
Fluorescent
When a free electron hits an atom One of the outer electrons in the
atom is forced to a higher level
It is unstable and falls back to

its original position
The energy released is in the form
of a light photon 63
Fluorescent
The wave length can be either
65% • 253.7nm
or Ultra Violet Spectrum
10 – 20% • 185nm
Invisible to the eye
64
Fluorescent
On the wall of the tube is a mixture of
fluorescent & phosphorescent materials
The UV photons strikes this layer
This shifts the electrons in the coating atoms

and a photon is again generated
Visible light
The wave length (colour) is dependant on the coating
65
materials used
What’s the difference between
Fluorescent & Phosphorescent Materials
Fluorescent
Only glows when struck by UV light
Phosphorescent
Glows when struck by UV light.
As well as
Glows for a period after the removal of UV light
66
How Do We Start A Fluorescent
Tube
• Gas is heated by elements at each end of the tube
67
Tube

• High voltage is placed across the tube
68
Tube

• High voltage is placed across the tube
• Arc is established and current is controlled
69
Heating Elements
• Made of Tungsten
• Electrons are emitted from this element
• The electrons collide with and ionize the gas atoms in the
bulb surrounding the filament to form a plasma
• As a result of avalanche ionization, the conductivity of the
ionized gas rapidly rises, allowing higher currents to flow
through the lamp
70
Heating Elements
• To aid the emission of electrons the elements are coated with
• Barium
• Strontium
• Calcium Oxides
• This reduces the thermionic emission temperature
71
How Do We Create A High Voltage
Mostly comes from a back emf generated by a coil when switched

off
72
How Do We Control The
Current?
• Tube exhibits a Negative Differential Resistance
• If connected directly to the mains would rapidly self destructs
• Constant current source to regulate the current flow through the

tube usually in the form of an inductor (Ballast)
73
Fluorescent Control Circuit
Glow/Switch Starter
A N 74
Fluorescent Starters
75
• Power applied to light fitting

Glass Envelope filled • Current passes through heating
with Neon Gas elements
• Current jumps across gas in starter
• Heat of arc bends bimetal strip
• Contacts close
76
• Power applied to light fitting
• Current passes through heating
elements
Glass Envelope filled • Current jumps across gas in starter
with Neon Gas • Heat of arc bends bimetal strip
• Contacts close
• Bimetal strip cools
• Contacts snap open
• open circuiting supply to fitting
77
Ballast
• Provides the high voltage kick in a switch start system
• Limits current when tube running
• Consumes (Wastes) 12% and 15% of input
• Being replaced with electronic ballasts
• With the addition of a filament transformer can be dimmed
78
Electronic Ballasts
• More efficient 5% and 8%
• Operates the lamp at higher frequencies (20-40kHz)
• Less lamp flicker
• Faster start as a HV spike happens more often
• Can have the option to dim the lamp as low as 10%
79
Session-5
Battery Charging and
Discharging
characteristics
80
81
BATTERY
What is battery and how it is used for?
A battery converts chemical energy into electrical energy by a
chemical reaction. Usually the chemicals are kept inside the
battery. It is used in a circuit to power other components.
Main components of Battery Cells

1. The Anode (Negative Electrode)
2. The Cathode (Positive Electrode)
3. The electrolytes
82
BATTERY
➢A battery is a collection of one or more cells that go under
chemical reactions to create the flow of electrons within a circuit.
➢There is lot of research and advancement going on in battery

technology, and as a result, breakthrough technologies are being
experienced and used around the world currently.
➢Batteries came into play due to the need to store generated

electrical energy.
➢As much as a good amount of energy was being generated, it
was important to store the energy so it can be used when
generation is down or when there is a need to power standalone
devices, which cannot be kept tethered to the supply from the
mains.
➢Here it should be noted that only DC can be stored in83 the

batteries, AC current can’t be stored.
Types of Batteries
Batteries
2.
1. Primary
Secondary
Batteries.
Batteries.
Can’t be Re-
Re- Chargeable
Charged
84
Types of Batteries- Primary Batteries.
➢ Primary batteries cannot be recharged once depleted.
➢ Primary batteries are made of electrochemical cells whose

electrochemical reaction cannot be reversed .
➢ There exist in different forms ranging from coin cells to AA

batteries.
➢ Primary batteries always have high specific energy and the

systems in which they are used are always designed to
consume low amount of power to enable the battery last as
long as possible.
➢ Examples of devices using primary batteries include: Pace

makers, Animal trackers, Wrist watches, remote controls and
children toys to mention a few portable entertainment devices.
85
Types of Batteries- Primary Batteries.
➢Most popular type of primary batteries are alkaline batteries.
➢They have a high specific energy and are environmentally

friendly.
➢They are cost-effective and do not leak even when fully

discharged.
➢They can be stored for several years
➢They have a good safety record and can be carried on an

aircraft without being subject to UN Transport and other
regulations.
➢ The only downside to alkaline batteries is the low load current,
which limits its use to devices with low current requirements like
remote controls, flashlights and portable entertainment devices.
86
Types of Batteries- Secondary Batteries.
➢Secondary batteries are batteries with electrochemical cells
whose chemical reactions can be reversed by applying a certain
voltage to the battery in the reversed direction.
➢It is also referred to as rechargeable batteries, secondary cells

unlike primary cells can be recharged after the energy on the
battery has been used up.
➢They are typically used in high drain applications and other

scenarios where it will be either too expensive or impracticable to
use single charge batteries.
➢Small capacity secondary batteries are used to power portable

electronic devices like mobile phones, and other gadgets and
appliances.
87
➢while heavy-duty batteries are used in powering drives like
electric vehicles and other high drain applications like load
levelling in electricity generation.
➢They are also used as standalone power sources in Inverters to

supply electricity.
➢Although the initial cost of acquiring rechargeable batteries is

always higher than that of primary batteries but they are the most
cost-effective over the long-term.
88
➢Secondary batteries can be further classified into several other

types based on their chemistry.
➢This is very important because the chemistry determines some

of the attributes of the battery including its specific energy, cycle
life, self life, and price to mention a few.
There are basically 4 major chemistries for rechargeable batteries.
(a) Nickel-Cadmium Batteries.

(b) Nickel-Metal Hydride Batteries.
(c) Lithium-ion Batteries.
(d) Lead-Acid Batteries.
89
1. Nickel-Cadmium Batteries
➢Ni-Cd batteries developed using
nickel oxide hydroxide and
metallic cadmium as electrodes.
➢ Ni-Cd batteries excel at maintaining
voltage and holding charge when not
in use.
➢When a partially charged Ni-Cd
battery is recharged, lowering the
future capacity of the battery
(“memory” effect).
➢When compared to other rechargeable cells, Ni-Cd batteries have

good life cycle and performance at low temperatures.
90
Nickel-Cadmium Batteries
➢It has the ability to deliver their full
rated capacity at high discharge
rates.
➢They are available in different

sizes including the sizes used for
alkaline batteries, AAA to D.
➢Ni-Cd cells are used individual or

assembled in packs of two or more
cells.(Laptop)
➢The small packs are used in portable electronics devices, and

toys while the bigger ones are used in aircraft starting batteries,
Electric vehicles and standby power supply.
91
1. Nickel-Cadmium Batteries
properties of Ni-Cd batteries are
➢Specific Energy: 40-60W-h/kg
➢Energy Density: 50-150 W-h/L
➢Specific Power: 150W/kg
➢Charge/discharge efficiency:70-90%
➢Self-discharge rate: 10%/month
➢Cycle durability/life: 2000cycles
92
Types of Batteries- Secondary Batteries
1. Nickel-Cadmium Batteries- Charge characteristics
Everything goes well up to about 70%charge. After that charging

efficiency drops. The cells begin to generate gases, the pressure rises
and the temperature increases rapidly. To reduce battery stress,
some chargers lower the charge rate above the 70%.
93
1. Nickel-Cadmium Batteries- Discharge characteristics
94
2. Nickel-Metal Hydride Batteries
➢Nickel metal hydride (Ni-MH) is another type of
chemical configuration used for rechargeable batteries.
➢The chemical reaction at the positive electrode of

batteries is similar to that of the nickel–cadmium
cell(NiCd), with both battery type using the
same nickel oxide hydroxide (NiOOH).
➢However, the negative electrodes in Nickel-Metal

Hydride use a hydrogen-absorbing alloy instead
of cadmium which is used in NiCd batteries.
➢NiMH batteries find application in high drain devices because of their high
capacity and energy density.
➢A NiMH battery can possess 2 to 3times the capacity of a NiCd battery of the
same size, and its energy density can approach that of a lithium-ion battery.
➢Unlike the NiCd batteries, NiMH battries are not susceptible to the
“memory” effect that NiCads experience. 95
2. Nickel-Metal Hydride Batteries
properties Nickel-metal hydride of
batteries
➢Specific Energy: 60-120h/kg
➢Energy Density: 140-300 Wh/L
➢Specific Power: 250-1000 W/kg
➢Charge/discharge efficiency: 66% - 92%
➢Self-discharge rate: 1.3-2.9%/month at 20oC
➢Cycle Durability/life: 180 -2000
The charge algorithm for NiMH is similar to NiCd with the

exception that NiMH is more complex.
96
2. Nickel-Metal Hydride Batteries-
Charging characteristics
The charge algorithm for NiMH is similar to NiCd with the

exception that NiMH is more complex.
97
2. Nickel-Metal Hydride Batteries-
Discharging characteristics
98
3. Lithium-ion Batteries
➢Lithium-ion batteries are one of the most
popular type of rechargeable battery in
which Li- ions from the –ve
electrode migrate to the +ve electrode
during discharge and migrate back to the -
ve electrode when the battery is being
charged.
➢ Li-ion batteries use an intercalated
lithium compound as one electrode
material, compared to the metallic lithium
used in non-rechargeable lithium batteries.
➢They are found in different portable appliances including mobile
phones, smart devices and several other battery appliances used at
home.
➢They also find applications in aerospace and military applications due
to their lightweight nature. 99
➢This batteries generally possess
high energy density, little or no memory
effect and low self-discharge compared to
other battery types.
➢Their chemistry, performance and cost

vary for different uses.
➢For example, Li-ion batteries used in handheld electronic
devices are usually based on lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO2) which
provides high energy density and low safety risks when damaged,
while Li-ion batteries based on Lithium iron phosphate which offer
a lower energy density are safer.
➢ Lithium ion batteries offer the best performance to weight ratio
with the lithium sulphur battery offering the highest ratio. 100
attributes of lithium ion batteries are
➢Specific Energy: 100: 265W-h/kg
➢Energy Density: 250: 693 W-h/L
➢Specific Power: 250: 340 W/kg
➢Charge/discharge percentage: 80-90%
➢Cycle Durability: 400: 1200 cycles
➢Nominal cell voltage: NMC 3.6/3.85V

101
Charging Characteristics of Lithium-ion
Batteries.
102
Discharging Characteristics of Lithium-ion
Batteries.
103
4. Lead-Acid Batteries
➢The lead-acid is the oldest
type of rechargeable battery
and still very relevant and
important into today’s world.
➢Lead acid batteries have very

low energy to volume and
energy to weight ratios but it
has a relatively large power to
weight ratio and as a result can
supply huge surge currents
when needed.
➢These attributes alongside its low cost makes these batteries
attractive for use in several high current applications like powering
automobile starter motors and for storage in backup power
104
supplies.
4. Lead-Acid Batteries
➢Lead acid batteries are a
low-cost reliable power
workhorse used in heavy duty
applications.
➢They are usually very large

and because of their weight,
they’re always used in non-
portable applications such as
solar-panel energy storage,
vehicle ignition and lights,
backup power and load
levelling in power
generation/distribution.
105
4. Lead-Acid Batteries -
Charging
Lead-Acid Batteries –Discharging 106

Selecting the right battery for your application
Factors to be considered
1. Energy Density: The energy density is the total amount of energy
that can be stored per unit mass or volume. This determines how long
your device stays on before it needs a recharge.
2. Power Density: Maximum rate of energy discharge per unit mass or
volume. Low power: laptop, i-pod. High power: power tools.
3. Safety: It is important to consider the temperature at which the device
you are building will work. At high temperatures, certain battery
components will breakdown and can undergo exothermic reactions.
High temperatures generally reduces the performance of most batteries.
4. Life cycle durability: The stability of energy density and power
density of a battery with repeated cycling (charging and discharging) is
needed for the long battery life required by most applications.
5. Cost: Cost is an important part of any engineering decisions you will
be making. It is important that the cost of your battery choice is
commensurate with its performance and will not increase the overall
cost of the project abnormally. 107
Session-6
Power system Protection
108
Power System Protection
Definition of electrical protection.
Protection is provided by fuses or other suitable automatic circuit-
interrupting devices for preventing damage to circuits, equipment,
and personnel by abnormal conditions, such as over current, high
or low voltage, and single phasing.
Why do we need protection in power system?

➢The main objective of using power system protection is to
detach the faulty section from the system to make the rest of the
portion work without any disturbance.
➢In addition to this, it is used for the protection of power system

and prevent the flow of fault current.
109
Power System Protection Equipments
What is protective devices in electrical?
A device used to protect equipment, machinery,components and
devices in electrical and electronic circuit against short circuit,
over current and earth fault is called as protective devices.
What are the circuit protection devices?

1. Fuses.
2. Circuit Breakers.
3. ESD Protection & Diode Arrays.
4. Lightning Arrester.
5. Gas Discharge Tubes.
6. Power Thyristors.
7. Protection Thyristors.
110
Important Elements for Power System Protection
1. Fuse: Short pies of wire or strip of metal inserted in series
with circuit
2. Circuit breaker:
➢Circuit breaker is the main part of protection system in power
system and it automatically isolate the faulty portion of the system
by opening its contacts.
➢E.g. bulk oil circuit breaker, minimum oil circuit breaker, SF6
circuit breaker, air blast circuit breaker and vacuum circuit breaker
etc.
3. Protective Relay:
➢During fault the protection relay gives trip signal to the
associated circuit breaker for opening its contacts.
➢e.g. current relays, voltage relays, impedance relays, power
relays, frequency relays, etc.
3. Station Battery:
Accumulate energy during the period of availability of AC supply
and discharge at the time when relays operate so that relevant 111
circuit breaker is tripped at the time failure of incoming AC power.
1. Power System Protection Elements- Fuse
➢Fuse is an electrical device used to
protect the circuit from over current.
➢It consists of a metal strip that liquefies

when the flow of current through it is high.
➢Different types of fuses available in the

market today based on specific voltage and
current ratings, application, response time,
and breaking capacity.
Fuse rating (A) = (power (watts)/voltage (volts)) x 1.25
112
Different Types of Fuses
113
Power System Protection Elements- Fuse
Why do we require Fuse?
➢Fuses are used to prevent the home
appliances from the high current or
overload damage.
➢If we use a fuse in the homes, the

electrical faults cannot happen in the
wiring and it doesn’t damage the
appliances from the fire of wire burning.
➢When the fuse gets break or damage,

then an abrupt sparkle happens which
may direct to damage your home
appliances.
The alternative of the fuse is a circuit breaker

114
Earthing or grounding
What is earthing? Why do you need it?
➢If there is a fault in your electrical installation you could get an
electric shock if you touch a live metal part. This is because the
electricity may use your body as a path from the live part to the earth
part.
➢Earthing is used to protect you from an electric shock. It does this

by providing a path (a conductor) for a fault current to flow to earth.
It also causes the protective device (either a circuit-breaker or fuse)
to switch off the electric current to the circuit that has the fault.
➢For example, if a cooker has a fault, the fault current flows to earth
through the protective (earthing) conductors. A protective device
(fuse or circuit-breaker) in the consumer unit switches off the
electrical supply to the cooker. The cooker is now safe from causing
an electric shock to anyone who touches it.
115
Benefits of earthing in an electrical
system
1. Overload Protection
2. Voltage Stabilization
3. Damage
4. Injury
5. Death Prevention
116
Types of Earthing
1. Plate Type
➢ In a plate earthing system,
components such as electrical wires,
rods, pipes, plates and conductors
are made of copper, cast iron or
galvanized iron.
➢A copper or iron plate that’s 2 feet
square and 0.25 inch thick is buried
in an earth pit, with bolts placed
vertically and layers of salt and
charcoal up to a certain level from
the bottom of the pit. The depth at
which the plate needs to be buried
is usually around 8-10 feet from
ground level. 117
Types of Earthing
2. Pipe Type
➢Because of its reliability,
durability and easy of handling,
pipe type earthing is often used in
home and office electrical
installations, transmission lines,
etc.
➢ Also known as earthing electrode
pipes, this is the most common and
preferred earthing system type
used in typical earth and moisture
conditions.
➢This kind of earthing also uses copper pipes, the length of which
depends on the soil type and moisture content as well as current to be
carried. The diameter of the pipe is usually 1.5 inches while the length
can vary from 2.75 feet for rocky and dry soil to 15.5 feet. in moisture-
rich soil. 118
Session-4
Energy Tariff
119
120
Electricity Tariffs
Definition:
➢The amount of money frame by the supplier for the supply of
electrical energy to various types of consumers in known as an
electricity tariff.
➢In other words, the tariff is the methods of charging a consumer

for consuming electric power.
➢The tariff covers the total cost of producing and supplying

electrical energy plus a reasonable cost.
➢The actual tariffs that the customer pay depends on the
consumption of the electricity.
➢The consumer bill varies according to their requirements. The

industrial consumers pay more tariffs because they use more power
for long times than the domestic consumers.
121
Electricity Tariffs by TNEB
Rs 1/unit (1 to 100 unit)
Rs 1.5/unit (1 to 200 unit)
Rs 2/unit (1 to 200 unit, if exceeds 200 unit)
Rs 3/unit (201 to 500 unit) Click here for new tariff
Rs 3.5/ unit (1 to 200 unit , if exceeds 500 unit)
Rs 4.6/unit (202 to 500 unit, if exceeds 500 unit)
Rs 6.6/ unit (500 and above, if exceeds 500 unit)
Note : Here 1 unit = 1 kWh

122
First 100 unit is free in Tamil nadu for domestic load
Electricity Tariffs
Electricity tariffs depends on the following factors
1. Type of load – domestic, commercial and industrial loads
2. Time at which load is required- maximum demand –Peak hrs More
money, Maximum demand of customer – off-peak hrs – Less money
3. The power factor of the load- low p.f. – increase cost
4. The amount of energy used – larger energy for longer time reduce cost
The total bill of the consumer has three parts, namely, fixed charge (D),
semi-fixed charge (Ax) and running charge (By).
C = Ax + By + D
where, C – total charge for a period (say one month)
x – maximum demand during the period (kW or kVA)
y – Total energy consumed during the period (kW or kVA)
A – cost per kW or kVa of maximum demand.
B – cost per kWh of energy consumed.
D – fixed charge during each billing period. 123
Types of Electricity Tariff
Some of the most important types of tariff are as follows
1. Flat Demand Rate tariff
2. Straight-line Meter rate tariff
3. Block meter Rate tariff
4. Two-part tariff or Hopkinson Demand Rate tariff
5. Power factor tariff
6. Seasonal rate tariff
7. Peak load tariff

124
8. Three-part tariff or Doherty Rate
1. Flat Demand Rate tariff
➢The flat demand rate tariff is expressed by the equation C = Ax.
➢In this type of tariff, the bill of the power consumption depends only on
the maximum demand of the load.
➢The generation of the bill is independent of the normal energy
consumption.
➢This type of tariff is used on the street light, sign lighting, irrigation, etc.,
where the working hours of the equipment are known.
➢The metering system is not used for calculating such type of tariffs.
2. Straight-line Meter rate tariff
➢This type of tariff is given by the equation C = By.
➢The generation of the bills depends on the energy consumption of the
load. Thus, different types of bills are generated by the consumers.
➢The charges for different types of consumption depends on the load and
diversity factors of the load.
➢ The tariff for small devices is less as compared to the power loads. Hence
different meters are used for measuring the power consumption 125
3. Block meter Rate tariff
➢In this type of tariff, the energy consumption is
distinguished into blocks.
➢The per unit tariff of the individual block is
fixed. The price of the block is arranged in the
decreasing order.
➢ The first block has the highest cost, and it goes
on decreasing accordingly.
For example in the above figure the price and the energy
consumption are divided into three blocks.
The first few units of energy at a certain rate, the next at a slightly
lower rate and the remaining unit at a very lower rate.
126
4. Two-part tariff
➢In such type of tariff, the total bill is divided into two parts.
➢The first one is the fixed charge and the second is the running
charge.
➢ The fixed charge is because of the maximum demand and the

second charge depends on the energy consumption by the load.
The factor A and B may be constant and vary according to some

sliding.
127
➢ The tariff, which depends on the power factor of the load is
known as the power factor tariff.
➢The power factor tariff is mainly classified into three types.

a. kVA maximum demand tariff – This is also a two-part tariff.
The low power factor increases the KVA rating of the load.
b. kWh and kVarh tariff – The bill is calculated by the sum of the kVarh
and Kwh rating of the load
The kVarh is inversely proportional to the power factor of the load.
128
c. Sliding Scale or Average power factor tariff
➢In Average power factor tariff, the particular value of the power factor is
taken as reference.
➢If the power factor at the consumer end is low, then the consumer has to
pay the additional charges.
➢Similarly, if the power factor of the load is above from the reference
value, then the discount will be given to the consumer.
129
6. Seasonal rate tariff
➢Such type of tariff measures the high price in kWh used by the
consumer in one complete year. It is also known as the on peak
season tariff.
➢If the low consumption occurs in the year, then it called the off-
peak season tariffs.
7. Peak-load tariff
➢Such type of tariff is similar to peak seasonal tariffs. The only
difference is that the seasonal tariff measures the peak hour of the
year and the peak tariff calculates it for the day.
➢ If the power consumption is high, then it is known as the on-peak

tariff, and for low power consumption, it is called off-peak load
tariffs.
➢The peak load and seasonal tariffs both are used for reducing the
130
idle or standby capacity of the load.
8. Three-part tariff
The total bill of the consumer has three parts, namely, fixed charge
(D), semi-fixed charge (Ax) and running charge (By).
C = Ax + By + D
where,
C – total charge for a period (say one month)
x – maximum demand during the period (kW or kVA)
y – Total energy consumed during the period (kW or kVA)
A – cost per kW or kVa of maximum demand.
B – cost per kWh of energy consumed.
D – fixed charge during each billing period.
131
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UEE2276

BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS

➢Conventional power plant is the general term

➢The generator is usually a synchronous machine

Non-conventional power plants are:

➢Wind power plants: The kinetic energy of wind is used

➢Solar power plants: Generates power by collecting

➢Geothermal power plants: Uses the natural heat

➢Growing worldwide demand for energy, and problems of scarcity

➢Petroleum will become increasingly expensive and scarce, while

➢current nuclear installations will have reached the end of their

1. The sun unevenly heating the atmosphere

2. Irregularities of the earth's surface

3. The rotation of the earth.

➢ This mechanical power can be used for specific tasks (such as

➢The rotor connects to the generator, either directly or through a

➢This translation of aerodynamic force to rotation of a generator

➢From 100 KW to ➢Capture powerful ocean

How Wind Turbine works - demo

➢ Good wind sites are often located in remote locations, far

➢ Wind resource development might not be the most

➢ Turbines might cause noise and aesthetic pollution.

➢ Turbine blades could damage local wildlife.

➢The sun's energy can be captured to generate electricity or heat

➢Solar, or photovoltaic, cells convert sunlight directly into electricity.

➢Solar thermal collectors use heat-absorbing panels and a series of

➢Solar cells are made of silicon semiconductors. They are

What Does a Solar Inverter Do?

➢ (1) Central Inverters (2) Micro Inverters

2. Needs lot of space as efficiency is not 100% yet

3. No solar power at night so there is a need for a large battery bank

5. Cloudy days do not produce much energy

8. Lower production in the winter months

5. Candle power : Candle power is defined as the no of lumens

8. Foot-Candle: it is defined as the luminous flux falling per square

11.Mean Spherical Candle Power (MSCP): It is defined as the

Reduction Factor = MSCP/MHCP

17. Glare : It is defined as the brightness within the field of vision

19. Utilisation Factor:

20. Maintenance Factor = Illumination under normal working

(ii) The illumination just below the lamp is given

(i) mean spherical candle power (MSCP)

(ii) efficiency of the lamp

The area to be illuminated = 20 X 15 =300 sq.m.

Total no lux required = 300 x50 =15000 lumens

MSCP of each lamp is

Standard Lamp Glass

Borate Glass Inner sleeve

The operation is explained step by step in details below:

Provides high voltage to

A vacuum is created inside the tube

0.3% of the outside Atmosphere

A glass cylinder is filled with • Mercury Vapour

The current is carried by free electrons and +ions

It is unstable and falls back to

The UV photons strikes this layer

This shifts the electrons in the coating atoms

Fluorescent & Phosphorescent Materials

• Gas is heated by elements at each end of the tube

• Gas is heated by elements at each end of the tube

• Gas is heated by elements at each end of the tube

• This reduces the thermionic emission temperature

Mostly comes from a back emf generated by a coil when switched

• If connected directly to the mains would rapidly self destructs