Lab Experiment # 01

ELECTRIC SHOCK & SAFETY RULES

Name: Roll no:
Score: _ Signature of Lab Tutor: Date:

UNDERSTAND THE HAZARDS OF ELECTRIC SHOCK ON HUMAN BODY AND

FOLLOW THE RULES FOR SAFE PRACTICE TO AVOID ELECTRIC SHOCK.

PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES:
Upon successful completion of this experiment, the student will be able to:
• Understand the hazards of the electric shock on human body.
• Follow the rules for safe practice to avoid electric shock.

EQUIPEMENTS:
• Multimeter with resistance scale.
• Connecting leads.

NOTE:
• Take care of the equipment. They can be damaged by misuse.
• Before switch on your circuit please get it checked by your teacher.
• Don’t perform the experiment of current flowing within human body at high voltage.

DISCUSSION:

Part ONE: ELECTRIC SHOCK

Demonstration of current flowing within human body

When a person comes in contact with a live wire, the electric current starts flowing through the
body to earth. Although, it is CURRENT which causes a shock and various physiological effects,
but current depends on voltage and resistance. Therefore, as voltage increases the current also
increases. In most cases voltage up to Fifty Volts is safe.
The human physiological conditions can result from electric shock, depending on the circuit’s route
the body and the amount of current transmitted. If the lungs are involved, voluntary respiration can
halt and asphyxiation takes place. If the heart is involved in the circuit, irregular heartbeats can
occur, and ultimately heart failure can result.
Electrocution means that by electrical shock.
The physiological effects of electric currents can generally be predicted by the chart shown in
figure 1.1. Notice that it is the current that does the damage. Currents above 100mA or only 1/10 of
an ampere are FATAL. Currents below 100 mA can be serious and painful.

Skin resistance may vary between 250 ohms for wet skin to 50,000 ohms for dry skin.

1
 Figure 1.1 Chart of different physiological effects on human body due to electric
current

EXPERIMAENTAL PROCEDURE AND TEST RESULTS:

1. Let us measure resistance, using ohm-meter. Measure your body resistance between
these points enter results.

(i) From right to left hand.…………………………

(ii) From hand to foot……………………………….

2. Now wet your fingers with water and repeat the measurements.

(iii) From right to left hand ………………………….

(iv) From hand to foot………………………………..

Part TWO: SAFETY RULES

The apparent reasons for accidents are:

• Ignorance
• Fatigue
• Mental pressure
• Faulty or Improper tools
• Wrong procedure
• Carelessness
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RULES FOR SAFE PRACTICE AND TO AVOID ELECTRIC SHOCK:

➢ SAFETY is of paramount importance in the Electrical Engineering Laboratories.

➢ Electricity NEVER EXECUSES careless persons. So, exercise enough care and attention
in handling electrical equipment and follow SAFETY RULES in the laboratory.
(Electricity is a good servant but a bad master).

1. CONDITIONS OF THE EQUIPMENT.

Be sure of the conditions of the equipment and the dangers present BEFORE working on the
piece of the equipment. Many technicians are killed by supposedly “dead” circuits.

2. NEVER RELY ON SAFETY DEVICES.

Such as fuses, relays and interlock systems to protect you. They may not be working and may
fail to protect when most needed.

3. NEVER REMOVE GROUND WIRE OF THREE-WIRE INPUT PLUG.

This eliminates the grounding feature of the equipment making it potential shock hazard.

4. DO NOT WORK ON CLUTTERED BENCH.

A disorganized mess of connecting leads, components and tools only leads to careless
thinking, short circuits, shocks and accidents. developed habits of systemized procedure of
work.

5. DO NOT WORK ON WET FLOORS.

Your contact resistance to ground is substantially reduced. Work on rubber mate or an
insulated floor.

6. DO NOT WORK ALONE.

It is better to someone around to shut off the power to give artificial respiration and to call a
doctor.

7. WORK WITH ONE HAND BEHIND YOU AND IN YOUR POCKET.

A current between two hands crosses your heart and can be more fatal than a current from
hand to foot. Wise technicians always work with one hand.

8. NEVER TALK TO ANYONE WHILE WORKING.

Do not divert your mind by talking to anyone. Also do not talk to anyone, is he is working on
dangerous equipment.

9. ALWAYS MOVE SLOWLY WHEN WORKING AROUND ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS.

Violent and rapid moments lead to accidental shocks and short circuits.

10. SWITCH OFF THE POWER

If you have to modify the circuit connections, first switch off the power, take out power
plug/wires and only then modify it.

3
REVIEW QUESTIONS:

1. During experiment, why amount of current is increased with in human body due to wet fingers?

2. How your resistance varies as you press the leads of multimeter with your figures?

3. Is it voltages or current that harms? Explain.

4. Which one is more dangerous Direct current or Alternating current? Explain.

FINAL CHECKLIST:

1. Clean your equipment/materials and work benches before you leave.

2. Return all equipment and materials to their proper storage area.
3. Submit your answer to questions, together with your data, calculation and results
before the next laboratory.

4
 Lab Experiment #02
EFFECT OF FREQUENCY ON R, L AND C CIRCUITS
Name: Roll no:
Score: _ Signature of Lab Tutor: Date:

REPRODUCE A RESISTIVE, INDUCTIVE AND CAPACITIVE CIRCUIT AND

DISPLAY THE EFFECT OF FREQUENCY ON RESISTANCE (R), INDUCTIVE
REACTANCE (𝑿𝑳 ) AND CAPACITIVE REACTANCE (𝑿𝑪 )

PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES
Upon successful completion of this experiment, the student will be able to:
• Reproduce a circuit for R, L and C excited by function generator
• Display the effect of frequency on resistance (R)
• Display the effect of frequency on inductive reactance (XL)
• Display the effect of frequency on capacitive reactance (XC)

EQUIPMENTS
• Resistive, Inductive and Capacitive loads module
• Variable AC voltage & Freq: supply
• Digital Multimeter
• Connecting leads/wires
NOTE
• Before making any connection to the circuit makes sure that the power supply is off.
• Take care of the equipments they can be damaged by misuse.
• Before switch on the supply, get it checked by your teacher.
DISCUSSION
The resistance of resistor is unaffected by frequency which can be seen mathematically is given as
𝜌𝐿
R=
𝐴
The amount of current flowing through resistor is given by ohms’ law
I=V/R
The reactance of an inductor is linearly dependent on the frequency applied. That is, if we
double the frequency, the reactance gets doubled, as determined by formula is given as
𝑋𝐿 = 2πf L
For low frequencies, the reactance is correspondingly very small, while for increasing
frequencies, the reactance will increase to a very large value. For DC conditions, we find that
XL = 2 π (0) L is zero Ohms, corresponding with short circuit representation that we used in
our DC analysis. For very high frequencies, XL is so high that we can often use an open circuit
approximation, and for very low frequencies, XL is so low that we can often use a short circuit
approximation.
Similarly, current flowing through an inductor is given by

I=V/XL
OR
I=V/Z (For resistance in series with L)
For taking small value of R in series with L, Z is approximately equal to XL.

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As far as reactance is concerned, capacitor behaves in a manner opposite to that of the inductor.
The capacitive reactance is inversely dependent on the frequency, as can be seen by the
following mathematical relation;
1
𝑋𝐶 =
2𝜋𝑓𝐶
Likewise, the current flowing through the capacitor is,

I=V/XC
OR
I=V/Z (For resistance in series with C)

For taking small value of R in series with C, Z is approximately equal to XC.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

• Connect the equipment according to figure 2.1, 2.2 and 2.3.

• For each circuit, from variable A.C voltage and frequency source set voltage magnitude
(Vr.m.s) and vary frequency accordingly i.e. 50,60 and 400 hertz. and write down the value in
observation table.
• For each circuit, set the frequencies as shown in their respective tables.
• Use multimeter as a A.C milli-ammeter OR ammeter to measure the current through each
circuit.
• Switch on the supply (i.e., function generator) and record the readings in Table 2.1.2.2 and 2.3.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS

Figure 2.1

Figure 2.2

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 Figure 2.3
OBSERVATION TABLES

Table 2.1 (For Resistive Circuit)

CALCULATED MEASURED
Value of VALUE VALUE
Frequency, f Voltage
Sr. # Resistance R
(Hz) (Vr.m.s) (Ω) Current, I Current, I
(mA) (mA)

1. 50

2. 60

3. 400

Table 2.2 (For Inductive Circuit)

CALCULATED MEASURED
Value of
Value of VALUE VALUE
Sr. Frequency, Voltage Inductive
Inductance
# f (Hz) (Vr.m.s) Reactance Current, I Current, I
L (mH)
XL (Ω) (mA) (mA)

1. 50

2. 60

3. 400
Table 2.3 (For Capacitive Circuit)

CALCULATED MEASURED
Value of VALUE VALUE
Value of
Sr. Frequency, Voltage Capacitive
Capacitance
# f (Hz) (Vr.m.s) Reactance
C (µF) Current, I Current, I
XC (Ω)
(mA) (mA)

1. 50

2. 60

3. 400

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GRAPH: R (Ω) v/s F (Hz)

GRAPH: XL (Ω) v/s F (Hz)

GRAPH: XC (Ω) v/s F (Hz)

8
 REVIEW QUESTIONS:

1. What is inductive reactance?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. What is capacitive reactance?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
3. What is the shape of graph between resistance and frequency? What does this shape of
graph show?
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
4. What is the shape of graph between inductive reactance and frequency? What does this
shape of graph show?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
5. What is the shape of graph between capacitive reactance and frequency? What does this
shape of graph show?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
FINAL CHECK LIST
1. Before you leave, clean all your equipment’s/materials and workbenches.
2. Set all equipments and materials to their proper storage area.
3. Submit your answers to questions, together with your data, calculations and results before the
next laboratory.

9
 Lab Experiment # 03
IMPEDENCE AND VOLTAGE RELATION FOR SERIES R-C
CIRCUIT
Name: Roll no:
Score: _ Signature of Lab Tutor: Date:

REPRODUCE A SERIES RC CIRCUIT AND MEASURE AND VERIFY THE

IMPEDANCE AND VOLTAGE RELATION FOR A SERIES RC CIRCUIT

PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES:
Upon successful completion of this experiment, the student will be able to:
• Reproduce a series R-C circuit.
• Measure and verify impedance relation for series R-C Circuit.
• Measure and verify voltage relation for series R-C Circuit.
EQUIPEMENTS:
• Resistive, Inductive and Capacitive loads module
• Variable AC supply
• Digital Multimeter
• Connecting leads/wires

NOTE:
• Take care of the equipment. They can be damaged by misuse.
• Before switch on your circuit please get it checked by your teacher.
• Don’t perform the experiment of current flowing within human body at high voltage.

DISCUSSION:
The total opposition to current flow in an AC circuit is known as impedance. It is the
opposition to current flow due to the circuit's resistance, capacitance, and inductance.
If it is assumed that the capacitor (C) through which alternating current flows has zero
resistance, the current is impeded only by the XC of the capacitor. That is, Z = XC.
For the case, when C = 1 µF and f = 50 Hz,

1
𝑋𝐶 = = 1/(2 × 3.14 × 50 × 1 × 10−6 ) =3,183 Ω
2πfC

How much current I will there be in the circuit if V= 10 V?

Apply Ohm's law,
𝑉
𝐼=
𝑋𝐶
Where I is in amperes, V in volts, and XC is in ohms.
Therefore,
I = 10/3183 = 3.142 mA.
If there is resistance R associated with the capacitance C, or if C is in series with a resistor of

10
2500 Ω, figure 4.1, there will be less than 3.142 mA of current. Assuming the same XC as
previously computed, how much current will flow? Measurement shows that there is 2.47 mA in
the circuit. It is evident that the total impedance of the resistor R connected in series with C is not
simply the arithmetic sum of R and XC. It can be demonstrated mathematically that impedance Z
is the result of the vector sum of XC and R.

Figure 3.1 Figure 3.2

The figure 3.2, shows the basic circuit diagram of a series R.C circuit with its associated
impedance triangle diagram in fig 3.2. From the impedance triangle diagram it is clear that R
and XC are at right angles to each other and that XC lags R by 90°. We say that there is a 90°
phase difference between R and XC. Z is seen to be the hypotenuse of the right triangle of
which XC and R are the legs. Applying the Pythagoras theorem to this right triangle, we note
that.

Where

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

• Connect the equipment according to figure 3.3.

• Use function generation for 50 Hz sinusoidal AC waveform generation. Ω
• Measure the current, RMS voltage across C (i.e. VC) and across R (i.e. VR) and record in
observation Table 3.1. Also measure the RMS value of total voltage supplied Vs.
• Compute Z = VS/I and record in observation Table 3.1. Substitute the value of R and computed
value of XC in the equation Z = √ (R2 + X2). Find Z and record in Table 3.1.
• Compare the measured value of Z with that of computed value.

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 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Figure 3.3
OBSERVATION TABLE
Table 3.1

CALCULATED VALUES MEASURED VALUES

Supply
S.
Voltage Value of Value of Voltage
No.
VS (V) Resistance Value of Capacitive Voltage Voltage
Current, across
Voltage
Current,
Capacitance across R, across C, across C,
R (Ω) C (µF)
Reactance I (mA) R, V R I (mA)
VR (V) VC (V) VC (V)
XC (Ω) (V)

1.

2.

3.

Table 3.2
CALCULATED
CALCULATED MEASURED MEASURED
VALUE FOR
S.No VALUE FOR (Z) VALUE FOR (Z) VALUE FOR (V)
(V)
.
V = √ VR2 + VC2 V = √ VR2 + VC2
Z = √R2+X2 (Ω) Z = VS/I (Ω)
(V) (V)
1.

2.

3.

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REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. What is impedance?
_____________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________

2. Write the formula of impedance in series R-C circuit.

_____________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________

3. Do the computed and measured values of Z differ? The formula Z = √ (R2 + X2) verified?
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________

4. What will be power factor of the circuit for the given values of R and C?

_____________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________

5. Explain that Is a impedance triangle a phasor diagram?

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

FINAL CHECKLIST:

1. Clean your equipment/materials and work benches before you leave.

2. Return all equipment and materials to their proper storage area.
3. Submit your answer to questions, together with your data, calculation and
results before the next laboratory.

13
 Lab Experiment #04
IMPEDENCE AND VOLTAGE RELATION FOR SERIES
R-L CIRCUIT

Name: Roll No:

Score: Signature of Lab Tutor: Date:

REPRODUCE A SERIES R-L CIRCUIT AND MEASURE AND VERIFY THE

IMPEDANCE AND VOLTAGE FOR A SERIES RL CIRCUIT

PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES:
Upon successful completion of this experiment, the student will be able to:
• Reproduce a series R-L circuit
• Measure and verify the impedance relation for a series RL circuit.
• Measure and verify voltage relation for series R-L Circuit.

EQUIPMENTS
• Resistive, Inductive and Capacitive loads module
• Variable AC supply
• Digital Multimeter
• Connecting leads/wires

NOTE:

• Before making any connection to the circuit make sure that the power supply is off.
• Take care the equipment. They can be damaged by misuse.
• Before switch on the supply, get it be checked by your teacher.

DISCUSSION:
The total opposition to alternating current in an ac circuit is called the impedance of the circuit.
If it is assumed that the coil (L) through which alternating current flows has zero resistance, the
current is impeded only by the XL of the coil. That is, Z = XL.

For the case, when L = 8 H and f = 50 Hz,

XL = 2πf L = 6.28 × (50) × (8) = 2,512 Ω

How much current I will there be in the circuit if V= 10 V?

Apply Ohm's law,
I = V/XL
Where I is in amperes, V in volts, and XL is in ohms.
Therefore,

I = 10/2512 = 3.98 mA

If there is resistance R associated with the inductance L, or if L is in series with a resistor of

14
2500 Ω, figure 6.1, there will be less than 3.98mA of current. Assuming the same XL as
previously computed, how much current will flow? Measurement shows that there is 2.82 mA
in the circuit. It is evident that the total impedance of the resistor R connected in series with L
is not simply the arithmetic sum of R and XL. It can be demonstrated mathematically that
impedance Z is the result of the vector sum of XL and R.

Figure 4.1 Figure 4.2

The figure 4.1, shows the basic circuit diagram of a series R.L circuit with its associated
impedance triangle diagram in fig 4.2. From the impedance triangle diagram it is that R and
XL are at right angles to each other and that XL leads R by 90°. We say that there is a 90°
phase difference between R and XL. Z is seen to be the hypotenuse of the right triangle of
which XL and R are the legs. Applying the Pythagoras theorem to this right triangle, we note
that

where

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
• Connect the equipments according to figure 4.3.
• Use function generation for 50 Hz sinusoidal AC waveform generation.
• Measure the current, RMS voltage across L (i.e. VL) and across R (i.e. VR) and record in
observation Table 4.1.
• Measure the RMS value of total voltage supplied Vs. Compute Z = VS/I and record in
observation table 4.1.
• Substitute the value of R and computed value of XL in the equation = √ (R2 + XL2) Find Z
and record in Table 4.2.
• Compare the measured value of Z with that of computed value.
15
 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Figure 4.3
OBSERVATION TABLE
Table 4.1

CALCULATED VALUES MEASURED VALUES

Supply
S.
Voltage Value of Value of Value of Voltage
No. Voltage Voltage Voltage
VS (V) Resistance Inductance Inductive Current, across Current,
across R, across L, across R,
R (Ω) L (mH) Reactance I (mA) L, VL I (mA)
VR (V) VL (V) VR (V)
XL (Ω) (V)

1.

2.

3.

Table 4.2
MEASURED
CALCULATED CALCULATED MEASURED
VALUE FOR
S.No VALUE FOR (Z) VALUE FOR (V) VALUE FOR (V)
(Z)
.
V = √ VR2 + VL2 V = √ VR2 + VL2
Z = √R2+X2 (Ω) Z = VS/I (Ω)
(V) (V)
1.

2.

3.

16
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Do the computed and measured values of Z differs? The formula Z = √ 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑿𝟐𝑳 is verified?
___________________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________

2. What will be the power factor of the circuit for the given values of R and L?
________________________________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________________________

3. Write the formula of impedance in series R-L circuit.

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

4. Write the formula of power factor in terms of resistance and impedance.

5. What is an impedance triangle? And what does it show.

FINAL CHECK LIST

1. Before you leave, clean all your equipment / material and workbenches.
2. Set all equipment and materials to their proper storage area.
3. Submit your answers to questions, together with your data, calculations and results before
the next laboratory.

17