8617

Course: Plan Implementation and Management (8617)
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Semester: Autumn, 2021
ASSIGNMENT No. 1
Q.1 What is the difference between feasibility testing and pilot testing? Why is plan formulation a crucial
function? What are the principal characteristics of an educational plan?
Strategic planning is concerned with defining company goals and determining the resources needed to achieve
them. Strategic planning is an organization’s process of defining its strategy and making decisions on how to
allocate resources to pursue that strategy. To determine the direction of the organization, it is necessary to
understand its current position and the possible avenues through which it can pursue a particular course of action.
Strategic planning generally deals with at least one of three key questions:
• What do we do?
• For whom do we do it?
• How do we excel?
In many organizations, this is viewed as a process for determining where the organization is going over the next
year or, more typically, three to five years, although some extend their vision to 20 years. The last question—how
do we excel?—is critical to achieving competitive advantage, and it should be answered clearly and practically
in the planning process prior to extensive investment in resources.
Components of a Strategic Plan
Planning is concerned with defining goals for a company’s future direction and determining the resources required
to achieve those goals. To meet the goals, managers will develop marketing and operational plans inclusive of
key organizational values (vision, mission, culture, etc.).
Common components of a business plan include external and internal analyses, marketing and branding,
investments, debt, resource allocation, suppliers, production processes, competition, and research and
development. While different business models include different components in their planning, based on unique
organizational or industry needs, the central theme is that all aspects of the strategy should be researched and
discussed prior to incurring the costs of operations.
Planning Process
There are many approaches to strategic planning, but typically one of the following approaches is used.
Situation-Target-Proposal
This method involves the following steps:
• Situation: Evaluate the current situation and how it came about.
• Target: Define goals and objectives (sometimes called ideal state).
• Proposal: Map a possible route to the goals and objectives.
Draw-See-Think-Plan
This method involves addressing the following questions:
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• Draw: What is the ideal state or the desired end state?
• See: What is today’s situation? What is the gap between today’s situation and the ideal state, and why?
• Think: What specific actions must be taken to close the gap between today’s situation and the ideal state?
• Plan: What resources are required to execute these specific actions?
Benefits of Strategic Planning: Focus, Action, Control, Coordination, and Time Management
Planning enables companies to achieve efficiency and accuracy by coordinating efforts and managing time
effectively.
The planning process is concerned with defining a company’s goals and determining the resources necessary to
achieve those goals. Achieving a vision requires coordinated efforts that adhere to a broader organizational plan.
This is enabled through consistent strategies that are supported by staff at all levels. To meet business goals,
managers develop business plans not only to reach targets but also to strengthen and change public perception of
the company’s brand.
Integrated business plan: This business plan takes aspects of a business and identifies clear goals for each: e.g.,
for the technology to move from being weak and non-integrated to enabling workflows, and for the business’s
focus to transition from being inwardly to outwardly focused.
Since they have achieved defined goals through the planning process, managers and employees can focus and
control their efforts and their resources, follow determined plans of action, coordinate activities between divisions,
and use time management to meet specific goals. Planning helps to achieve these goals or targets by efficiently
and effectively using available time and resources. In short, planning, if executed properly, should lead to the
following benefits:
Focus
There are a wide variety of activities an organization (or the individuals within the organization) might viably
pursue. While there is value in the pursuit of many activities, understanding which ones the organization should
focus on to leverage organizational competencies and align with market research requires careful planning and
delegation. This is how planning achieves focus.
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Coordinated Action
If department A is reliant on inputs from department B, department A cannot utilize department B’s work without
coordination. If department B has too much work and department A too little, there is poor interdepartmental
coordination. This is alleviated through detail-oriented planning processes.
Control
The control process is based on benchmarks, which is to say that controlling requires a standard of comparison
when viewing the actual operational results. Control relies on the planning process to set viable objectives, which
can then be worked towards through controlling operations.
Time Management
Time management underlines the importance of maximizing the use of time to minimize the cost of production.
If a full-time employee can accomplish their work within 32 hours, the planning process can find meaningful use
for their remaining time. Costs can be lowered and productivity increased by ensuring that each element in the
operational process functions according to ideal time constraints.
The Process Itself
Perhaps the most important benefit of developing business and marketing plans is the nature of the planning
process itself. This typically offers a unique opportunity, a forum, for information-rich and productively focused
discussions between the various managers involved. The plan and the discussions that arise from it provide an
agreed context for subsequent management activities, even those not described in the plan itself.
Overview of Inputs to Strategic Planning
Strategic plans can take the form of business or marketing plans, and consultants and industry experts are used in
their development.
Strategy Hierarchy
In most corporations, there are several levels of management. Strategic management is the highest of these levels
in the sense that it is the broadest—it applies to all parts of the firm and incorporates the longest time horizon. It
gives direction to corporate values, corporate culture, corporate goals, and corporate missions. Under the broad
corporate strategy are business-level competitive strategies and functional unit strategies.
• Corporate strategy refers to the overarching strategy of the diversified firm.
• Business strategy refers to the aggregated strategies of a single business firm or a strategic business unit
(SBU) in a diversified corporation.
• Functional strategies include marketing strategies, new-product development strategies, human resource
strategies, financial strategies, legal strategies, supply-chain strategies, and information-technology
management strategies. The emphasis is on short-term and medium-term plans and is limited to the domain
of each department’s functional responsibility. Each functional department attempts to do its part to meet
overall corporate objectives, so to some extent their strategies are derived from broader corporate strategies.
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Many companies feel that a functional organizational structure is not an efficient way to organize activities, so
they often re-engineer according to processes or SBUs. A strategic business unit is a semi-autonomous unit that
is usually responsible for its own budgeting, new product decisions, hiring decisions, and price setting. An SBU
is treated as an internal profit center by corporate headquarters.
Business Plans
A business plan is a formal statement of a set of business goals, the reasons they are attainable, and the plan for
reaching them. It may also contain background information about the organization or team attempting to reach
those goals.
For example, a business plan for a nonprofit might discuss the fit between the business plan and the organization’s
mission. Banks are quite concerned about defaults, so a business plan for a bank loan will build a convincing case
for the organization’s ability to repay the loan. Venture capitalists are primarily concerned about initial
investment, feasibility, and exit valuation. A business plan for a project requiring equity financing will need to
explain why current resources, upcoming growth opportunities, and sustainable competitive advantage will lead
to a high exit valuation.
Preparing a business plan draws on a wide range of knowledge from many different business disciplines: finance,
human resource management, intellectual-property management, supply-chain management, operations
management, and marketing. It can be helpful to view the business plan as a collection of subplans, one for each
of the main business disciplines.
Marketing Plans
A marketing plan is a written document that details the actions necessary to achieve one or more marketing
objectives. It can be for a product, a service, a brand, or a product line. Marketing plans span between one and
five years.
A marketing plan may be part of an overall business plan. Solid strategy is the foundation of a well-written
marketing plan, and one way to achieve this is by using a method known as the seven Ps (product, place, price,
promotion, physical environment, people, and process). A product-oriented company may use the seven Ps to
develop a plan for each of its products. A market-oriented company will concentrate on each market. Each will
base its plans on the detailed needs of its customers and on the strategies chosen to satisfy those needs.
Tools for Planning
Often discussed in tools for planning are models that measure the internal and external environments (e.g. Porter’s
Five Forces, SWOT, Value Chain, etc.). These models create forward-looking projections based on past and
present data; therefore, they are useful only once enough data have been collected. Because of this, tools for
planning largely focus on generating enough data to construct valid recommendations. These tools can include:
• Industry experts: Whether internal employees or external consultants, a few individuals with extensive
experience in a given industry are valuable resources in the planning process. These industry experts can
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move beyond the PESTEL and Porter’s Five Forces frameworks, making intuitive leaps as to the trajectory
of the industry.
• Consultants: Consultants are commonly brought in during strategy formulation and for a variety of other
reasons. Most important of these would be providing an objective lens for internal affairs. It is difficult to
see the whole house from inside the house, and upper management can utilize an external opinion to ensure
they are seeing operations clearly and objectively.
• Inclusion of stakeholders: Upper management will want as much information as possible from everyone
involved. Some examples include consumer surveys on satisfaction, supplier projections for costs over a
given time frame, consumer inputs on needs still unfilled, and shareholder views. The inclusion of
stakeholders offers a variety of tools, each of which may or may not be a useful input depending on the
context of the plan.
Q.2 Define a project and programme. Why a project has to be analyzed before its implementation? Give
arguments.
In order to ensure that all your projects reach the required level of success, here are the 5 essential elements that
need to be included:
1. Strategic Planning
The first stage of any project is to understand the need for the project and what it is trying to achieve. SMART
(Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Relevant, Timely,) objectives need to be established along with measures of
success and key milestones where progress can be reviewed. Working as an internal project manager will require
close liaison with key internal stakeholders and departments to establish their specific requirements and set
commonly agreed objectives.
2. Product Development
The variety of activities that are deemed to be projects are wide-ranging and varied, and can include new products,
processes and services. The development of any of these needs to be closely linked to meeting defined business
objectives and adding value to the organisation. The benefits of a project should be well articulated at the
beginning so there is a clear link to the success of the project and the impact on overall business aims.
3. Communication
It is vital to sell the benefits of any project to those who will be affected during the project or by the project's final
outcome. Implementing a new process requires that end users understand why the project is beneficial and
potential buyers need to be convinced by the advantages of new products and services. In essence, communicating
the message of why new or different is good will help counteract the typical human reluctance to change.
4. Resources
It is vital to ensure that adequate resources in terms of people, time, finances and equipment are in place.
Internally, this could involve the IT department providing the appropriate hardware/software, Human Resources
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recruiting the necessary people or the Facilities department providing offices or other relevant support. There also
needs to be allocated budgets and finance as well as appropriate timelines for project completion.
5. People
No project manager works in isolation. There are many stakeholders involved in a project who all have a specific
role to play and who all have a vested interest in the project's success. The key stakeholders who drive projects
and help make them a success include:
• Sponsor: The project sponsor is the person who defines the business objectives that drive the project. The
sponsor can be a member of the senior management team or someone from outside of the organisation.
• Project Manager: A professional project manager creates the project plan and ensures that it meets the
budget, schedule and scope determined by the sponsors. The project manager is also responsible for risk
assessment and management.
• Project Team Members: These can include subject area experts, members of departments, external
professionals and new recruits. Anyone who can offer a positive contribution to the project in terms of
their knowledge and capabilities makes a good team member.
Projects and Programs: How They’re Different
• Structure: A project is well-defined, with a Project Charter that spells out exactly what the scope and
objectives are for the project. A program tends to have greater levels of uncertainty. (You can download a
free project charter template here.) The team is also bigger. The program team are supervising and
coordinating the work on a number of projects so while the core team may not have that many people in, the
wider team includes the project managers and all the project team members.
• Effort: This is the most significant difference between projects and programs. A project represents a single
effort. It is a group of people forming a team working towards a common goal. A program is different; it is
a collection of projects. Together all the projects form a cohesive package of work. The different projects
are complimentary and help the program achieve its overall objectives. There are likely to be overlaps and
dependencies between the projects, so a program manager will assess these and work with the project
managers concerned to check that overall the whole program progresses smoothly.
• Duration: Some projects do go on for several years but most of the projects you’ll work on will be shorter
than that. On the other hand, programs are definitely longer. As they set out to deliver more stuff, they take
longer. Programs tend to be split into tranches or phases. Some projects are also split like this, but not all
projects last long enough to be delivered in multiple phases.
• Benefits: A project team works towards achieving certain outputs, that is, what you get at the end. For
example, this could be a set of deliverables that form a software package, or a new retail branch, or whatever
it is that you are working on. The benefits of a project tend to be tangible: you get a ‘thing’ at the end of it.
A program team works towards delivering outcomes. Outcomes can be tangible but are often not. The
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benefits of a program are the sum of the benefits of all the different projects and this could amount to a policy
or cultural change, or a shift in the way an organization works.
Similarities Between Projects and Programs
All that might make programs seem really different to projects. However, while projects and programs do have
differences, there are some characteristics that are similar to both. Here are four traits that projects and programs
have in common.
• They are temporary: Projects and programs are not long term endeavors. They exist for a while until the
work is done, and then the project or program structure and the team are disbanded. This is part of what
makes project and program work so interesting – you can always see the end and you have the opportunity
to work on lots of different initiatives over your career!
• They have business cases: This is similar to all the work that a company does, even the business as usual
stuff. Projects and programs should only start when they have a valid business case. In other words, as project
and program managers, we only work on activities that will add some real value and that have already been
shown to make good business sense. There is no point in wasting time working on something that isn’t going
to benefit the company.
• They are aligned to strategic objectives: It should be easy to see how the projects and programs you work
on line up to the company’s strategic objectives. If this isn’t specified in the business case, ask your project
sponsor. It should be easy to see that the work your team is doing on the project or program directly
contributes to the company’s goals. Otherwise, what’s the point?
• They deliver change: This is the big one – projects and programs both deliver change. You do a project or
a program and at the end something is different. This could be something big, or something small. Programs
tend to have larger goals for changing the status quo and often include an element of cultural change but the
concept is the same.
Do you now think that you can define projects and programs as two different things? One definition of a program
is a temporary organization created to coordinate, direct the work, and supervise the delivery of a number of
related projects that all contribute to a particular outcome. A project, on the other hand, is a temporary organization
designed to deliver a particular output.
Many people believe that the career path for a project manager ends up in program management. You start off
perhaps as a project coordinator, become a project manager and then ‘graduate’ to managing programs. It doesn’t
have to be like that – you can manage bigger and bigger projects and there is nothing wrong with staying in project
management for your whole career.
Q.3 Critically analyze the educational planning process in Pakistan.
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3. Communication
4. Resources
5. People
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have in common.
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Q.4 Explain the basic difference between project appraisal and evaluation. Also indicate the basic
characteristics of a good evaluation design.
Project management is about achieving a desired result within certain time parameters. Successful project
managers are able to lead a group of people to accomplish this task. The best project managers are usually the
ones that work their way up in organizations or become entrepreneurs at their own business ventures.
Projects typically pose issues for managers and team members. It can be difficult to keep a project on time while
delivering a great result. As issues arise, it helps to have an understanding of how to keep projects efficient and
effective.
These are 10 important aspects of successful projects from one person's experience. If anything is missing please
add your thoughts in the comments below. It would be great to hear your stories about successful (or unsuccessful
projects). Maybe the next post could cover projects that failed and what the reason for failure was.
For now, though, here are 10 good aspects of successful projects.
1. Charter
The project charter is the layout of all the information for a project. This is the document team members will
review when they have questions about everything from the roles of individuals in the project to the reason for
the project to the goal of the project and more. Everything needs to be laid out in the charter. This is the lone place
of truth for all team members to reference. Use a project charter to keep information organized.
2. Schedule and Calendar
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The schedule, which is often a calendar of events and due dates, should be housed in the project charter. It's
important to lay out the projected schedule at the beginning of the project. Also, break down the schedule of due
dates into smaller projects. One big project can feel overwhelming and when something is overwhelming people
(you and I included) tend to figure it's too big and we shuffle it out of our minds and no work is done. Carefully
consider a reasonable schedule for your project. Even consider consulting with a few key team members to get
their input on when the project can reach each milestone.
3. Budget
With research, you should be able to come up with a reasonable budget for a project. One example would be a
website project for a small business. The project manager should put in the effort before the project begins to vet
out potential design partners. The budget should then be created and presented to the company leaders for
approval. The details of the budget are then presented to the team members when the project begins. The work
you put in ahead of time should alleviate most objections from members during the project process.
4. Expectations and Roles
As you carefully choose people to be on your projects consider the roles each will play in the team. No person
can do it all. It's best to focus on what each person is good at and allow them to thrive on the team. Make sure
that success is measured by the overall project and not by any deliverable by a single individual. Some members
will have higher expectations, more work, and a bigger role. Let everyone know their roles at the beginning of
the project, but ensure each member that they are important to the overall project. It's not about the individual.
It's not even about the customer. It's about company success, which lifts the status and experience of each team
member and leads to the best results for the customer.
5. Vision and Mission
There may be no greater important item in business than a clear vision. The leaders at your company or you need
to provide clear vision to your project team members. It's important for everyone to understand how the
deliverables of the project will move the company forward. A vision creates a mental goal for each person
involved to achieve.
6. Leadership and Respect
If you are the project manager then it is your responsibility to lead the team. You need to have the respect of each
member. Don't waste your time with people that aren't full committed to the vision. Your job is to see the project
through and get results. This doesn't always fit with everyone's view of how things should be done. Lead the team
to get results and make sure you have the respect of each team member.
7. Mix of Introverts and Extroverts
After working on a few projects you will learn that there are introverts and extroverts. Both are necessary for
projects to be successful. Above it was mentioned that each person will bring a certain talent to the project. It's
your job to find the right mix of personalities for a project. An introvert might be excellent at research while an
extrovert might be better at coming up with creative ideas to push the limits of the project. Both aspects of the
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human mind are necessary in most projects. Learn how to manage each type of person and you should be able to
challenge them to provide great results while working well together.
8. Feedback and Conversation
Something that often lacks in projects is the simple act of providing an update. As the leader, it's important to
communicate with your team. Talk to them as a group and individually. Provide updates on where the project is
and how that aligns with expectations. Compliment members when they do something well. Encourage them to
continue as the project moves along the scheduled timeline. It's simply about having conversations and staying in
touch with your co-workers. It's easy to forget, but simply speaking with people can provide the necessary
feedback to make changes and improvements.
9. Reporting
Do you remember those report cards you got back in grade school? They were handed out every so often by the
teacher. It was a day every kid knew was coming. Some looked forward to it. Others dreaded it. Either way, the
reporting of progress was a good tool for keeping people on task. Projects can fall behind for various reasons.
Don't let your project fall behind schedule. Report the progress to your team members periodically. Let them
know they are expected to finish on time while hitting various key dates with deliverables.
10. Acknowledgement
It's important to acknowledge your teammates and their successes. Everybody contributes to a successful project
in various ways. It may be true that one person does more work than another, but each contributes and it's this
collaboration that ultimately leads to the success of the project.
Once a project is complete, speak with each member of the team and acknowledge their work specifically. Talk
about how the project is succeeding and helping your company. Explain how their contributions helped the project
become successful.
Q.5 Give the requisites corrective action the educational manager should take to keep the costs down in
the construction of ideal secondary schools in your region.
Evaluating a project means performing a rigorous analysis of completed goals, objectives and activities to
determine whether the project has produced planned results, delivered expected benefits, and made desired
change. As a process, project evaluation takes a series of steps to identify and measure the outcomes and impacts
resulted from project completion. In this article, let’s find out how to evaluate projects, what indicators to
consider, and how to design a project evaluation plan.
Indicators
The project evaluation process involves an analysis of different components or indicators that characterize the
project’s progress towards the achievement of its goals and objectives. These components/indicators
are Outcomes and Impacts.
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Outcomes
These are any measurable and auditable changes that can be obtained as a result of the project’s successful
accomplishment. They determine the extent to which the identified problems have been mitigated, resolved, or
eliminated.
In terms of project evaluation and management, outcomes define the measurable results and benefits that are
observable within the targeted environment once the project is done. They serve as the general indicator of project
progress towards successful implementation of project goals and objectives. Outcomes describe short-term and
medium-term effects generated by the project.
Several examples of project outcomes are:
▪ New skills and competencies obtained by personnel
▪ Improved knowledge
▪ Increased understanding of business environment
▪ Proactive participation in decision making
Impacts
These are the indicator of changes that can be specifically linked to the project’s implementation activity. Impacts
determine and measure the extent to which goals and objectives of the project are achieved.
In terms of project evaluation and management, impacts define the tangible and intangible effects (consequences)
of the project upon the environment in which this project is implemented. They measure the change made by the
project and show how close the goals and objectives are achieved.
Some examples of project impacts are as follows:
▪ Increased quality of a product/service
▪ Decreased incidence of diseases in the targeted region
▪ Higher number of students wishing to obtain master degree
▪ Enhanced productivity of personnel
The key difference between impacts and outcomes is that impacts produce a long-term, lasting effect that is
observable for months and years after project completion.
The project implementation process is carried out in a step-by-step and consistent manner, which means there is
a series of actions or stages that can describe the project from a strategic point of view. Project implementation
can be presented as a series of the following consistent stages:
▪ Goals
▪ Objectives
▪ Activities
▪ Outcomes
▪ Impacts
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The series is dependent on time, which is the key constraint that defines the sequence of the implementation
process. In this context, the purpose of project evaluation is to disclose the relationships between outcomes and
impacts of a project and to find out whether the project is completed on time.
Evaluation Plan
Exploration and analyzing of the relationships between project outcomes, impacts, goals, objectives, and activities
can be managed under a project evaluation plan. Such a plan provides a set of tools to measure progress in
implementing the project and its key components, such as goals, objectives, and activities. A project evaluation
plan also focuses on assessing project effectiveness and efficiency through exploring and analyzing the outcomes
and impacts.
A Project Evaluation Plan is a detailed document that defines and sets forth practices and sequence of activities
for analyzing and examining the project by certain evaluation criteria. This document aims to determine project
effectiveness and efficiency through tracking progress on each objective, completion of activities, and dates of
completion.
There is no exact number of indicators or evaluation criteria that must be used in evaluating projects. There is
also no predefined set of activities for running the evaluation, because every project is unique and has certain
goals and objectives.
In designing a project evaluation plan, we recommend the following general guidelines for project evaluation:
Step #1. Identify outcome and impact
You can use status of the goals and objectives of your project as the framework for project evaluation.
Achievement of a goal or objective is achieved creates certain short- or middle-term results and benefits, which
are outcomes. Through measuring outcomes you can understand the extent of goal achievement.
Outcomes generate certain long-term effects which are impacts. Through evaluating project impacts you can
identify the project overall effect on the environment it’s targeted to.
Step #2. Choose evaluation method
What project evaluation method will be used to measure outcomes and impacts? In your evaluation plan you need
to include a method that helps determine whether the goals and objectives are completed and whether the project
generates desired change. Your evaluation method will focus on results and benefits (outcomes) as well as effects
(impacts).
Here’re several examples of methods you can include in your project evaluation plan template:
▪ Implementation reviews
▪ Surveys
▪ Questionnaires
▪ Focus groups
▪ Records analysis
▪ Interviews
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Step #3. Report on the evaluation
The final item in our guidelines for project evaluation is about reviewing the work done and creating a project
evaluation report. Such a report includes your conclusions about the project’s ability to produce desired change
and accomplishing preset goals and objectives.
Using evaluation criteria, you must explore whether your project was undertaken in a manner consistent with the
original plan and whether project activities contributed to project success. In other words, you need to confirm
whether goals and objectives are fully achieved during the course of the project and whether desired outcomes
and impacts have been reached. Once developed, your evaluation report should be submitted to the management
team for review and further decision making.
ASSIGNMENT No. 1
Q.1 What is the difference between feasibility testing and pilot testing? Why is plan formulation a crucial
function? What are the principal characteristics of an educational plan?
Strategic planning is concerned with defining company goals and determining the resources needed to achieve
them. Strategic planning is an organization’s process of defining its strategy and making decisions on how to
allocate resources to pursue that strategy. To determine the direction of the organization, it is necessary to
understand its current position and the possible avenues through which it can pursue a particular course of action.
Strategic planning generally deals with at least one of three key questions:
• What do we do?
• For whom do we do it?
• How do we excel?
In many organizations, this is viewed as a process for determining where the organization is going over the next
year or, more typically, three to five years, although some extend their vision to 20 years. The last question—how
do we excel?—is critical to achieving competitive advantage, and it should be answered clearly and practically
in the planning process prior to extensive investment in resources.
Components of a Strategic Plan
Planning is concerned with defining goals for a company’s future direction and determining the resources required
to achieve those goals. To meet the goals, managers will develop marketing and operational plans inclusive of
key organizational values (vision, mission, culture, etc.).
Common components of a business plan include external and internal analyses, marketing and branding,
investments, debt, resource allocation, suppliers, production processes, competition, and research and
development. While different business models include different components in their planning, based on unique
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organizational or industry needs, the central theme is that all aspects of the strategy should be researched and
discussed prior to incurring the costs of operations.
Planning Process
There are many approaches to strategic planning, but typically one of the following approaches is used.
Situation-Target-Proposal
This method involves the following steps:
• Situation: Evaluate the current situation and how it came about.
• Target: Define goals and objectives (sometimes called ideal state).
• Proposal: Map a possible route to the goals and objectives.
Draw-See-Think-Plan
This method involves addressing the following questions:
• Draw: What is the ideal state or the desired end state?
• See: What is today’s situation? What is the gap between today’s situation and the ideal state, and why?
• Think: What specific actions must be taken to close the gap between today’s situation and the ideal state?
• Plan: What resources are required to execute these specific actions?
Benefits of Strategic Planning: Focus, Action, Control, Coordination, and Time Management
Planning enables companies to achieve efficiency and accuracy by coordinating efforts and managing time
effectively.
The planning process is concerned with defining a company’s goals and determining the resources necessary to
achieve those goals. Achieving a vision requires coordinated efforts that adhere to a broader organizational plan.
This is enabled through consistent strategies that are supported by staff at all levels. To meet business goals,
managers develop business plans not only to reach targets but also to strengthen and change public perception of
the company’s brand.
Integrated business plan: This business plan takes aspects of a business and identifies clear goals for each: e.g.,
for the technology to move from being weak and non-integrated to enabling workflows, and for the business’s
focus to transition from being inwardly to outwardly focused.
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Since they have achieved defined goals through the planning process, managers and employees can focus and
control their efforts and their resources, follow determined plans of action, coordinate activities between divisions,
and use time management to meet specific goals. Planning helps to achieve these goals or targets by efficiently
and effectively using available time and resources. In short, planning, if executed properly, should lead to the
following benefits:
Focus
There are a wide variety of activities an organization (or the individuals within the organization) might viably
pursue. While there is value in the pursuit of many activities, understanding which ones the organization should
focus on to leverage organizational competencies and align with market research requires careful planning and
delegation. This is how planning achieves focus.
Coordinated Action
If department A is reliant on inputs from department B, department A cannot utilize department B’s work without
coordination. If department B has too much work and department A too little, there is poor interdepartmental
coordination. This is alleviated through detail-oriented planning processes.
Control
The control process is based on benchmarks, which is to say that controlling requires a standard of comparison
when viewing the actual operational results. Control relies on the planning process to set viable objectives, which
can then be worked towards through controlling operations.
Time Management
Time management underlines the importance of maximizing the use of time to minimize the cost of production.
If a full-time employee can accomplish their work within 32 hours, the planning process can find meaningful use
for their remaining time. Costs can be lowered and productivity increased by ensuring that each element in the
operational process functions according to ideal time constraints.
The Process Itself
Perhaps the most important benefit of developing business and marketing plans is the nature of the planning
process itself. This typically offers a unique opportunity, a forum, for information-rich and productively focused
discussions between the various managers involved. The plan and the discussions that arise from it provide an
agreed context for subsequent management activities, even those not described in the plan itself.
Overview of Inputs to Strategic Planning
Strategic plans can take the form of business or marketing plans, and consultants and industry experts are used in
their development.
Strategy Hierarchy
In most corporations, there are several levels of management. Strategic management is the highest of these levels
in the sense that it is the broadest—it applies to all parts of the firm and incorporates the longest time horizon. It
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gives direction to corporate values, corporate culture, corporate goals, and corporate missions. Under the broad
corporate strategy are business-level competitive strategies and functional unit strategies.
• Corporate strategy refers to the overarching strategy of the diversified firm.
• Business strategy refers to the aggregated strategies of a single business firm or a strategic business unit
(SBU) in a diversified corporation.
• Functional strategies include marketing strategies, new-product development strategies, human resource
strategies, financial strategies, legal strategies, supply-chain strategies, and information-technology
management strategies. The emphasis is on short-term and medium-term plans and is limited to the domain
of each department’s functional responsibility. Each functional department attempts to do its part to meet
overall corporate objectives, so to some extent their strategies are derived from broader corporate strategies.
Many companies feel that a functional organizational structure is not an efficient way to organize activities, so
they often re-engineer according to processes or SBUs. A strategic business unit is a semi-autonomous unit that
is usually responsible for its own budgeting, new product decisions, hiring decisions, and price setting. An SBU
is treated as an internal profit center by corporate headquarters.
Business Plans
A business plan is a formal statement of a set of business goals, the reasons they are attainable, and the plan for
reaching them. It may also contain background information about the organization or team attempting to reach
those goals.
For example, a business plan for a nonprofit might discuss the fit between the business plan and the organization’s
mission. Banks are quite concerned about defaults, so a business plan for a bank loan will build a convincing case
for the organization’s ability to repay the loan. Venture capitalists are primarily concerned about initial
investment, feasibility, and exit valuation. A business plan for a project requiring equity financing will need to
explain why current resources, upcoming growth opportunities, and sustainable competitive advantage will lead
to a high exit valuation.
Preparing a business plan draws on a wide range of knowledge from many different business disciplines: finance,
human resource management, intellectual-property management, supply-chain management, operations
management, and marketing. It can be helpful to view the business plan as a collection of subplans, one for each
of the main business disciplines.
Marketing Plans
A marketing plan is a written document that details the actions necessary to achieve one or more marketing
objectives. It can be for a product, a service, a brand, or a product line. Marketing plans span between one and
five years.
A marketing plan may be part of an overall business plan. Solid strategy is the foundation of a well-written
marketing plan, and one way to achieve this is by using a method known as the seven Ps (product, place, price,
promotion, physical environment, people, and process). A product-oriented company may use the seven Ps to
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develop a plan for each of its products. A market-oriented company will concentrate on each market. Each will
base its plans on the detailed needs of its customers and on the strategies chosen to satisfy those needs.
Tools for Planning
Often discussed in tools for planning are models that measure the internal and external environments (e.g. Porter’s
Five Forces, SWOT, Value Chain, etc.). These models create forward-looking projections based on past and
present data; therefore, they are useful only once enough data have been collected. Because of this, tools for
planning largely focus on generating enough data to construct valid recommendations. These tools can include:
• Industry experts: Whether internal employees or external consultants, a few individuals with extensive
experience in a given industry are valuable resources in the planning process. These industry experts can
move beyond the PESTEL and Porter’s Five Forces frameworks, making intuitive leaps as to the trajectory
of the industry.
• Consultants: Consultants are commonly brought in during strategy formulation and for a variety of other
reasons. Most important of these would be providing an objective lens for internal affairs. It is difficult to
see the whole house from inside the house, and upper management can utilize an external opinion to ensure
they are seeing operations clearly and objectively.
• Inclusion of stakeholders: Upper management will want as much information as possible from everyone
involved. Some examples include consumer surveys on satisfaction, supplier projections for costs over a
given time frame, consumer inputs on needs still unfilled, and shareholder views. The inclusion of
stakeholders offers a variety of tools, each of which may or may not be a useful input depending on the
context of the plan.
Q.2 Define a project and programme. Why a project has to be analyzed before its implementation? Give
arguments.
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3. Communication
4. Resources
5. People
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have in common.
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Q.3 Critically analyze the educational planning process in Pakistan.
3. Communication
4. Resources
5. People
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have in common.
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Q.4 Explain the basic difference between project appraisal and evaluation. Also indicate the basic
Project management is about achieving a desired result within certain time parameters. Successful project
managers are able to lead a group of people to accomplish this task. The best project managers are usually the
ones that work their way up in organizations or become entrepreneurs at their own business ventures.
Projects typically pose issues for managers and team members. It can be difficult to keep a project on time while
delivering a great result. As issues arise, it helps to have an understanding of how to keep projects efficient and
effective.
These are 10 important aspects of successful projects from one person's experience. If anything is missing please
add your thoughts in the comments below. It would be great to hear your stories about successful (or unsuccessful
projects). Maybe the next post could cover projects that failed and what the reason for failure was.
For now, though, here are 10 good aspects of successful projects.
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1. Charter
The project charter is the layout of all the information for a project. This is the document team members will
review when they have questions about everything from the roles of individuals in the project to the reason for
the project to the goal of the project and more. Everything needs to be laid out in the charter. This is the lone place
of truth for all team members to reference. Use a project charter to keep information organized.
2. Schedule and Calendar
The schedule, which is often a calendar of events and due dates, should be housed in the project charter. It's
important to lay out the projected schedule at the beginning of the project. Also, break down the schedule of due
dates into smaller projects. One big project can feel overwhelming and when something is overwhelming people
(you and I included) tend to figure it's too big and we shuffle it out of our minds and no work is done. Carefully
consider a reasonable schedule for your project. Even consider consulting with a few key team members to get
their input on when the project can reach each milestone.
3. Budget
With research, you should be able to come up with a reasonable budget for a project. One example would be a
website project for a small business. The project manager should put in the effort before the project begins to vet
out potential design partners. The budget should then be created and presented to the company leaders for
approval. The details of the budget are then presented to the team members when the project begins. The work
you put in ahead of time should alleviate most objections from members during the project process.
4. Expectations and Roles
As you carefully choose people to be on your projects consider the roles each will play in the team. No person
can do it all. It's best to focus on what each person is good at and allow them to thrive on the team. Make sure
that success is measured by the overall project and not by any deliverable by a single individual. Some members
will have higher expectations, more work, and a bigger role. Let everyone know their roles at the beginning of
the project, but ensure each member that they are important to the overall project. It's not about the individual.
It's not even about the customer. It's about company success, which lifts the status and experience of each team
member and leads to the best results for the customer.
5. Vision and Mission
There may be no greater important item in business than a clear vision. The leaders at your company or you need
to provide clear vision to your project team members. It's important for everyone to understand how the
deliverables of the project will move the company forward. A vision creates a mental goal for each person
involved to achieve.
6. Leadership and Respect
If you are the project manager then it is your responsibility to lead the team. You need to have the respect of each
member. Don't waste your time with people that aren't full committed to the vision. Your job is to see the project
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through and get results. This doesn't always fit with everyone's view of how things should be done. Lead the team
to get results and make sure you have the respect of each team member.
7. Mix of Introverts and Extroverts
After working on a few projects you will learn that there are introverts and extroverts. Both are necessary for
projects to be successful. Above it was mentioned that each person will bring a certain talent to the project. It's
your job to find the right mix of personalities for a project. An introvert might be excellent at research while an
extrovert might be better at coming up with creative ideas to push the limits of the project. Both aspects of the
human mind are necessary in most projects. Learn how to manage each type of person and you should be able to
challenge them to provide great results while working well together.
8. Feedback and Conversation
Something that often lacks in projects is the simple act of providing an update. As the leader, it's important to
communicate with your team. Talk to them as a group and individually. Provide updates on where the project is
and how that aligns with expectations. Compliment members when they do something well. Encourage them to
continue as the project moves along the scheduled timeline. It's simply about having conversations and staying in
touch with your co-workers. It's easy to forget, but simply speaking with people can provide the necessary
feedback to make changes and improvements.
9. Reporting
Do you remember those report cards you got back in grade school? They were handed out every so often by the
teacher. It was a day every kid knew was coming. Some looked forward to it. Others dreaded it. Either way, the
reporting of progress was a good tool for keeping people on task. Projects can fall behind for various reasons.
Don't let your project fall behind schedule. Report the progress to your team members periodically. Let them
know they are expected to finish on time while hitting various key dates with deliverables.
10. Acknowledgement
It's important to acknowledge your teammates and their successes. Everybody contributes to a successful project
in various ways. It may be true that one person does more work than another, but each contributes and it's this
collaboration that ultimately leads to the success of the project.
Once a project is complete, speak with each member of the team and acknowledge their work specifically. Talk
about how the project is succeeding and helping your company. Explain how their contributions helped the project
become successful.
Q.5 Give the requisites corrective action the educational manager should take to keep the costs down in
the construction of ideal secondary schools in your region.
Evaluating a project means performing a rigorous analysis of completed goals, objectives and activities to
determine whether the project has produced planned results, delivered expected benefits, and made desired
change. As a process, project evaluation takes a series of steps to identify and measure the outcomes and impacts
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resulted from project completion. In this article, let’s find out how to evaluate projects, what indicators to
consider, and how to design a project evaluation plan.
Indicators
The project evaluation process involves an analysis of different components or indicators that characterize the
project’s progress towards the achievement of its goals and objectives. These components/indicators
are Outcomes and Impacts.
Outcomes
These are any measurable and auditable changes that can be obtained as a result of the project’s successful
accomplishment. They determine the extent to which the identified problems have been mitigated, resolved, or
eliminated.
In terms of project evaluation and management, outcomes define the measurable results and benefits that are
observable within the targeted environment once the project is done. They serve as the general indicator of project
progress towards successful implementation of project goals and objectives. Outcomes describe short-term and
medium-term effects generated by the project.
Several examples of project outcomes are:
▪ New skills and competencies obtained by personnel
▪ Improved knowledge
▪ Increased understanding of business environment
▪ Proactive participation in decision making
Impacts
These are the indicator of changes that can be specifically linked to the project’s implementation activity. Impacts
determine and measure the extent to which goals and objectives of the project are achieved.
In terms of project evaluation and management, impacts define the tangible and intangible effects (consequences)
of the project upon the environment in which this project is implemented. They measure the change made by the
project and show how close the goals and objectives are achieved.
Some examples of project impacts are as follows:
▪ Increased quality of a product/service
▪ Decreased incidence of diseases in the targeted region
▪ Higher number of students wishing to obtain master degree
▪ Enhanced productivity of personnel
The key difference between impacts and outcomes is that impacts produce a long-term, lasting effect that is
observable for months and years after project completion.
The project implementation process is carried out in a step-by-step and consistent manner, which means there is
a series of actions or stages that can describe the project from a strategic point of view. Project implementation
can be presented as a series of the following consistent stages:
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▪ Goals
▪ Objectives
▪ Activities
▪ Outcomes
▪ Impacts
The series is dependent on time, which is the key constraint that defines the sequence of the implementation
process. In this context, the purpose of project evaluation is to disclose the relationships between outcomes and
impacts of a project and to find out whether the project is completed on time.
Evaluation Plan
Exploration and analyzing of the relationships between project outcomes, impacts, goals, objectives, and activities
can be managed under a project evaluation plan. Such a plan provides a set of tools to measure progress in
implementing the project and its key components, such as goals, objectives, and activities. A project evaluation
plan also focuses on assessing project effectiveness and efficiency through exploring and analyzing the outcomes
and impacts.
A Project Evaluation Plan is a detailed document that defines and sets forth practices and sequence of activities
for analyzing and examining the project by certain evaluation criteria. This document aims to determine project
effectiveness and efficiency through tracking progress on each objective, completion of activities, and dates of
completion.
There is no exact number of indicators or evaluation criteria that must be used in evaluating projects. There is
also no predefined set of activities for running the evaluation, because every project is unique and has certain
goals and objectives.
In designing a project evaluation plan, we recommend the following general guidelines for project evaluation:
Step #1. Identify outcome and impact
You can use status of the goals and objectives of your project as the framework for project evaluation.
Achievement of a goal or objective is achieved creates certain short- or middle-term results and benefits, which
are outcomes. Through measuring outcomes you can understand the extent of goal achievement.
Outcomes generate certain long-term effects which are impacts. Through evaluating project impacts you can
identify the project overall effect on the environment it’s targeted to.
Step #2. Choose evaluation method
What project evaluation method will be used to measure outcomes and impacts? In your evaluation plan you need
to include a method that helps determine whether the goals and objectives are completed and whether the project
generates desired change. Your evaluation method will focus on results and benefits (outcomes) as well as effects
(impacts).
Here’re several examples of methods you can include in your project evaluation plan template:
▪ Implementation reviews
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▪ Surveys
▪ Questionnaires
▪ Focus groups
▪ Records analysis
▪ Interviews
Step #3. Report on the evaluation
The final item in our guidelines for project evaluation is about reviewing the work done and creating a project
evaluation report. Such a report includes your conclusions about the project’s ability to produce desired change
and accomplishing preset goals and objectives.
Using evaluation criteria, you must explore whether your project was undertaken in a manner consistent with the
original plan and whether project activities contributed to project success. In other words, you need to confirm
whether goals and objectives are fully achieved during the course of the project and whether desired outcomes
and impacts have been reached. Once developed, your evaluation report should be submitted to the management
team for review and further decision making.
ASSIGNMENT No. 2
Q.1 Define the concept of Catchment Area. Discuss the process of school mapping in educational planning.
A catchment area is the geographic area for which a facility attracts clients or customers. The size and shape of
a catchment area will depend on how accessible a facility is and how far it is from alternative facilities.
Thiessen polygons, shapes defining an area of influence around a point, assign any given location within the area
of interest to its nearest facility. For example, Thiessen polygons can be used to illustrate catchment areas for
facilities such as subway stations, and thus illustrate the areas most accessible to each station.
A catchment area can also be defined by an arbitrary distance or time. For example, if one know that clients are
unwilling to travel more than 10 miles to get to a facility, one can use buffers to create circular catchment areas
that are no more than 10 miles from a facility. Similarly, if clients are unwilling to drive more than 30 minutes to
a facility, one can use network partitioning to show the areas that are within a 30-minute drive-time from a facility.
Catchments can be defined relative to a location and based upon a number of factors, including distance, travel
time, geographic boundaries or population within the catchment.
Catchment areas generally fall under two categories, those that occur organically, i.e., “de facto” catchment area,
as people are naturally drawn to a location and those that are established and modified by entities such as local
governments or organizations.
GIS technology has allowed for the modeling of catchment areas, and in particular those relating to urban areas.
Based on travel time between rural areas and cities of different sizes, the urban–rural catchment areas (URCAs)
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is a global GIS dataset that allows for comparison across countries, such as the distribution of population along
the rural–urban continuum. Functional economic areas (FEAs), also called larger urban zone or functional urban
areas, are catchment areas of commuters or commuting zones.
Catchment areas may be established for the provision of services. For example, a school catchment area is the
geographic area from which students are eligible to attend a local school. When a facility’s capacity can only
service a specific volume, the catchment may be used to limit a population’s ability to access services outside that
area. In the case of a school catchment area, children may be unable to enroll in a school outside their catchment
to prevent the school's services being exceeded.
• Airports can be built and maintained in locations which minimize the driving distance for the surrounding
population to reach them.
• A neighborhood or district of a city often has several small convenience shops, each with a catchment area of
several streets. Supermarkets, on the other hand, have a much lower density, with catchment areas of several
neighborhoods (or several villages in rural areas). This principle, similar to the central place theory, makes
catchment areas an important area of study for geographers, economists, and urban planners.
• In order to compensate for income inequalities, distances, variations in secondary educational level, and other
similar factors, a nation may structure its higher education catchment areas to ensure a good mixture of
students from different backgrounds.
• Hong Kong divides its primary schools into School Nets under its Primary One Admission System,
functioning as catchment areas for allocation of school places.
• To inform prospective employers, transport providers, planners and local authorities, data detailing the travel
to work patterns of seven towns in the Western Region of Ireland were used to define each towns’ labour
catchments.
Q.2 Discuss the role of pressure groups while making educational decisions for rural areas of Pakistan.
Give different strategies to overcome these pressures for rational decision making as educational
manager.
Business people are faced with decision making every day. Intuitive and rational decision making are the two
ways that an individual can approach problem solving. Some people are very aware of feelings or instincts and
use them as guides to decision making. These types of feelings are instinctive and rely on intuition and not facts.
In fact, intuition is the ability to have a grasp on a situation or information without the need for reasoning. In
business, people use this type of decision making when facts are unavailable or when decisions are difficult in
nature.
The second, opposing type of decision making is called rational decision making, which is when individuals use
analysis, facts and a step-by-step process to come to a decision. Rational decision making is a precise, analytical
process that companies use to come up with a fact-based decision. Let's take a look at how the rational decision-
making process can work in an organizational environment.
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Rational Model
Violet Jones is a manager at the Intestinal Distress Tacos fast food restaurant. She is under enormous pressure
from headquarters to increase her monthly profits. Violet is not sure what the solution is for her financial dilemma.
She has to decide to use the rational decision-making model to determine the best path for a solution. To do this,
Violet must follow these six steps:
1. Define the problem.
2. Identify the decision criteria.
3. Allocate weights to the criteria.
4. Develop the alternatives.
5. Evaluate the alternatives.
6. Select the best alternative.
Let's take a look at the process Violet used to determine how to increase company profits for her store.
Define the Problem
Violet first needs to define the problem. This step is relatively easy for Violet, as upper management has already
identified the issue. Her store profits have not increased month to month, so she needs to find the best solution to
increase profits. The next step facing Violet is to determine what criteria she will use to make her decision.
Identify the Decision Criteria
The next step in the rational decision-making process is to identify the decision criteria. This step deals with
choosing variables that will determine the decision outcome. In Violet's case, she needs to determine the criteria
or information that is relevant and will help her increase her profits. The criteria are usually dependent upon the
individual's values and beliefs. Violet will make her decision based on her belief that she should not eliminate
any employees to save money. She will only cut costs in other ways, such as finding cheaper vendors, shortening
store hours, changing menu options, etc. Her criteria will be:
• How will employees be affected?
• How will changes affect customers?
• How will changes affect quality?
Allocate Weights to Criteria
Violet's next step is to allocate weights to the criteria. This means ranking which criteria is the most important
to the decision-making process. Violet feels that the biggest weight should be given to how the change will affect
employees. The other weights are then distributed equally. The next step starts to consider solutions.
Develop the Alternatives
The next step is to develop alternatives, which is where the potential solutions need to be considered. There will
not be any consideration in this step, just a generated list of alternatives. Violet has brainstormed a short list of
alternative solutions:
• Select a new distributor of food and supplies that will cost less money.
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• Shorten store hours, which will limit overall overhead costs.
• Lay off some employees who are making larger salaries.
• Increase promotions to lure new customers and sales.
Rational decision making brings a structured or reasonable thought process to the act of deciding. The choice to
decide rationally makes it possible to support the decision maker by making the knowledge involved with the
choice open and specific. This can be very important when making high value decisions that can benefit from the
help of tools, processes, or the knowledge of experts.
Characteristics of rational decision making
Choosing rationally is often characterized by the following:
• Decision making will follow a process or orderly path from problem to solution.
• There is a single best or optimal outcome. Rational decisions seek to optimize or maximize utility.
• The chosen solution will be in agreement with the preferences and beliefs of the decision maker.
• The rational choice will satisfy conditions of logical consistency and deductive completeness.
• Decision making will be objective, unbiased and based on facts.
• Information is gathered for analysis during the decision making process.
• Future consequences are considered for each decision alternative.
• Structured questions are used to promote a broad and deep analysis of the situation or problem requiring
a solution.
• Risk and uncertainty are addressed with mathematically sound approaches.
In the ideal case, all rational decision makers would come to the same conclusion when presented with the same
set of sufficient information for the decision being made. This would suggest that collaborative decision
making will often employ a rational decision making process.
Problems and limitations with choosing rationally
Most of the issues and limitations associated with rational choice result from falling short of the ideal proscribed
in the full rational decision making model. Here are three areas that generate much of the concern.
1. Limits of human capabilities - The limits on our human ability to gather, process, and understand all the
information needed to optimize a decision outcome make it impractical to meet the ideal except in very
constrained or simple situations. We have limits in our ability to formulate as well as solve very complex
problems. Our desire to optimize is also limited, and we will usually "saticfice", or be content with
acceptable solutions when confronted with obstacles.
2. Limits on information and knowledge - The model assumes we should or can gather sufficient
information in terms of quantity, quality, accuracy, and integrity. It also assumes that we have access to
the required knowledge of the cause and effect relationships that are important to the evaluation of
alternative solutions, particularly with respect to projecting future consequences.
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3. Limits in time - Search for the optimum solution will generate a delay that could negatively impact the
benefits of the chosen alternative. In essence, if the decision alternatives are not properly discounted for
changes due to decision timing, the chosen alternative may not be optimum.
More on decision making models
As with any ideal, additional models have been developed to address the problems with realizing the full rational
model. The Bounded Rationality model acknowledges our cognitive and environmental limits and suggests that
we act rationally within these constraints. Many decision making theories are a result of looking at the
consequences of bounded rationality.
Rational ignorance takes a similar approach to looking at the cost of gathering information. In this model, it is
suggested that if the cost to acquire information exceeds the benefits that can be derived from the information, it
is rational to remain ignorant. This aligns with our concept of using decision value to limit the decision effort,
ensuring an appropriate return from using a rational decision making process (See planning decision making).
The benefits of rational choice
Within the limitations described above, choosing rationally can provide a number of benefits that include:
• Addressing complex decisions by breaking them down
• Characterizing decision problems and goals to ensure addressing all needs and desires
• Being aided by structured techniques, mathematics, and computers
• Ongoing improvement when codified in a process, procedure, or program
• A long list of decision making techniques and tools with proven usefulness
• A growing capability to analyze and access the information that can improve guidance based on the facts
Q.3 Discuss various elements and factors which affect the decision making. How decision making in
education system can be more rational?
Organizational performance is a ubiquitous term which is nevertheless loosely defined. Though the construct
depends on a number of unique factors associated with each organization, yet the lack of a universal definition
makes it challenging for professionals to concur about what exactly they mean by organizational performance.
This CQ Dossier summarizes the existing evidence about the financial, social, psychological, and operational
aspects of organizational performance to arrive at a comprehensive definition and introduce interventions how to
improve it. There are possibly as many interpretations of the term organizational performance as the studies that
have used the construct. Luo et al. (2012) who conducted a meta-analysis of organizational performance suggested
that it should be measured in economic and operational terms:
The economic performance looks at financial and market outcomes which assess the profits, sales, return on
investment for shareholders, and other financial metrices.
The operational performance, on the other hand, focuses on the observable indices like customer satisfaction
and loyalty, the firm’s social capital, and competitive edge derived from capabilities and resources.
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There are various way how organizational performance can be measured. We have a look at some of the most
prominent and effective ones.
As a measure of survival and growth
One of the clearest definitions of Organizational performance describes it in terms of growth and survival of the
firm (Etzioni, 1960; Chandler and Hanks, 1993).In this definition, a firm may consider its performance to be
effective if it is able to meet its prescribed goals and continue to improve. The weakness in this approach is that
it fails to account for the external and internal environment of the firm.
As a measure of good fit with environment
This limitation has been provided for by Lorsch (1970) who believed that firms who are able to find the right fit
between their environmental demands and internal capabilities and resources are able to perform better. A similar
position was adopted by Lupton, Gribbin and Warmington (1977) who defined good organizational performances
to be those which were able to achieve high productivity and employee satisfaction with low turnover rates and
costs.
As a measure of relevancy
Though this definition addresses the systems view of organizations, it still fails to consider the volatility of modern
markets and how they pressurize firms to evolve continuously. This critical aspect, termed relevancy by
Jenatabadi (2015), is found in studies from the twenty-first century. Modern organizations are no longer required
to only fulfill the demands of their investors and employees, but an entire gamut of stakeholders (Adam Jr, 1994;
Harrison and Freeman, 1999).
We measure organizational performance so we can improve it. Regardless of the aim of measuring organizational
performance or the definition of the adopted terms, professionals are always looking at ways to build upon past
performance. Considering the different levels of performance assessment, a number of interventions are
recognized to be useful.
Individual level performance
At the individual level, task performance, contextual performance, adaptive performance, and
counterproductive work behavior are the main dimensions identified in an exhaustive search of medical,
psychological and management studies (Koopmans et al., 2011).
• Task performance is broadly indicated by the successful completion of assigned tasks, the number and quality
of work, skills and knowledge of the performer, and the managerial abilities of planning, organizing, problem-
solving, monitoring, and decision-making.
• Contextual performance encompasses all such actions which extend beyond the prescribed task roles and can
manifest in social, organizational or psychological realms. This performance is associated with indicators like
initiative, extra tasks performed, resourcefulness, enthusiasm, motivation, creativity, commitment and
interpersonal relationships.
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• Adaptive performance denotes the responsiveness at work and is measured through innovation, adjustment
to changing circumstances, flexibility and open-mindedness, and continuous learning.
• Finally, the counterproductive work behaviors are indicated by the absenteeism, theft, tardiness, disregard of
instructions, safety regulations, substance abuse, and any other off-task behaviors that undermine performance.
Team level performance
For teams level organizational performance too completion of a task is an important measure (DeChurch and
Mesmer-Magnus, 2010). Moreover, task proficiency is another indicator of good performance as team members
who are proficient in their tasks are associated with higher performance levels.
Kendall and Salas (2004) have reported several models of assessing team performance ranging from Input-
process-output which takes a systems view of team processes to looking at team tasks as events where
performance measurement aids like the behaviorally anchored rating and Observation scale (BARS) and self-
report measures are employed. These measures should assess the team adaptability, team orientation, leadership,
and back up behaviors to measure team performance.
Organizational level performance
When assessing the organization’s performance as a whole, a cohort of measures need to be adopted so that all
components can be monitored and evaluated comprehensively. In fact, there is a conscious call to move towards
a broader definition of organizational performance, one which recognizes and addresses sustainability of work
processes and outcomes (Hubbard, 2009).
Another key variable in measuring organizational performance is integrating a formal assessment of strategic
planning in its measurement (George, Walker and Monster, 2019). When organizations assess their strategic
planning using internal and external assessments with a cascading system of goals, strategies, and plans, the
effectiveness of meeting these goals is found to be improved.
Richard et al. (2009) have added that professional need to establish a strong rationale for understanding what is
meant by performance and the choice of measures that will be employed to measure it. While defining what is
meant by performance, managers should reflect on all stakeholders, the degree of heterogeneity in the
environment, resources, and strategic choices, and the time frame.
How to compare organizational performance across-organizations
When measuring performance across organizations belonging to a similar context, it is the human capital that
acts as one of the distinguishing factors. The resource-based theory (RBT) is used by many researchers to identify
human capital as being a significant indicator of organizational performance, especially, in deriving a competitive
advantage over others (Crook et al., 2008, 2011).
Another key variable that is heterogenous and is, thus, useful for measuring organizational performance across
firms is market orientation (MO). MO includes (Shoham et al., 2006)
• the ability to collect market information,
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• disseminate within the organization, and
• respond to it through effective decision-making.
Therefore, it is possible to assess where a firm stands with respect to its customers, competitors, and within its
different functions using MO.
Q.4 Budget is a statement of future expenditures and receipts of funds critically analyze this statement.
Also prepare annual budget for secondary school.
A major element of financial data activity rests in the act of budgeting. Budgeting is the process of allocating
finite resources to the prioritized needs of an organization. In most cases, for a governmental entity, the budget
represents the legal authority to spend money. Adoption of a budget in the public sector implies that a set of
decisions has been made by the governing board and administrators that culminates in matching a government's
resources with the entity's needs. As such, the budget is a product of the planning process.
The budget also provides an important tool for the control and evaluation of sources and the uses of resources.
Using the accounting system to enact the will of the governing body, administrators are able to execute and control
activities that have been authorized by the budget and to evaluate financial performance on the basis of
comparisons between budgeted and actual operations. Thus, the budget is implicitly linked to financial
accountability and relates directly to the financial reporting objectives established by the GASB.
The planning and control functions inherent to any organization, including schools, underscore the importance of
sound budgeting practices for the following reasons:
• The type, quantity, and quality of goods and services provided by governments often are not subject to
the market forces of supply and demand. Thus, enacting and adhering to the budget establishes restrictions
in the absence of a competitive market.
• These goods and services provided by governments are generally considered critical to the public interest
and welfare.
• The scope and diversity of operations in an organization make comprehensive financial planning essential
for good decisionmaking.
• The financial planning process is critical to the expression of citizen preferences and is the avenue for
reaching consensus among citizens, members of the governing board, and staff on the future direction of
the governmental unit's operations.
The link between financial planning and budget preparation gives the budget document a unique role in
governmental organizations. Budgets in the public arena are often considered the definitive policy document
because an adopted budget represents the financial plan used by a government to achieve its goals and objectives.
When a unit of government legally adopts a financial plan, the budget has secured the approval of the majority of
the governing board and reflects
• public choices about which goods and services the unit of government will or will not provide,
• the prioritization of activities in which the unit of government will be involved,
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• the relative influence of various participants and interest groups in the budget development process, and
• the governmental unit's plan for acquiring and using its resources.
In an educational environment, budgeting is an invaluable tool for both planning and evaluation. Budgeting
provides a vehicle for translating educational goals and programs into financial resource plans-that is, developing
an instructional plan to meet student performance goals should be directly linked to determining budgetary
allocations. The link between instructional goals and financial planning is critical to effective budgeting and
enhances the evaluation of budgetary and educational accountability.
Performance evaluation allows citizens and taxpayers to hold policymakers and administrators in governmental
organizations accountable for their actions. Because accountability to citizens often is stated explicitly in state
laws and state constitutions, it is a cornerstone of budgeting and financial reporting. GASB recognizes the
importance of accountability with the following objectives in GASB Concepts Statement 1, Objectives of
Financial Reporting, paragraph 77.
• Financial reporting should provide information to determine whether current-year revenues were
sufficient to pay for current-year services.
• Financial reporting should demonstrate whether resources were obtained and used in accordance with the
entity's legally adopted budget. It should also demonstrate compliance with other finance-related legal or
contractual requirements.
• Financial reporting should provide information to assist users in assessing the service efforts, costs, and
accomplishments of the governmental entity.
Meeting these objectives requires budget preparation that is based on several concepts recognizing accountability.
Accountability is often established by incorporating these objectives into legal mandates that require state and
local public sector budgets to
• be balanced so that current revenues are sufficient to pay for current services;
• be prepared in accordance with all applicable federal, state, and local laws; and
• provide a basis for the evaluation of a government's service efforts, costs, and accomplishments.
Although some form of a balanced budget requirement is generally necessary to ensure long-term fiscal health in
any organization, variations such as the use of fund balance reserves to pay for current services may be appropriate
over a short period. Generally, however, all departures from this fundamental objective must be in accordance
with applicable state and local laws and policies.
Given the importance of demonstrating compliance with the approved budget, the financial reporting system must
control the use of financial resources and ensure that budgetary appropriations and allocations are not exceeded.
To demonstrate compliance, accounting systems are usually operated on the same basis of accounting used to
prepare the approved budget. Thus, the actual financial information captured by the accounting system is in a
form comparable to the approved budget. Through budgetary integration, the financial accounting system
becomes the primary tool to prove financial accountability.
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Finally, the budget is evaluated for its effectiveness in attaining the organization's stated goals and objectives.
Evaluation typically involves an examination of how funds were expended, the outcomes that resulted from the
expenditure of funds, and the degree to which these outcomes achieved the stated objectives. This phase is
fundamental in developing the subsequent year's budgetary allocations. In effect, budget preparation not only is
an annual exercise to determine the allocation of funds, but also is part of a continuous cycle of planning and
evaluation to achieve the stated goals and objectives of the organization.
Over the past 30 years, governmental entities in the United States have used a variety of budget approaches and
formats. The development of more advanced budget philosophies reflects growth in both the scope and the
complexity of governmental operations and the simultaneous need for systems that are capable of translating the
variety of policy decisions into financial plans. For more information on budgetary approaches, The National
Advisory Council on State and Local Budgeting provides additional guidelines. Various budgeting models
continue to be commonly used and fall predominantly into categories of (1) line-item, or "traditional," budgeting;
(2) performance budgeting; (3) program and planning ("programming") budgeting (PPB); (4) zero-based
budgeting (ZBB); and (5) site-based budgeting. In addition, many governments use a variety of hybridized
versions to address the specific needs of the organization. Although these approaches are considered distinct in
terms of the underlying preparation process, actual formats of the prepared budgets may be quite similar; for
example, the format of a site-based budget may be quite similar to the format of a line-item budget. Each of the
five basic approaches has relative advantages and limitations.
Line-Item Budgeting
Line-item budgeting is still the most widely used approach in many organizations, including schools, because of
its simplicity and its control orientation. It is referred to as the "historical" approach because administrators and
chief executives often base their expenditure requests on historical expenditure and revenue data. One important
aspect of line-item budgeting is that it offers flexibility in the amount of control established over the use of
resources, depending on the level of expenditure detail (e.g., fund, function, object) incorporated into the
document.
The line-item budget approach has several advantages that account for its wide use. It offers simplicity and ease
of preparation. It is a familiar approach to those involved in the budget development process. This method budgets
by organizational unit and object and is consistent with the lines of authority and responsibility in organizational
units. As a result, this approach enhances organizational control and allows the accumulation of expenditure data
at each functional level. Finally, line-item budgeting allows the accumulation of expenditure data by
organizational unit for use in trend or historical analysis.
Although this approach offers substantial advantages, critics have identified several shortcomings that may make
it inappropriate for certain organizational environments. The most severe criticism is that it presents little useful
information to decisionmakers on the functions and activities of organizational units. Since this budget presents
proposed expenditure amounts only by category, the justifications for such expenditures are not explicit and are
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often unintuitive. In addition, it may invite micro-management by administrators and governing boards as they
attempt to manage operations with little or no performance information. However, to overcome its limitations,
the line-item budget can be augmented with supplemental program and performance information.
Performance Budgeting
A different focus is seen in performance budgeting models. In a strict performance budgeting environment,
budgeted expenditures are based on a standard cost of inputs multiplied by the number of units of an activity to
be provided in that time period. The total budget for an organization is the sum of all the standard unit costs
multiplied by the units expected to be provided. Although this strict approach may be useful for certain types of
operations, many organizations require a more flexible performance approach. For example, expenditures may
be based simply on the activities or levels of service to be provided and a comparison of budgeted and historical
expenditure levels.
The performance approach is generally considered superior to the line-item approach because it provides more
useful information for legislative consideration and for evaluation by administrators. Further, performance
budgeting includes narrative descriptions of each program or activity-that is, it organizes the budget into
quantitative estimates of costs and accomplishments and focuses on measuring and evaluating outcomes. Finally,
the performance approach eases legislative budget revisions because program activities and levels of service may
be budgeted on the basis of standard cost inputs.
However, performance budgeting has limitations owing to the lack of reliable standard cost information inherent
in governmental organizations. Further, the performance approach does not necessarily evaluate the
appropriateness of program activities in relation to reaching an organization's goals or the quality of services or
outputs produced. Consequently, the performance approach has become most useful for activities that are routine
in nature and discretely measurable (such as vehicle maintenance and accounts payable processing)-activities that
make up only a relatively modest part of the total educational enterprise. But in sum, performance budgeting may
offer considerable enhancement to the line-item budget when appropriately applied.
Program and Planning (Programming) Budgeting (PPB)
Program budgeting refers to a variety of different budgeting systems that base expenditures primarily on programs
of work and secondarily on objects. It is considered a transitional form between traditional line-item and
performance approaches, and it may be called modified program budgeting. In contrast to other approaches, a full
program budget bases expenditures solely on programs of work regardless of objects or organizational units. As
these two variations attest, program budgeting is flexible enough to be applied in a variety of ways, depending on
organizational needs and administrative capabilities.
Program budgeting differs from approaches previously discussed because it is much less control- and evaluation-
oriented. Budget requests and reports are summarized in terms of a few broad programs rather than in the great
detail of line-item expenditures or organizational units. PPB systems place a great deal of emphasis on identifying
the fundamental objectives of a governmental entity and on relating all program expenditures to these activities.
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This conceptual framework includes the practices of explicitly projecting long-term costs of programs and the
evaluation of different program alternatives that may be used to reach long-term goals and objectives. The focus
on long-range planning is the major advantage of this approach, and advocates believe that organizations are more
likely to reach their stated goals and objectives if this approach is used.
However, several limitations exist in the actual implementation of this approach, including changes in long-term
goals, lack of consensus regarding the fundamental objectives of the organization, lack of adequate program and
cost data, and the difficulty of administering programs that involve several organizational units. Yet despite its
limitations, program budgeting is often used as a planning device while budget allocations continue to be made
in terms of objects and organizational units—a process that has been adopted in many schools throughout the
nation. As with performance budgeting, PPB information may be used to supplement and support traditional
budgets in order to increase their informational value.
Zero-Based Budgeting
The basic tenet of zero-based budgeting (ZBB) is that program activities and services must be justified annually
during the budget development process. The budget is prepared by dividing all of a government's operations into
decision units at relatively low levels of the organization. Individual decision units are then aggregated into
decision packages on the basis of program activities, program goals, organizational units, and so forth. Costs of
goods or services are attached to each decision package on the basis of the level of production or service to be
provided to produce defined outputs or outcomes. Decision units are then ranked by their importance in reaching
organizational goals and objectives. Therefore, when the proposed budget is presented, it contains a series of
budget decisions that are tied to the attainment of the entity's goals and objectives.
The central thrust of ZBB is the elimination of outdated efforts and expenditures and the concentration of
resources where they are most effective. This is achieved through an annual review of all program activities and
expenditures, which results in improved information for allocation decisions. However, proper development
requires a great deal of staff time, planning, and paperwork.
Experience with the implementation of this approach indicates that a comprehensive review of ZBB decision
packages for some program activities may be necessary only periodically. Additionally, a minimum level of
service for certain programs may be legislated regardless of the results of the review process. As a result, ZBB
has had only modest application in schools, although the review of program activities makes ZBB particularly
useful when overall spending must be reduced.
Site-Based Budgeting
Site-based budgeting is widely considered the most practical for budgeting within the school district environment,
by providing greater control and reporting of school-level data. This budgetary approach (which may be used in
combination with any of the four discussed above) emphasizes the decentralization of budgetary decisionmaking.
Site-based budgeting places local managers and other staff at the center of the budget preparation process, making
them responsible for both the preparation and the maintenance of the budget.
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Site-based budgeting is popular in many school settings. Within a school system, site-based budgeting generally
involves granting increased budgetary authority to the school. Resources are allocated to the site, with budget
authority for programs and services granted to the school's principal and staff. Campuses are normally allocated
a certain level of resources that they have the authority to allocate to educational and support services. These
budgetary allocations are meant to cover those areas over which campus decisionmakers have control. For
example, schools that have authority over staffing decisions may be allocated funds for staff costs using the site-
based budgeting approach. In contrast, school districts that make staffing decisions centrally may not allocate
funds to the individual school site for staff costs.
The main advantage of site-based budgeting is that those who best understand the needs of a particular
organization are empowered to make resource allocation decisions. This decentralization of budgetary authority
may also increase local accountability. Another potential advantage of site-based budgeting is the increased level
of participation of the public and staff in budget development. Many site-based budgeting systems create
committees composed of staff and community members to determine budgetary allocations. These committees
give members a voice from the inception of the budget process, rather than merely when the budget is presented
for public review and approval.
Although site-based budgeting may provide substantial benefits, it also has limitations. First, organizations with
limited resources may not be capable of granting a meaningful level of site-based budgetary authority. Even if an
organization does have discretionary resources, it may be difficult to determine the areas of the budget for which
local decisionmakers should be held accountable. Finally, site-based budgeting may be burdensome to some local
managers, may increase conflict between staff or departments, or may limit the organization's ability to ensure
quality and sufficiency in the services it provides. These problems can be avoided somewhat through the careful
design of site-based budgeting guidelines and through training for new budget stakeholders.
Outcome-Focused Budgeting
Consistent with the evaluation objective, government budgeting is becoming increasingly outcome-focused.
Fiscal austerity, coupled with intense competition for governmental resources, has precipitated an effort to ensure
more effective use of resources at all levels of government. Outcome-focused budgeting is the practice of linking
the allocation of resources to the production of outcomes. The objective is to allocate government's resources to
those service providers or programs that use them most effectively.
Outcome-focused budgeting is closely linked to the planning process in governments. For a government entity to
focus on outcomes, goals and objectives must be identified and tied to budget allocations for the achievement of
those objectives. This premise argues that mission-driven (synonymous with outcome-focused) governments are
superior to those that are rule-driven because they are more efficient, are more effective in producing desired
results, are more innovative, are more flexible, and have higher employee morale (Osborne and Gaebler 1993).
In the context of increased governmental scrutiny of governmental costs, including schools, this model may
receive more emphasis in the future.
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Q.5 Critically analyze the prevailing controlling system of educational personnel in Pakistan. As a
planner, suggest different measures for the improvement of selection of suitable personnel.
The present government of Pakistan is aiming at increasing the literacy rate of the country, and develops the
education sector of the country; therefore, the government has announced the new education policy. As is the
previous education policy, the government has used incremental approach in making the new education policy.
INCREMENTAL POLICY
The government has used incremental approach in designing the current education policy, this policy has not been
made through proper research and surveys and is mere revised version of previous policy. The incremental
approach may not be appropriate for the current scenario which Pakistan is facing now days.
UNIFORMITY IN EDUCATION SYSTEM
This is the very good and effective measure taken by the government, aiming at establishing uniform education
system all over the country. There has been a great difference between the education system in big cities and
small cities and villages; this also causes discrimination among the people residing in different regions, some
having good quality education and other low quality education. The uniformity in education system is effective
in providing opportunities of higher studies to the people residing in small cities. This will also help in achieving
mutual cooperation among the four provinces.
GLOBALIZATION
The policy is aiming at make the education system which is common in many developed countries of the world.
This is the positive step by the government in making competitive policy for the people of Pakistan. To make the
comparison with different developing and developed countries is effective in making the sustainable education
policy for the people of Pakistan.
SOCIAL COHESION
The government is aiming at making the public sector education institutions as the good quality education
providers that will provide quality of education to the students as equivalent to that provided in private sector
education institutions. The public sector institutions are accused of being in effective and in efficient which curtail
the individuals in climbing up the ladder in society. To remove the ambiguity between the roles of federal and
provincial governments, the consultancy board has been establishing which decides the roles of both the
governments not only for school level but at higher education level as well.
BRIDGING PUBLIC PRIVATE GAP
The government in the education policy is aiming at bridging the gap between public sector institutions and
private sector institutions; the government has encouraged the provincial government in facilitating private
schools and encourages those people who can afford the private schools to take admission in these schools. The
government is aiming at creating public private partnership in education sector including schools, colleges and
universities this is a good step taken by the government and this will help the development of education sector of
Pakistan. The public private partnership will also help in attracting more investment in education sector which is
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required in abundance to promote this sector. This policy or government is very effective and will help in
sustainable development of education sector of Pakistan.
OVERCOMING STRUCTURAL DIVIDES
This has been very good step of the government, giving importance to the people residing in less developed
regions of the countries especially villages and small cities. The government has announced that the equal
opportunities would be granted to the people living in the less developed regions or the people having low social
status. The government has, in its policy, has given a due importance to the English language study especially in
the schools located in villages and small cities. This has been a very good effort of the government and will be
useful in raising the living standards of the people of Pakistan. Giving importance to the people living in small
cities and villages will reduce the social imbalance and increase the living standards.
MANAGEMENT AND PLANNING CAPACITY
To make the professional environment in the education sector, the government in its policy has announced that
the education policies and plans would be made and implemented solely by the education experts and managers,
the planning and implementation process of education polices would be transparent and the public representatives
and civil servants will not intervene in the process and no policy would be made for any political gain. The politics
will be excluded from education sector for making it more effective and efficient.
Establishing a National Standards and Certification Agency for Education Management and Information System
EMIS for monitoring and evaluation will make the process more transparent and efficient.
INVOLVEMENT OF COMMUNITIES
Firs time, in the education policy, the government is taking inputs from the communities i.e., teachers, students
and parents, this is very positive step towards the sustainable improvement in the quality of education, and
development of this sector. The training of teachers and principals for mobilizing the inputs of communities is
effective in obtaining the feedback which will help in improving the policy.
ISLAMIC EDUCATION
Just like previous policy, in this policy as well, the government has given due importance to the Islamic education
in Pakistan. The policy regarding Islamic education is similar to that of previous education policy.
EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION
The government in its policy has given a due importance to the quality of education provided to the children at
early stage of their education. Previous policy has to some extent ignored this. This step will be useful in
improving the quality of education from grass root level this step will also help in improving the living standard
and will help in raising living standard.
ELEMENTARY EDUCATION
The government has set a target in its education policy to bring all children from 6 to 10 years in elementary
schools by 2015. The government has set the target but no plan has been made to encourage the children to take
admission in the schools. This target of government to bring all children to schools by 2015 is unrealistic. Because
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due to rising inflation the cost of living is increasing day by day and most of the population is living by hand to
mouth. The poverty is increasing at a rapid rate therefore, the number of children going to school is decreasing,
and the government cannot achieve this target unless the poverty is reduced to minimum. In the policy the
government has not been able to justify that how it is going to achieve this target. To set this target is unrealistic
and is not achievable with only five years time frame.
SECONDARY AND HIGHER EDUCATION
The government has aimed at providing the higher education for girls and the development of high schools and
colleges in the localities where there are no or very low amount of higher education schools or colleges. This
policy of government aims at development of underdeveloped regions of the country and promotes the higher
education in these regions. The promotion of higher education is very critical for raising the living standard of
the country.
This policy has included grade XI and XII in school system which is common in advanced countries as USA and
UK. The policy is also aiming at developing skills of the students to train them to perform different task and earn
their living through self employment and other vocational and technical education.
LITERACY AND FORMAL EDUCATION
The government in its policy has set the target to increase the literacy rate to 85% by 2015, this target set by the
government is very ambitious and difficult to achieve. The government has set the target but has not been able to
provide the implementation procedures to achieve this target. To achieve this target of 85% literacy rate within
five years is unrealistic. To improve the literacy rate, the education of children as well as adult is required. And
to make people go to school is very difficult in current scenario where inflation is at its peak and cost of living is
very difficult to meet. Therefore, the target set is not properly planed and it seems that government has set the
target without proper survey, research and planning. More over the steps described by the government are vague
and unclear they do not provide a guide line how the government policy will work and how it will be implemented.
EMERGENCY EDUCATION
In the present situation which Pakistan is facing, the government has made a very effective step in providing
education to the students regarding emergency situation. This education would be provided to the students of
colleges and schools to train them so they will be able to cope with the emergency or crisis situation. This is a
positive point in the education policy, and these types of measures are not present in the previous policy.
IMPROVING QUALITY OF EDUCATION
The government in its policy is determined in improving the quality of education in the country, for this purpose
the government has described various steps in the policy including training of teachers so they would be able to
provide quality education to the students. The government has announced that the curriculum would be revised
and new and improved course would be taught to students so that they would be able to get the latest education
and would be able to compete with the international students. The training of teachers would be helpful in
providing latest education to the students in accordance with the latest trends.
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Quality of Text Books and learning education will be improved to raise the living standards, in the policy the
government has announced that new and improved text books would be provided to the students in elementary
and higher schools. Improving the quality of education is an important step and will help in improving the living
standard. The policy is also aiming at improving the assessment procedure of the exams to achieve fair and
transparent system of assessment.
Question:1
What is the difference between feasibility testing and pilot testing? Why is plan formulation
a crucial function? What are the principal characteristics of an educational plan?
Feasibility study: "Feasibility studies are pieces of research done before a main study to answer the question ‘Can this
study be done?’ They are used to estimate important parameters that are needed to design the main study”[1]. Data
collected would not be analyzed or included in publications.
Examples:
1. Going to a potential site to see if the research is possible
2. Checking to see what is the best approach to the research
3. Going through a consent process with friends to see if the information is comprehensible
4. Sending your survey instrument to a few experts in the field for their feedback as to whether or not the questions
are appropriate for the topic and/or cohort of the research
5. Feedback from colleagues and peers about research design
6. Student researcher designs questionnaire for their study’s target population and asks someone from a different
population to test the questionnaire
Scenario:
A researcher planning to conduct interviews regarding landowner perspectives of land use regulations contacts the US
Forest Service to ask how they have typically approached land owners in the past and asks for feedback on their planned
questions.
Pilot testing: “A small scale-study conducted prior to conducting an actual experiment; designed to test and refine
procedures.”
Examples:
1. Checking to see if the designed tool works
2. Asking people to complete a survey to find out whether a question results in the requested information
3. Testing the intervention with four people before trying it with 60 people
4. Asking people to complete your survey and then revising the questions based on their responses
5. Revising the study after analyzing preliminary data and determining that the data do not address their research
question
6. Student researcher designs questionnaire for their study’s target population, asks the population to try out the
questionnaire, and the questions are revised based on the responses
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Plan formulation is crucial:
Plan formulation is an iterative process that establishes planning objectives, evaluates
management measures that address these objectives, develops potential alternatives that meet the
objectives, screens out plans based on comparison criteria, and identifies plans for
implementation. This process is consistent with the planning requirements of the Water
Resources Council’s Principles and Guidelines, the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969,
and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Planning Guidance Notebook. The process requires
systematic development and evaluation of alternatives for alleviating problems and realizing
potential opportunities.
This section has two purposes. First, it describes the formulation, evaluation and screening of
management measures that address the planning objectives. Second, it describes the formulation
of a final array of plans, which display trade-offs between different combinations of management
measures. The plans in this final array are candidates for possible recommendation for
implementation.
The formulation of the restoration alternatives for the expansion of the HWRP to include BMKV
was accomplished through a series of project design team meetings involving staff from the
California SCC, the Corps, and BCDC. Input from members of the public, interested
organizations, and local, state and federal agency staff was also considered in the development
and evaluation of alternatives. Selection of practicable alternatives was based on (1) regional
and project-specific goals and objectives; (2) site-specific opportunities and constraints; (3)
potential costs and benefits; and (4) potential adverse environmental effects. Plan formulation
focused on major design elements (e.g., habitat acreages); minor design elements (e.g., alignment
of the Bay Trail) that do not substantially affect the overall design and function of the project
will continue to be refined based on public and stakeholder input.
Characteristics of educational planning
1. Planning is goal-oriented.
a. Planning is made to achieve desired objective of business.
b. The goals established should general acceptance otherwise individual efforts & energies will go misguided
and misdirected.
c. Planning identifies the action that would lead to desired goals quickly & economically.
d. It provides sense of direction to various activities. E.g. Maruti Udhyog is trying to capture once again Indian
Car Market by launching diesel models.
2. Planning is looking ahead.
a. Planning is done for future.
b. It requires peeping in future, analyzing it and predicting it.
c. Thus planning is based on forecasting.
d. A plan is a synthesis of forecast.
e. It is a mental predisposition for things to happen in future.
3. Planning is an intellectual process.
a. Planning is a mental exercise involving creative thinking, sound judgement and imagination.
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b. It is not a mere guesswork but a rotational thinking.
c. A manager can prepare sound plans only if he has sound judgement, foresight and imagination.
d. Planning is always based on goals, facts and considered estimates.
4. Planning involves choice & decision making.
a. Planning essentially involves choice among various alternatives.
b. Therefore, if there is only one possible course of action, there is no need planning because there is no
choice.
c. Thus, decision making is an integral part of planning.
d. A manager is surrounded by no. of alternatives. He has to pick the best depending upon requirements &
resources of the enterprises.
5. Planning is the primary function of management / Primacy of Planning.
a. Planning lays foundation for other functions of management.
b. It serves as a guide for organizing, staffing, directing and controlling.
c. All the functions of management are performed within the framework of plans laid out.
d. Therefore planning is the basic or fundamental function of management.
6. Planning is a Continuous Process.
a. Planning is a never ending function due to the dynamic business environment.
b. Plans are also prepared for specific period f time and at the end of that period, plans are subjected to
revaluation and review in the light of new requirements and changing conditions.
c. Planning never comes into end till the enterprise exists issues, problems may keep cropping up and they
have to be tackled by planning effectively.
7. Planning is all Pervasive.
a. It is required at all levels of management and in all departments of enterprise.
b. Of course, the scope of planning may differ from one level to another.
c. The top level may be more concerned about planning the organization as a whole whereas the middle
level may be more specific in departmental plans and the lower level plans implementation of the same.
8. Planning is designed for efficiency.
a. Planning leads to accompishment of objectives at the minimum possible cost.
b. It avoids wastage of resources and ensures adequate and optimum utilization of resources.
c. A plan is worthless or useless if it does not value the cost incurred on it.
d. Therefore planning must lead to saving of time, effort and money.
e. Planning leads to proper utilization of men, money, materials, methods and machines.
9. Planning is Flexible.
a. Planning is done for the future.

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b. Since future is unpredictable, planning must provide enough room to cope with the changes in customer’s
demand, competition, govt. policies etc.
c. Under changed circumstances, the original plan of action must be revised and updated to male it more
practical.
Question:2
Define a project and programme. Why a project has to be analyzed before its
implementation? Give arguments.
A project refers to a specific, singular endeavour to deliver a tangible output.
A project manager is therefore responsible for ensuring a project delivers on its intended output in line with a defined
time frame and budget.
What is a program/programme?
A program refers to multiple projects which are managed and delivered as a single package.
A program manager is therefore tasked with overseeing all the projects comprising the program – to ensure it achieves its
outcomes.
How projects and programs differ
• Structure:
o The components of a project are specific and exact.
o The scope and goals of a project are well-defined – while programs are typically less clear-cut.
o Because a program covers multiple projects – a program team tends to be larger as it also incorporates
the project managers and their project team members.
• Effort:
o A project represents a single, focused endeavour.
o A program is a collection of projects – together all the projects form a connected package of work. The
different projects complement each other to assist the program in achieving its overall objectives. It’s
likely the different projects within a program will overlap – the program manager will therefore assess
these overlaps and work with the relevant project managers to ensure the program’s smooth progression.
• Length:
o While some projects take several years – the typical project will not take very long to complete.
o Programs often take a very long time to complete as they intend to deliver more. It’s therefore common
for programs to be organised into phases or tranches.
o A particularly long project may also be organised into multiple phases – but this is less common.
• Benefits:
o Projects focus on achieving tangible outputs, i.e. what you gain upon completing the project.
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o Programs focus on outcomes – which are often not tangible. The benefits provided by a program depend
on the collective benefits of its projects. Examples of a program outcome include a cultural or political
change within an organization – or a change in the way in which an organization operates.
How are Project and Program Managers different?
• Project Managers need to focus on the deliverables of their project which must be achieved within certain cost
and time constraints.
• Program Managers must be comfortable in being less hands-on and they need to have a vision of the benefits the
program will achieve.
The best thing for the organisation running program and projects is that everyone understands the different pressures
faced by their colleagues.
So if you are a project manager it’s well worth finding out more about program management and similarly program
managers benefit from understanding the challenges that project managers face.
How do I become a Project or Program Manager?
Get trained and certified.
The Praxis Framework Certification is an effective, respected way to verify both your project and program management
knowledge in one fell swoop.
Before Praxis arrived an aspiring project or program manager would have to look at several courses to learn the core skills
of a competent, well-rounded manager. Praxis trims the fat - compiling the necessary knowledge into a single course.
Praxis quickly gained prestige amongst the project and program community - its Bridging Course has been endorsed by
Australia's leading project management association, AIPM.
You'll gain a nifty digital badge if you pass the exam so you can showcase your certified status online.
Project analyzing:
When implementing a new system or a new module, the analysis phase should be your first step as it is the most important
one. This is when you will define internally and with your partner to ensure that everyone understands the project and
that both groups are properly aligned with the goal of optimizing your business processes.
The reason why this is important is because this becomes your blueprint for your project where everyone will work
together in order to have a clear understanding of your company’s needs and requirements. A great example of this is the
comic strip below- although a classic, I feel that it still demonstrates very well the reasons why everyone needs to be on
the same page before starting a project and why the analysis is
The Analysis Phase of a Project
The analysis phase is used to ensure that everyone understands the vision of the project; it also defines a clear scope. This
will help with decisions on “nice-to-have” features that may be mentioned along the way but that may not be necessary
to meet your initial project goals. These are usually the culprits in never-ending implementation projects.
This phase is also where any gaps between your needs and the system will be identified. If gaps are found, additional
research can be conducted prior to going live with the system to see if it requires any third-party applications or custom
developments. By identifying these gaps early in the process, you will be able to make a more informed decision on the
overall project.
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We know it might be tempting to cut your analysis budget when you need to reduce the costs of the project and this is a
phase that is usually one of the first to be dropped along with documentation and training. However, although this process
may seem long, it remains an integral part of the implementation since it will set the tone for the entire project. The more
that can be defined and clarified at the start of the project, the more time (and money!) you will save in the long run since
there will be fewer change orders requested, fewer modifications during the testing period and a higher number of users
who will be willing to adapt to this new system.
Question:3
Critically analyze the educational planning process in Pakistan.
Educational planning is not a new activity. It is as old as education system itself

because any attempt to design or develop an education system in national manner involves
planning. But while educational planning as an activity is old, it is relatively new .as a
specialized profession and discipline. In some countries the establishment planning units is
even more recent, and its objectives, strategies and approaches are still being discussed
inclusively. Why there has been the sudden surge of interest in educational planning? One
can identify a number of reasons.
Education system of Pakistan:
The education system of Pakistan is comprised of 260,903 institutions and is facilitating 41,018,384 students with the help
of 1,535,461 teachers. The system includes 180,846 public institutions and 80,057 private institutions. Hence 31%
educational institutes are run by private sector while 69% are public institutes.
Analysis of education system in Pakistan
Pakistan has expressed its commitment to promote education and literacy in the country by education policies at domestic
level and getting involved into international commitments on education. In this regard national education policies are the
visions which suggest strategies to increase literacy rate, capacity building, and enhance facilities in the schools and
educational institutes. MDGs and EFA programmes are global commitments of Pakistan for the promotion of literacy.
A review of the education system of Pakistan suggests that there has been little change in Pakistan’s schools since 2010,
when the 18th Amendment enshrined education as a fundamental human right in the constitution. Problems of access,
quality, infrastructure and inequality of opportunity, remain endemic.
Issues
A) MDGs and Pakistan
Due to the problems in education system of Pakistan, the country is lagging behind in achieving its MDGs of education.
The MDGs have laid down two goals for education sector:
Goal 2: The goal 2 of MDGs is to achieve Universal Primary Education (UPE) and by 2015, children everywhere, boys and
girls alike, will be able to complete a full course of primary schooling. By the year 2014 the enrolment statistics show an
increase in the enrolment of students of the age of 3-16 year while dropout rate decreased. But the need for increasing
enrolment of students remains high to achieve MDGs target. Punjab is leading province wise in net primary enrolment
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rate with 62% enrolment. The enrolment rate in Sindh province is 52%, in Khyber Pakhtunkhawa (KPK) 54% and primary
enrolment rate in Balochistan is 45%.
Goal 3: The goal 3 of MDGs is Promoting Gender Equality and Women Empowerment. It is aimed at eliminating gender
disparity in primary and secondary education by 2005 and in all levels of education not later than 2015. There is a stark
disparity between male and female literacy rates. The national literacy rate of male was 71% while that of female was 48%
in 2012-13. Provinces reported the same gender disparity. Punjab literacy rate in male was 71% and for females it was
54%. In Sindh literacy rate in male was 72% and female 47%, in KPK male 70% and females 35%, while in Balochistan male
62% and female 23%.
B) Education for All (EFA) Commitment
The EFA goals focus on early childhood care and education including pre-schooling, universal primary education and
secondary education to youth, adult literacy with gender parity and quality of education as crosscutting thematic and
programme priorities.
EFA Review Report October 2014 outlines that despite repeated policy commitments, primary education in Pakistan is
lagging behind in achieving its target of universal primary education. Currently the primary gross enrolment rate stands at
85.9% while Pakistan requires increasing it up to 100% by 2015-16 to fulfil EFA goals. Of the estimated total primary school
going 21.4 million children of ages 5-9 years, 68.5% are enrolled in schools, of which 8.2 million or 56% are boys and 6.5
million or 44% are girls. Economic Survey of Pakistan confirms that during the year 2013-14 literacy remained much higher
in urban areas than in rural areas and higher among males.
C) Vision 2030
Vision 2030 of Planning Commission of Pakistan looks for an academic environment which promotes the thinking mind.
The goal under Vision 2030 is one curriculum and one national examination system under state responsibility. The
strategies charted out to achieve the goal included:
(i) Increasing public expenditure on education and skills generation from 2.7% of GDP to 5% by 2010 and 7% by
2015.
(ii) Re-introduce the technical and vocational stream in the last two years of secondary schools.
(iii) Gradually increase vocational and technical education numbers to 25-30% of all secondary enrolment by 2015
and 50 per cent by 2030.
(iv) Enhance the scale and quality of education in general and the scale and quality of scientific/technical education
in Pakistan in particular.
Problems: The issues lead to the comprehension of the problems which are faced in the development of education system
and promotion of literacy. The study outlines seven major problems such as:
1) Lack of Proper Planning: Pakistan is a signatory to MDGs and EFA goals. However it seems that it will not be able to
achieve these international commitments because of financial management issues and constraints to achieve the MDGs
and EFA goals.
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2) Social constraints: It is important to realize that the problems which hinder the provision of education are not just
due to issues of management by government but some of them are deeply rooted in the social and cultural orientation of
the people. Overcoming the latter is difficult and would require a change in attitude of the people, until then universal
primary education is difficult to achieve.
3) Gender gap: Major factors that hinder enrolment rates of girls include poverty, cultural constraints, illiteracy of
parents and parental concerns about safety and mobility of their daughters. Society’s emphasis on girl’s modesty,
protection and early marriages may limit family’s willingness to send them to school. Enrolment of rural girls is 45% lower
than that of urban girls; while for boys the difference is 10% only, showing that gender gap is an important factor.
4) Cost of education: The economic cost is higher in private schools, but these are located in richer settlements only.
The paradox is that private schools are better but not everywhere and government schools ensure equitable access but
do not provide quality education.
5) War on Terror: Pakistan’s engagement in war against terrorism also affected the promotion of literacy campaign.
The militants targeted schools and students; several educational institutions were blown up, teachers and students were
killed in Balochistan, KPK and FATA. This may have to contribute not as much as other factors, but this remains an
important factor.
6) Funds for Education: Pakistan spends 2.4% GDP on education. At national level, 89% education expenditure
comprises of current expenses such as teachers’ salaries, while only 11% comprises of development expenditure which is
not sufficient to raise quality of education.
7) Technical Education: Sufficient attention has not been paid to the technical and vocational education in Pakistan.
The number of technical and vocational training institutes is not sufficient and many are deprived of infrastructure,
teachers and tools for training. The population of a state is one of the main elements of its national power. It can become
an asset once it is skilled. Unskilled population means more jobless people in the country, which affects the national
development negatively. Therefore, technical education needs priority handling by the government.
Poverty, law and order situation, natural disasters, budgetary constraints, lack of access, poor quality, equity, and
governance have also contributed in less enrolments.
Question:3
What are the steps of process of educational planning?
There are five main stages of educational planning:
• (1) Collection and Analysis of Statistical Information:
• (2) Evolving Policy Proposals:
• (3) Projections, Programming and Project Analysis:
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• (4) Costing Educational Plans:
• (5) Decision, Implementation and Evaluation:
What is planning process in Pakistan?
Planning process in Pakistan Step 1: The planning commission prepares an approach paper and different technical working
groups are formed for working towards development of a plan. Step 2: The planning commission consults all the federal
Ministries and provincial governments regarding the plan.
What are the six stages of educational planning?
Six-Steps in Curriculum Planning
o Establish a value base for the program.
o Develop a conceptual framework.
o Determine program goals.
o Design the program.
o Establish program assessment procedures.
o Implement the program.
What is the process of planning?
Planning is the process of thinking about the activities required to achieve a desired goal. It is the first and foremost activity
to achieve desired results. It involves the creation and maintenance of a plan, such as psychological aspects that require
conceptual skills.
What are the main features of educational planning?
(1) Educational planning must be one aspect of general national planning. (2) Research is based planning based on system
analysis. (3) Planning must be a continues process. (4) Planning should find a definite place in educational organization.
What is the role of educational planning?
Educational planning has become very important because: It makes sure an institution’s success. It considers the
significant issues, constraints, conditions, and factors of education. The focus is on potential objectives, goals, and vision.
Who is Pakistan’s Minister of planning and 2020?
Federal Minister for Planning, Development and Reform Ahsan Iqbal attends 11th Summer Davos in China.
What is the aim of educational planning?
Educational planning, in its broadest generic sense, is the application of rational, systematic analysis to the process of
educational development with the aim of making education more effective and efficient in responding to the needs and
goals of its students and society (Coombs, 1970: 14).
How is Educational Planning and management in Pakistan?
Current educational planning is based on educational policy of Pakistan. Educational policy provides directions to planners.
 Policies are set of educational decisions, statements of aims purposes, principles or intentions which serve as continued
guidelines for the management in accomplishing objectives.
How is educational planning related to educational policy?
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 Educational planning is a process of preparing of set of decisions about an educational enterprise in such a way that goal
and purposes of education will be sufficiently realized in future with available resources.  Educational planning is related
to educational policy and policy gives the guidelines to Planning.
Which is the best module for Educational Planning?
The three units of this module therefore examine both the concepts and the context of educational planning. General
objective: Module 1 provides an introduction to educational planning, its concepts, current context and framework for
action. Course content:
What are the challenges and challenges of Educational Planning?
In order to fulfil this function effectively, educational planners need to have an understanding of the concepts which are
defining and shaping their area of work. At the same time, they have to be aware of the context, challenges and constraints
that arise when carrying out the operational activities of educational planning.
Question:4
Explain the basic difference between project appraisal and evaluation. Also indicate the basic
Project appraisal (or evaluation) is an activity relatively individual from the whole project that aims to evaluate the
implementation of the entire project. Often evaluators are independent consultants or professionals who have not
participated in the project and are in no way affiliated with the project participants to provide the most objective
assessment of project implementation. Project appraisal (or evaluation) is most often done after the end of the project.
What is Project appraisal (or evaluation)?
Project appraisal (or evaluation) is an independent activity, but similar to monitoring is related to project monitoring in
some aspects. The project evaluation is an analysis of the information collected and systematized during the monitoring.
It focuses on how the results contribute to the immediate objective and to what extent it will lead to the achievement of
the common goals.
The aspects of the project evaluation (appraisal)
The project evaluation or appraisal is a purposeful and systematic assessment that can cover various aspects:
• Relevance - whether the strategy adopted is consistent with the goals set;
• Impact - aims to clarify the differences and changes caused by the project and to check whether the project is
relevant to the specific circumstances;
• Efficiency and efficiency - whether the finances are used appropriately.
The main purpose of the project evaluation (appraisal)
The main purpose of the project evaluation (appraisal) is to provide information on the results, and its purpose is to
improve the quality and effectiveness of project management. The evaluation is carried out at certain stages - during the
preparation of the project, at some point after its implementation and after its completion.
The ex-ante evaluation analyzes the adequacy of the implementing and monitoring provisions and assists in establishing
procedures and defining project selection criteria. It checks the coherence between the project and the proposed
activities, the quality of the strategy and objectives, the allocation of resources, results, and impacts. The results of the
ex-ante evaluation are essential for the functioning of the monitoring system.
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The mid-term evaluation aims to evaluate the initial results and make recommendations for the changes needed to
achieve the objectives. Outcome and impact indicators, together with monitoring indicators, are a source of information
on which the evaluation of projects during their implementation is based. The evaluation addresses a set of specific project
implementation issues - relevance, efficiency, effectiveness, impact, and sustainability, in the context of the defined
objectives. It is important to note here that the evaluation of projects carried out by an independent evaluator is based
on the monitoring information, and its results are used by the monitoring bodies to outline problems and opportunities
for corrective action.
The data for the interim evaluation
The data for the interim evaluation (including, where necessary, revision of the indicators) is contained in the interim
evaluation reports. Performance is measured based on a limited number of monitoring indicators reflecting the
effectiveness, quality of management, and financial implementation of the projects. The mid-term evaluation data shall
be provided to the monitoring body for the evaluation of the initial results of the project support, their relevance, and the
degree of achievement of the objectives. All information provided to the monitoring body shall specify the frequency and
timetable for its collection and provision, as well as the authorities and institutions responsible for providing the data at
all levels of government (project, program).
Performance evaluation
The performance evaluation considers the extent to which the resources, efficiency and effectiveness, socio-economic
impact, and relevance of the project have been used in the context of the objectives set. It identifies the factors that
contribute to the success or failure of the project, achievements, and results, including from a sustainability perspective,
and identifies good practices.
Ex-post evaluation is usually carried out in the form of an independent review of the history, objectives, results, activities,
and resources to draw lessons from the lessons learned that may be useful in future project activity. A detailed analysis
of the original plan, changes made over time, actual development and relative success should be made. The main objective
is to identify procedures and techniques that have not been effective. Missing or insufficient management tools, new
project management techniques must also be identified, and unnecessary processes and tools eliminated if necessary.
Project evaluation efficiency
For evaluation efficiency, the techniques used must have the following characteristics: reach and involve all key actors;
carry out a quality analysis, enabling end-users to express their views; use different techniques to collect quantitative
information. Information can be collected through surveys, questionnaires, surveys, and discussions.
The evaluation process can be complicated due to differences in understanding and objectivity, reluctance to
provide/disclose information, difficulty in measuring quality indicators.
Completion of the project is carried out with the preparation of a final report describing the results achieved by the project,
the type, and extent of its impact on the improvement of the situation of the sector or region concerned.
The Project evaluation (appraisal) report
The report shall contain the following information:
• Progress made on implementation in line with project objectives.
• Financial performance.
• Actions taken to ensure the quality and efficiency of implementation.
• Information on significant implementation problems and measures taken to address them.
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Information on the actual costs and duration of activities, costs, and use of resources, as well as all contracts, reports, and
project reports, should be stored in an organized database to support planning for future projects.
Question:5
Give the requisites corrective action the educational manager should take to keep the costs
down in the construction of ideal secondary schools in your region.
The system of education includes all institutions that are involved in delivering formal education (public and
private, for-profit and nonprofit, onsite or virtual instruction) and their faculties, students, physical
infrastructure, resources and rules. In a broader definition the system also includes the institutions that are
directly involved in financing, managing, operating or regulating such institutions (like government ministries
and regulatory bodies, central testing organizations, textbook boards and accreditation boards). The rules and
regulations that guide the individual and institutional interactions within the set up are also part of the
education system.
An analysis of the issues and problems suggest that:
The official data shows the allocation of funds for educational projects but there is no mechanism which ensures the
proper expenditure of those funds on education.
• The existing infrastructure is not being properly utilized in several parts of the country.
• There are various challenges that include expertise, institutional and capacity issues, forging national cohesion,
uniform standards for textbook development, and quality assurance.
• The faculty hiring process is historically known to be politicized. It is because of this that the quality of teaching
suffers and even more so when low investments are made in teachers’ training. As a result teachers are not regular
and their time at school is not as productive as it would be with a well-trained teacher.
• Inside schools there are challenges which include shortage of teachers, teacher absenteeism, missing basic
facilities and lack of friendly environment.
• Out of school challenges include shortage of schools, distance – especially for females, insecurity, poverty, cultural
norms, parents are reluctant or parents lack awareness.
Solutions
There is a need for implementation of national education policy and vision 2030 education goals. An analysis of education
policy suggests that at the policy level there are several admirable ideas, but practically there are some shortcomings also.
It may not be possible for the government at the moment to implement uniform education system in the country, but a
uniform curriculum can be introduced in educational institutes of the country. This will provide equal opportunity to the
students of rural areas to compete with students of urban areas in the job market.
Since majority of Pakistani population resides in rural areas and the access to education is a major problem for them, it
seems feasible that a balanced approach for formal and informal education be adopted. Government as well as non-
government sector should work together to promote education in rural areas.
The government should take measures to get school buildings vacated which are occupied by feudal lords of Sindh,
Balochistan and Punjab. Efforts should be made to ensure that proper education is provided in those schools.
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The federal government is paying attention to the vocational and technical training, but it is important to make the already
existing vocational and technical training centres more efficient so that skilled youth could be produced.
Since education is a provincial subject, the provincial education secretariats need to be strengthened. Special policy
planning units should be established in provinces’ education departments for implementation of educational policies and
formulation of new policies whenever needed. The provincial education departments need to work out financial resources
required for realising the compliance of Article 25-A.
Federal Government should play a supportive role vis-à-vis the provinces for the early compliance of the constitutional
obligation laid down in Article 25-A. Special grants can be provided to the provinces where the literacy rate is low.
Pakistan is not the only country which is facing challenges regarding promotion of literacy and meeting EFA and MDGs
commitments. Education remains a subject which is paid least attention in the whole South Asian region. UNDP report
2014 suggests that there has been an improvement in other elements of human development such as life expectancy, per
capita income and human development index value (in past 3 years); but there has been no progress in the number of
schooling years. The expected average for years of schooling in 2010 was 10.6 years but the actual average of schooling
remained 4.7 for all South Asian countries. In the year 2013 the expected average of number of years increased to 11.2
but the actual average of years of schooling of South Asian countries remained 4.7. Regional cooperation mechanism can
also be developed to promote literacy in South Asian region. Sharing success stories, making country-specific modifications
and their implementation can generate positive results.
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1. Going to a potential site to see if the research is possible

2. Checking to see what is the best approach to the research

5. Feedback from colleagues and peers about research design

1. Checking to see if the designed tool works

Characteristics of educational planning

a. Planning is made to achieve desired objective of business.

2. Planning is looking ahead.

a. Planning is done for future.

b. It requires peeping in future, analyzing it and predicting it.

c. Thus planning is based on forecasting.

d. A plan is a synthesis of forecast.

e. It is a mental predisposition for things to happen in future.

3. Planning is an intellectual process.

d. Planning is always based on goals, facts and considered estimates.

4. Planning involves choice & decision making.

a. Planning essentially involves choice among various alternatives.

c. Thus, decision making is an integral part of planning.

5. Planning is the primary function of management / Primacy of Planning.

a. Planning lays foundation for other functions of management.

b. It serves as a guide for organizing, staffing, directing and controlling.

d. Therefore planning is the basic or fundamental function of management.

6. Planning is a Continuous Process.

a. Planning is a never ending function due to the dynamic business environment.

7. Planning is all Pervasive.

a. It is required at all levels of management and in all departments of enterprise.

8. Planning is designed for efficiency.

a. Planning leads to accompishment of objectives at the minimum possible cost.

d. Therefore planning must lead to saving of time, effort and money.

a. Planning is done for the future.

How projects and programs differ

o The components of a project are specific and exact.

o A project represents a single, focused endeavour.

How are Project and Program Managers different?

How do I become a Project or Program Manager?

Get trained and certified.

The Analysis Phase of a Project

Critically analyze the educational planning process in Pakistan.

Educational planning is not a new activity. It is as old as education system itself

Education system of Pakistan:

Analysis of education system in Pakistan

A) MDGs and Pakistan

B) Education for All (EFA) Commitment

What are the steps of process of educational planning?

There are five main stages of educational planning:

• (1) Collection and Analysis of Statistical Information:

• (2) Evolving Policy Proposals:

• (3) Projections, Programming and Project Analysis:

• (5) Decision, Implementation and Evaluation:

What is planning process in Pakistan?

What are the six stages of educational planning?

Six-Steps in Curriculum Planning

o Establish a value base for the program.

o Develop a conceptual framework.

o Determine program goals.

o Design the program.

o Establish program assessment procedures.

o Implement the program.

What is the process of planning?

What are the main features of educational planning?

What is the role of educational planning?

Who is Pakistan’s Minister of planning and 2020?

What is the aim of educational planning?