UNIT 1 BOOLEAN ALGEBRA AND LOGIC GATES PRE. EQUISITE DISCUSSION Basically there are two types of signals in electronics, i) Analog ii) Digital Digital systems: Advantages The usual advantages of digital circuits when compared to analog circuits are: Digital systems interface well with computers and are easy to control with software. New features can often be added (o a digital system without changing hardware. Often this can be done outside of the factory by updating the product's software. So, the product's design errors can be corrected after the product is in a customer's hands. Information storage can be easier in digital systems than in analog ones. The noise-immunity of digital systems permits data to be stored and retrieved without degradation. In an analog system, noise from aging and wear degrade the information stored. In a digital system, as long as the total noise is below a certain level, the information can be recovered perfectly. Robustness One of the primary advantages of digital electronics is its robustness. Digital electronics are robust because if the noise is less than the noise margin then the system performs as if there were no noise at all Therefore, digital signals can be regenerated to achieve lossless data transmission, within certain limits. Analog signal transmission and processing, by contrast, always introduces noise. Disadvantages In some cases, digital circuits use more energy than analog circuits to accomplish the same tasks, thus producing more heat as well. In portable or battery-powered systems this can limit use of digital systems. For example, battery-powered cellular telephones often use a low-power analog front-end to amplify and tune in the radio signals from the base station, However, a base station has grid power and can use power-hungry, but very flexible software radios. Such base stations can be easily reprogrammed to process the signals used in new cellular standards. Digital circuits are sometimes more expensive, especially in small quantities. The sensed world is analog, and signals from this world are analog quantities. For example, light, temperature, sound, electrical conductivity, electric and magnetic fields are analog. Most useful digital systems must translate from continuous analog signals to discrete digital signals. This causes quantization errors. Quantization error can be reduced if the system stores enough digital data to represent the signal to the desired degree of fidelity. The Nyquist-Shannon sampling theorem provides an important guideline as to how much digital data is needed to accurately portray a given analog signal.1.1 REVIEW OF NUMBER SYSTEMS. Ref: 1) A.P Godse & D.A Godse “Digital Electronics”, Technical publications, Pune, Revised third edition, 2008. Pg.No:1-17 2) Mortis Mano M. and Michael D. Ciletti, “Digital Design”, IV Edition, Pearson Education, 2008.Pg.No:1-8, Many number systems are in use in digital technology. The most common are the decimal, binary, octal, and hexadecimal systems. The decimal system is clearly the most familiar to us because it is tools that we use every day. Types of Number Systems are Decimal Number system Binary Number system Octal Number system ‘Hexadecimal Number system ROBE Fig: Types of Number Systems DECIMAL BINARY OCTAL HEXADECIMAL 0 0000 0 0 1 0001 1 1 2 0010 2 2 3 oo11 3 3 4 0100 4 4 5 o101 5 5 6 0110 6 6 7 oud 7 7 8 1000 10 8 9 1001 iL 9 10 1010 12 A 1 1011 B B 12 1100 14 c B 1101 15 D 14 1110 16 E 15 nen 7 F Fig: Number system and their Base value Binary 2 [or Octal 8B [01234567 Decimal to [0123456789 Hexadecimal | 16 |0123456789ABCDEFDecimal system: Decimal system is composed of 10 numerals or symbols. These 10 symbols are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9. Using these symbols as digits of a number, we can express any quantity. The decimal system is also called the base-10 system because it has 10 digits. Even though the decimal system has only 10 symbols, any number of any magnitude can be expressed by using our system of positional weighting. 10° 10° 10" 10” 10" | 10 10° =1000 =100 | =10 =) . =0.1 | =00 =0.001 1 Most Significant Decimal Least Significant Digit point Digit Example: 3.1419 , 52:0 102410 Binary System: In the binary system, there are only two symbols or possible digit values, 0 and 1. This base-2 system can be used (o represent any quantity that can be represented in decimal or other base system. 2 2 2 r 2 z Pd =8 = =2 | =i . =05__[=0.25 20.125) Most Binary Least Significant point Significant Digit Digit In digital systems the information that is being processed is usually presented in binary form. Binary quantities can be represented by any device that has only two operating states or possible conditions. E.g.. A switch is only open or closed. We arbitrarily (as we define them) let an open switch represent binary 0 and a closed switch represent binary 1. Thus we can represent any binary number by using series of switches, Binary 1: Any voltage between 2V to 5V Binary 0: Any voltage between OV to 0.8V Not used: Voltage between 0.8V to 2V in 5 Volt CMOS and TTL Logic, this may cause error in a digital circuit. Today's digital circuits works at 1.8 volts, so this statement may not hold true for all logic circuits. Octal System: The octal number system has a base of eight, meaning that it has eight possible digits: 0,1,2,3,4,5, # ® ¥ 12 =o : 1512 Most Significant Octal Least Digit point Significant Digit Hexadecimal System: The hexadecimal system uses base 16. Thus, it has 16 possible digit symbols. It uses the digits 0 through 9 plus the letters A, B,C, D, E, and F as the 16 digit symbols.16° 16" 16" 167 16" 16" =4096 =16 =I S116 | =1256 | =1/4096 Most Hexadect Least Significant mal point Significant Digit Digit Code Conversion Converting from one code form to another code form is called code conversion, like converting from binary to decimal or converting from hexadecimal to decimal. ¥ _ Binary-To-Decimal Conversion: Any binary number can be converted to its decimal equivalent simply by summing together the weights of the various positions in the binary number which contain a 1 Binary Decimal THO112 aragtaglan0 =16+8404241 Result 2710 ¥ Decimal to binary Conversion: ‘There are 2 methods: + Reverse of Binary-To-Decimal Method + Repeat Division Reverse of Binary-To-Decimal Method Decimal Binary Bio =324048+44041 = 2042424042" Result =1011012 Repeat Division-Convert decimal to binary: This method uses repeated division by 2. Remainder Binary = 12+ remainder of |__| I (Least Significant Bit) = 6 + remainder of 0 0 = 3 + remainder of 0 0 32 = 1 + remainder of 1 1 12 =0-+remainder of |__| 1 (Most Significant Bit) Result 2510 = 110012 ¥ — Binary-To-Octal / Octal-To-Binary Conversion Binary to octal100 111 0102 = (100) (111) (010)2 = 728 Octal to Binary Y Decimal -To-Octal / Octal-To- Decimal Conversion Decimal to octal Division Result Binary 17718 = 22+ remainder of 1 | (Least Significant Bit) 22/8 + remainder of 6 6 2/8 = 0 + remainder of 2 2 (Most Significant Bit) Result 17710 = 2618 Binary = 0101100012 Octal to Decimal ah igh cg ot ie! sina | = 3 a= 48 si- 128 w= 512 8* = 28672 29363 ¥ Hexadecimal to Decimal/Decimal to Hexadecimal Conversion Decimal to Hexadecimal Division Result Hexadecimal 378/16 = 234 remainder of 10 A (Least Significant Bin23 23/16 = 1+ remainder of 7 71716 + remainder of I T (Most Significant Bity Result 37810 =1TAI6 Binary = 0001 0111 10102 ¥ _ Binary-To-Hexadecimal /Hexadecimal-To-Binary Conversion Binary-To-Hexadecimal: 1011 0010 11112 = (1011) (0010) (1111): = B 2 Fis Hexadecimal to binary E6 Hexidecimal 0 Binary Octal-To-Hexadecimal Hexadecimal-To-Octal Conversion Convert Octal (Hexadecimal) to Binary first Regroup the binary number by three bits per group starting from LSB if Octal is required. Regroup the binary number by four bits per group starting from LSB if Hexadecimal is required. ceed Octal to Hexadecimal Octal Hexadecimal = 2650 = 010 110 101 000 101 1010 1000 (Binary) Result SAB)i6 Hexadecimal to octal Hexadecimal Octal GAB)i6 = 0101 1010 1000 (Binary) = 010 110 101 000 Binary) Result =2650 Octal) 1’s and 2’s complement Complements are used in digital computers to simplify the subtraction operation and for logical manipulation. There are TWO types of complements for each base-r system: the radix complement and the diminished radix complement. The first is referred to as the 1's complement and the second as the (t - 1)'s complement, when the value of the base r is substituted in the name, The two types are referred to asthe 2's complement and 1's complement for binary numbers and the 10’s complement and 9's complement for decimal numbers, ¥ The 1’s complement of a binary number is the number that results when we change all 1’s to zeros and the zeros to ones. ¥ The 2’s complement is the binary number that results when we add I to the 1’s complement. It is used to represent negative number 's complement=I’s complement+1 Example 1) id 1°s complemnt of (1101): Sol: 1101 + number 0010 + 1’scomplement Example 2): Find 1’s complemnt of (1001) Sol: 1001 number 0110 + 1’scomplement + 1 oll 1.2. ARITHMETIC OPERATIONS Ref: 1) John F, Wakerly, “Digital Design Principles and Practices”, Fourth Edition, Pearson Education, 2007. Pg.No:35-44. 2) Morris Mano M. and Michael D. Ciletti, “Digital Design”, TV Edition, Pearson Education, 2008. Pg.No:9-14, Binary Equivalents 1 Nybble (or nibble) = 4 bits 1 Byte = 2 nibbles = 8 bits 1 Kilobyte (KB) = 1024 bytes 1 Megabyte (MB) = 1024 kilobytes = 1,048,576 bytes 1 Gigabyte (GB) = 1024 megabytes = 1,073,741,824 bytes ¥ Binary Addition < Rules of Binary Addition 0+0=0 and carry 1 to the next more significant bit¥ Example 00011010 + 00001100 = 00100110 ooo1rirol1d)d 400001100 oo100110 Note: The rules of binary addition (without carries) are the same as the truths of the XOR. gate. ¥ Binary Subtraction ¥ Rules of Binary Subtraction 0-0=0 o- 1- 1-1=0 , and borrow I from the next more significant bit ¥ Example 00100101 - 00010001= 00010100 oo 100101 +00 010001 00 010100 v Binary Multiplication Y Rules of Binary Multiplication . Ox 0 . Ox oO . 1x 0 . 1x 1 =1, and no carry or borrow bits Y Example 0101001 x 00000110 = oo10100 1 Mion xo000011 0 ooo000 0 0 oo101001 o1d01001 o1rii1o1i1 0 Note: The rules of binary multiplication are the same as the truths of the AND_gate.¥ Binary Division Binary division is the repeated process of subtraction, just as in decimal division. v Example 1: 00101010 + 00000110 = 00000111 90101010~00000110 Eig T(hase10) =00000111 1100 02 49 1 O10 42(base 10) - 110 6(base 10) 1 borrows EP edg i 2 he 110 - 110 0 Example 2: 10000111 + 00000101 = 00011011 13 14 1S 10000111 -00000.01 iy WE shoot 27hase 10) 1042 80 19 0 111 — Wthase eae a = Sally ra J13 Hi ar Para - 10 ro 10116 BINARY CODES Ref: 1) AP Godse & D.A Gods edition, 2008. Pg.No:31-57. 2) Morris Mano M. and Michael D. Ciletti, “Digital Design”, IV Edition, Pearson Education, 2008.Pg.No:17-24 3) John F. Wakerly, “Digital Design Principles and Practices”, Fourth Edition, Pearson Education,2007. Pg.No:44-60. ‘Digital Electronics”, Technical publications, Pune, Revised third Binary codes are codes which are represented in binary system with modification from the original ones. There are two types of binary codes: Weighted codes and Non-Weighted codes. BCD and the 2421 code are examples of weighted codes. In a weighted code, each bit position is assigned a weighting factor in such a way that each digit ca n be evaluated by adding the weight of all the 1’s in the coded combination * Weighted Binary Systems ¥ 8421 code/BCD code ‘The BCD (Binary Coded Decimal) is a straight assignment of the binary equivalent. It is possible to assign weights to the binary bits according to their positions. The weights in the BCD code are 8,4,2,1 Example: The bit assignment 1001, can be seen by its weights to represent the decimal 9 because 1x8+0x440x2+1x1 = 9 Weighted Code —8421 code * Most common + Default + The corresponding decimal digit is determined by adding the weights associated with the 1s in the code group. — 62310 110 0010 0011 — 2421, 5421,7536, ete... codes + The weights associated with the bits in each code group are given by the name of the code Nonweighted Codes = 2-out-of- 5 Non Weighted codes are codes that are not positionally weighted. That is, each position within the binary number is not assigned a fixed value. + Actually weighted 74210 except for the digit 0 + Used by the post office for scanning bar codes for zip codes + Has error detection properties ¥ 2421 code This is a weighted code; its weights are 2, 4, 2 and 1. A decimal number is represented in 4-bit form and the total four bits weight is 2 +4 +2 +1 = 9. Hence the 2421 code represents the decimal numbers from 0 to 9. 10¥ 5211 code This is a weighted code; its weights are 5, 2, 1 and 1. A decimal number is represented in 4-bit form and the total four bits weight is 5 +2 + 1 + 1 = 9. Hence the 5211 code represents the decimal numbers from 0 to 9. ¥ Reflective code A code is said to be reflective when code for 9 is complement for the code for 0, and so is for 8 and 1 codes, 7 and 2, 6 and 3, 5 and 4, Codes 2421, 5211, and excess-3 are reflective, whereas the 8421 code isnot ¥ Sequential code A code is said to be sequential when two subsequent codes, seen as numbers in binary representation, differ by one. This greatly aids mathematical manipulation of data. The 8421 and Excess-3 codes are sequential, whereas the 2421 and 5211 codes are not. ¥ —_ Excess-3 code Excess-3 is a non weighted code used to express decimal numbers. The code derives its name from the fact that each binary code is the corresponding 8421 code plus 0011(3). Example: 1000 of 8421 = 1011 in Excess-3 v Gray code The gray code belongs to a class of codes called minimum change codes, in which only one bit in the code changes when moving from one code to the next. The Gray code is non-weighted code, as the position of bit does not contain any weight. In digital Gray code has got a special place. Decimal Binary Code Gray Code Number 0 0000 0000 1 0001 0001 2 0010 oo11 3 0011 0010 4 0100 o110 5 o101 oul 6 0110 0101 7 ou 0100 8 1000 1100 9 1001 1101 10 1010 nu at 1011 110 MW12 1100 1010 B 101 1011 4 1110 1001 15 it 1000 The gray code is a reflective digital code which has the special property that any two subsequent numbers codes differ by only one bit. This is also called a unit-distance code. Important when an analog quantity must be converted to a digital representation. Only one bit changes between two successive integers which are being coded. ¥ Error Detecting and Correction Codes * Error detecting codes When data is transmitted from one point to another, like in wireless transmission, or it is just stored, like in hard disks and memories, there are chances that data may get corrupted. To detect these data errors, we use special codes, which are error detection codes. * Error correcting code Error-correcting codes not only detect errors, but also correct them. This is used normally in Satellite communication, where turn-around delay is very high as is the probability of data getting corrupt. * Hamming codes Hamming code adds a minimum number of bits to the data transmitted in a noisy channel, to be able to correct every possible one-bit error. It can detect (not correct) two-bit errors and cannot distinguish between I-bit and 2-bits inconsistencies. It can't - in general - detect 3(or more)-bits errors, * Parity codes A parity bit is an extra bit included with a message to make the total number of 1’s either even or odd. In parity codes, every data byte, or nibble (according to how user wants to use it) is checked if they have even number of ones or even number of zeros. Based on this information an additional bit is appended to the original data. Thus if we consider 8-bit data, adding the parity bit will make it 9 bit long. At the receiver side, once again parity is calculated and matched with the received parity (bit 9), and if they match, data is ok, otherwise data is corrupt. ‘Two types of parity -Even parity: Checks if there is an even number of ones; if so, parity bit is zero. When the number of ‘one’s is odd then parity bit is set to 1. -Odd Parity: Checks if there is an odd number of ones; if so, parity bit is zero. When the number of ‘one’s is even then parity bit is set to 1 ¥ Alphanumeric codes 12The binary codes that can be used to represent all the letters of the alphabet, numbers and ‘mathematical symbols, punctuation marks, are known as alphanumeric codes or character codes. These codes enable us to interface the input-output devices like the keyboard, printers, video displays with the computer. * ASCII codes Codes to handle alphabetic and numeric information, special symbols, punctuation marks, and control characters ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) is the best known. + Unicode — a 16-bit coding system provides for foreign languages, mathematical symbols, geometrical shapes, dingbats, etc. It has become a world standard alphanumeric code for microcomputers and computers. It is a 7-bit code representing 2” = 128 different characters. These characters represent 26 upper case letters (A to Z), 26 lowercase letters (a to z), 10 numbers (0 to 9), 33 special characters and symbols and 33 control characters. * EBCDIC codes EBCDIC stands for Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange. It is mainly used with large computer systems like mainframes. EBCDIC is an 8-bit code and thus accommodates up to 256 characters, An EBCDIC code is divided into two portions: 4 zone bits (on the left) and 4 numeric bits (on the right), Example 1: Give the binary, BCD, Excess-3, gray code representations of numbers: 5,8,14. Decimal Number | Binary code BCD code Excess-3 code Gray code 5 0101 o101 1000 ont 8 1000 1000 1011 1100 14 1110 (0001 0100 (0100 0111 1001 Example 2: Binary To Gray Code Conversion 1+ 0+ 0+ 1+ 0 (BINARY) | | | | tyr t ’ 1 1 0 4 1 (CONVERTED GRAY CODE) Example 3: Gray Code To Binary Code Conversion 1Be i J (GRAY CODE) VI/ Q 0 1 0 (CONVERTED BINARY CODE) ray 1.7 BOOLEAN ALGEBRA AND THEOREMS : 1) AP Godse & D.A Godse “Digital Electronics”, Technical publications, Pune, Revised third ion, 2008. Pg.No:2.1-2.10 2) Morris Mano M. and Michael D. Ciletti, “Digital Design”, IV Edition, Pearson Education, 2008.Pg.No:36-44. In 1854, George Boole developed an algebraic system now called Boolean algebra. In 1938, C. E. Shannon introduced a two-valued Boolean algebra called switching algebra that represented the properties of bistable electrical switching circuits. Boolean algebra is an algebraic structure defined by a set of elements B, together with two binary operators. +” and ‘*, provided that the following (Huntington) postulates are satisfied; Principle of Duality It states that every algebraic expression is deducible from the postulates of Boolean algebra, and it remains valid if the operators & identity elements are interchanged. If the inputs of a NOR gate are inverted we get a AND equivalent circuit. Similarly when the inputs of a NAND gate are inverted, we get a OR equivalent circuit. 1. Interchanging the OR and AND operations of the expression. 2. Interchanging the 0 and 1 elements of the expression. 3. Not changing the form of the variables. ‘Theorems of Boolean algebra: The theorems of Boolean algebra can be used to simplify many a complex Boolean expression and also to transform the given expression into a more useful and meaningful equivalent expression. The theorems are presented as pairs, with the two theorems in a given pair being the dual of each other. ‘These theorems can be very easily verified by the method of _perfect induction‘. According to this method, the validity of the expression is tested for all possible combinations of values of the variables involved. Also, since the validity of the theorem is based on its being true for all possible combinations of values of variables, there is no reason why a variable cannot be replaced with its complement, or vice versa, without disturbing the validity. Another important point is that, ifa given expression is valid, its dual will also be valid. T1: Commutative Law @) A+B=B+A (b) AB=BA ‘T2: Associative Law (a) (A+B) + C=A+(B+C) 14(b) (AB) C=A(BC) T3: Distributive Law (a)A(B+C)=AB+AC ()A+(BC)=(A+B)(A+C) T4: Identity Law @) AtA=A (b) AA=A TS: Negation Law =A and (A)=A Redundancy @) A+AB=A (b) A(A+B)=A ‘'T7: Operations with ‘0” & 1” (a) OFA=A (bo) IA=A © 144 @ 0A=0 ‘omplement laws @A+A=1 (b) A.A =0 (a)A+AB=A+B (b) A. (A+B) =A.B T10: De Morgan's Theorem ‘* It States that —The complement of the sum of the variables is equal to the product of the complement of each variable This theorem may be expressed by the following Boolean expression. GFB) =AB ‘* It states that the —Complement of the product of variables is equal to the sum of complements of each individual variable. Boolean expression for this theorem is, GB) =4+5 Order of Precedence NOT operations have the highest precedence, followed by AND operations, followed by OR operations. Brackets can be used as with other forms of algebra. eg. X.Y +Zand X.(Y +Z) are not the same function, Truth TablesTruth tables are a means of representing the results of a logic function using a table. They are constructed by defining all possible combinations of the inputs to a function, and then calculating the output for each combination in turn. x YT FY) AND 0 0 0 0 T 0 i 0 0 1 1 1 NOT x F(X) 0 1 1 0 OR x Y_ | FCcy) 0 0 0 0 1 1 i 0 1 i i 1 Minterms and maxterms A binary variable may appear either in its normal form (x) of in its complement form (x' ). Now consider two binary variables x and y combined with an AND operation. Since each variable may appear in either form, there are four possible combinations: x’y’, xy. xy ', and xy. Each of these four AND term s is called aminterm, ot a standard product. Ina similar fashion, n variables forming g an OR term with each variable being primed or Unprimed provide 2" possible combinations called maxterm. or standard sums. . A minterm is the product of N distinct literals where each literal occurs exactly once. . A maxterm is the sum of N distinct literals where each literal occurs exactly once. For a two-variable expression, the minterms and maxterms are as follows x | ¥ Maxterm 0 0 X+Y 0 1 X+Y" 1 0 X+Y 1 1 XY’ For a three-variable expression, the minterms and maxterms are as follows x Y | Z | Minterm | Maxterm 0 0 0 XY. ql XHY4Z 16XYZ XHY4Z, XHY4Z" X'YHZ, X+Y4Z" XHVYZ, XGYSZ -|-|+|-lelele -|-lele|-|+lo This allows us to represent expressions in either Sum of Products or Product of Sums forms Sum Of Products (SOP): F(X, Y, ...) = Sum (aj.mj), where ag is 0 or 1 and mg is a minterm. To derive the Sum of Products form from a truth table, OR together all of the minterms which give a value of 1 Consider the truth table as example, x Y F Minterm, 0 0 0 X.Y 0 1 0 XY 1 0 1 X.Y" 1 1 1 X.Y Here SOP is {(X.Y) =X.Y'+ X.Y Product Of Sum (POS): The Product of Sums form represents an expression as a product of maxterms.F(X, Y, .......) = Product (by +My), where by is 0 or | and Mg is a maxterm. To derive the Product of Sums form from a truth table, AND together all of the maxterms which give a value of O.Consider the truth table from the previous example x Y F Maxterm 0 0 T XY 0 1 0 X+Y" 1 0 1 X+¥ 1 1 1 XH Here POS is F(X,Y) = (X+Y") (a) Sum of Products (b) Product of Sums Conversion between POS and SOP: Conversion between the two forms is done by application of DeMorgans Laws. 7UNIT-1I INTRODUCTION: In 1854, George Boole, an English mathematician, proposed algebra for symbolically representing problems in logic so that they may be analyzed mathematically. The mathematical systems founded upon the work of Boole are called Boolean algebra in his honor. The application of a Boolean algebra to certain engineering problems was introduced in 1988 by CE. Shannon For the formal definition of Boolean algebra, we shall employ the postulates formulated by E.V. Huntington in 1904 Fundamental postulates of Boolean algebr: ‘The postulates of a mathematical system forms the basic assumption from which it is possible to deduce the theorems, laws and properties of the system. ‘The most common postulates used to formulate var i) Closure: Asset Sis closed w.r.t. a binary operator, if for every pair of elements of S, the binary operator specifies a rule for obtaining a unique element of S. The result of each operation with operator (+) or (, is either 1 or 0 and 1, 0 €B. us structures are— ii) Identity element: ‘A set Sis said to have an identity element w.r.ta binary operation * on §, if there exists an element e € $ with the property ePx=x*e=x a) x+ 0= x b)x =x Eg: 0+0 OF1=1+ 11-1 1,0=0.1= iii) Commutative law: A binary operator * on a set Sis said to be commutative if, x*y=y*x forallx,yESEg: 0+1=1+0 0.1=1.0 iv) Distributive law: If* and * are two binary operation on a set , * is said to be distributive over + whenever, x. (y+ 2) = (%y) + (%2) Similarly, + is said to be distributive over * whenever, x+(y.2) = (x+y). (x+ 2) v) Inverse: Aset S having the identity element e, w.r.t. binary operator * is said to have an inverse, whenever for every x €S, there exists an element x’ €S such that, xx’ Ee a) x+x'=1, since 0+0' =0+1and1+1/=14+0=1 , since 0.0" = 0.1 and 1,1 = Postulates of Boolean algebra: POSTULATES Postulate 2 (Identity) Postulate 3 (Commutative) Postulate 4 (Distributive) Postulate 5 (Inverse) Basic theorem and properties of Boolean algebra: Basic Theorems:The theorems, like the postulates are listed in pairs; each relation is the dual of the one paired with it. The postulates are basic axioms of the algebraic structure and need no proof. The theorems must be proven from the postulates. The proofs of the theorems with one variable are presented below. At the right is listed the number of the postulate that justifies each step of the proof. 1) a)xtx=x X#x= (ctx). 1 x x). (Xt x’) by postulate 2(b) [x. 1 =x] 5(a) [xt x 4(b) Letyz = (xty)(e+2)] 5(b) [x. x’ =0] 2a) [x+0= x] by postulate 2(a) [x* 0 5(b) [x. I] Ala) [x (ytz) = (xy) + @z)] 5@) [xx =1] 2b) [x1 =x] 2) a)xt1 X#1=1.(x+1) ). (x 1) by postulate 2(b) [ x.1 =x] 5(a) [xt x’ = 1] Alb) [xtyz = (xty)(x+2)] 2b) [x.1=%] 5a) [xt x’= 1] 3) &Y From postulate 5, we have x+ x’ = 1 and x. x’ = 0, which defines the complement of x. The complement of x’ is x and is also (x’Y’. Therefore, since the complement is unique, wy =x. 4) Absorption Theorem: a) xt xy =xxt} x.1txy =x(Ity) =x(1) =x. b) x. (xt y) =x. X. Xt Y) EXXEXY xtxy x. 9) xtx'y=xty Xt xy = xt xyt x'y xt y (xt x’) xty (1) xty d) x. ty) =xy x. (x+y) = xX" XY 0+ xy y: Properties of Boolean algebra: 1, Commutative property: by postulate 2(b) [x1=x] (a) [ x (yz) = (xy) + (x2)] by theorem 2(a) [xt 1 =x] by postulate 2(a) [1 =x] (a) [ x (y#z) = (xy) + (x2)] by theorem 1(b) [x.x=x] by theorem 4(a) [xt xy =x] - by theorem 4(a) [xt xy =x] - by postulate 4(a) [ x (y+z) = (xy)+ (xz)] Sia) [xt x’=1] 2b) Ix. x) Boolean addition is commutative, given by xty=ytx According to this property, the order of the OR operation conducted on the variables makes no difference. Boolean algebra is also commutative over multiplication given by, XY =y-x This means that the order of the AND operation conducted on the variables makes no difference. 2. Associative property:The associative property of addition is given by, ‘At (Bt C) = (A+B) + C The OR operation of several variables results in the same, regardless of the grouping of the variables. The associative law of multiplication is given by, A. (B.C) = (A.B) .C It makes no difference in what order the variables are grouped during the AND operation of several variables. 3. Distributive property: The Boolean addition is distributive over Boolean multiplication, given by A+ BC = (A+B) (AC) The Boolean addition is distributive over Boolean addition, given by A. (BHC) = (A.B)+ (A.C) 4, Duality: It states that every algebraic expression deducible from the postulates of Boolean algebra remains valid if the operators and identity elements are interchanged. If the dual of an algebraic expression is desired, we simply interchange OR and AND operators and replace 1's by 0's and 0's by 1's. xtx’=1isx.x’=0 Duality is a very important property of Boolean algebraSummary: Theorems of Boolean algebra: THEOREMS @ (b) 1_ | Idempotency x+x=x X.X=Xx 2 x+1=1 x.0=0 3__ | Involution wy =x 4 _| Absorption x# xy =x x(xty)=x xtx'y=xty x(x" y= xy Associative xH(yt 2)= (xt y)tz | _ x (yz) = by) z DeMorgan’s Theorem (xt y=xy’ ( yY=x'ty’ DeMorgan’s Theorems: Two theorems that are an important part of Boolean algebra were proposed by DeMorgan. The first theorem states that the complement of a product is equal to the sum of the complements. (AB) = A’+ BY The second theorem states that the complement of a sum is equal to the product of the complements. (A+ BY =A’ Consensus Theorem: In simplification of Boolean expression, an expression of the form AB+ A’C+ BC, the term BC is redundant and can be eliminated to form the equivalent expression AB+ AVC. The theorem used for this simplification is known as consensus theorem and is stated as, AB+ A‘C+ BC = AB+ A/C The dual form of consensus theorem is stated as, (A+B) (A’+C) (B+) = (A+B) (A’+C)BOOLEAN FUNCTIONS: ization of Boolean Expressions: The Boolean expressions can be simplified by applying properties, laws and theorems of Boolean algebra. Simplify the following Boolean functions to a minimum number of literals: 1. x (x+y) = xt xy [xx'=0] tay [xt 0=x] = xy. 2 xtxy =xtxytx’y [xt xy= x] =xty (xtx’) + y (1) [xt x’ =1] =xty. 3. (xt y) ty) X.xt xy’ xyt yy’ = xt xy"t xy 0 [x. x= 0]; [y. y= 0] (ty'+y) =x(I) [1+y=1] =x. 4 xy tx'ztyz. = xy +x'z + yz(xtx’) [x+ x= 1] = xy tx'z+ xyz + x’yz Re-arranging, xy + xyz x'z4x'yz xy (1+ 2) +x’z (I+y) [t+y=1] =xytx’z. 5. xyt yzt y’z ytz(yty’) y+ z(1) Lyty’=1] =xytz.6 (xt y) (x’+ 2) (y+ z) = (xt y) (+ z) [ dual form of consensus theorem, (A+ B) (A’+ C) (B+ C) = (A+ B) (A’+ C)] 7. x'yt xytx’y’ Hy (x'tx) +x’y" [x (y+ z) = xyt xz] (1) +xy" [xt x’ = 1] +x! [et xy! =xty’] ytx’. 8. xt xy’t xy, =x (It y)+x’y () +xy 9. AB +(AC)' + AB/C (AB +C) = AB + (AC)' + AAB'BC + AB'CC AB + (AC)' + 0+ AB'CC = AB + (AC)' + AB'C AB+A'+C'+ABIC [Ao' AB+A'+C+ AB IC’ + AB’C=C’ + AB] = A’ + B+ C’+ AB’ [A’ + AB= A‘ +B] Re- arranging, A’ + AB’+ B+ C! [A+ AB= A’ +B] A+B BHC [B+ B= 1] Al ++ C [Ati=]] 10. (x'+ y) (x+y) xt xy + yxt yy =O x'ytxyty [xx’= 0}; [x x= x] (x4 xt 1) (1) [a+x=1] I. xy+ xyzt xy (w+ z) = xy (1+ z+ w+ 2)13. xyz xy’z+ xyz! = xy (2+ 2!) + xy’z 14. x’y'z'+ x'yz'+ xy'z'+ xyz! 2! (y’+ y)+ xz! (y’+ y) Cz!+ xz! =7 (xx) =z 15. w'xyz!+ xyz'+ xy'z't xy’z xyz! (w'+ 1) + xy’z't xy’z = xyz'+ xy’z/+ xyz xz! (y+ y!) + xy'z xa! xy’z =x (z+ y’2) =x(zty’). 16. w'xy’z+ w'xyzt wxz w'xz (y’+ y)+ wxz = w'xz (1)+ wxz W'xXz+ WXZ xz (w’+ w) 17. x'y'z'+ x'y'a+ x'yz'+ x'yz+ xy’ ly! (z'42) + x'y (z'+2)+ xy’! Cy Ch) +x'y (It xy'z = x'y! + x'y + xy’z" ex(yty) tay'z! [1+x=1] [4+x=1] [xt x'y =x+ yl [xt x’= 1] [xt x’'y = xt y] [xtx’= 1] [x+x’=1] [atx=1] [xt x’=1] [xtry/=x'y/] [xtx’=1] [x+x/=1] [x+x’=1]18. w'y (w’xz)' + w’xy’z! + wx'y w'y (Wt x’ 2’) + wixy'z’ + wx'y Wy (w+ x'+ 2!) + wixy’z! + wx’y wywt w'y x’+ wy 2! + w'xy’z! + wx'y +wx'yt w'y 2! + w'xy’2! + wx'y Re-arranging, = w'x’yt wr'y + wy z! + w'xy’z! fy (w+ w) + WZ’ (y+ xy’) ’y (1) + w'2! (yt xy’) = x'yt wz! (y+x) 19. xy+ x (y+ z) + (y+ 2) yt xy xz yy yz. 20. [xy’ (2+ wy) +x’y']z = Lay’zt xy'wyt xy] xy’z+ OF x’y']z vaeys =yz(xtx) 'z (1) yu 21. x’'yz+ xy’2'+ x'y'z'+ xy'Z+ xyz 2, (x'+x) + xy!2'+ x’y'2'+ xyz, 2 (1) + y'2! (xt x’) + xyz yar y'2! (1) + xy’z = yzt y'z't xy’z iz y! (z'+ xz) z+ y’ (z'+ x) = yzt y'z't xy” 22. [xy)/+ x'+ xy! xi+ y/t xt xy]! Xt yt xy!" [x+x=1] [et xy’=xty] [x’=x] [x.x’=0] [x+x/=1] [xt x'y = x+y] Dot x= x} fx. x= x] [xt xy=x] [xt xy=x] [x.x= x] [x+x/=1] [xt x/=1] [x+x’=1] [xtxy=x’ty] [xt x= x][xt y+ xy" [Xt xy=x'ty] ly+ =[1r =0. 23. [xyt xz]'t x'y’z = (xy). (2)'+x'y'z = (Cty). (+ Z)tXy’z = XX'EX'D'+ xy’ y'z't X'y'Z =x't xiz't x'y’t y'u't x'y'z [xt x= x] =Xx't x'z't x'y'+ y' [2+ x'Z] Ext xZ'tx'y'ty’ [2x] [x'+ xy =x'+ y] =Xx'tx'y/ty’ [24x] [xt xy =] axt ryt y'z't xy! =xit yi'tx'y! [xt xy =x] =xity'z. [xt xy =] 24. xyt xy’(x’2/)/ = xyt xy! (x 2”) = xyt xy’ (xt z) x” =x] = xyt xy’xt xy"Z, = xyty’t xy’ [x x= x] = xyt xy’ [1+ z] Tart ay” 1] [1+x=1] =x fl] [xt x/=1] 25. [( xy’+ xyz)'+ x (y+ xy’ = [x(y"tyz)'+ x (y+ xy)" = [x(y'#2)'* x (yt I [Xb xy =x'+ yl Lxtx'y =xty] x( y/42)'+ xyt xx)]" (xy'+x2)'+ xy x)’ Ix. x= x] (xy"hz)'+ 0] [xt xy =x] xy)’, (x2)'+ x] (x+y). (x’+2')+ x] [ [ [ [ [ [O Gray code Sequence cD Bee 00 1 2 01 di 10 Grayeode | 00} mo] mm | ms | ne Sequence o1} ma | ms | nv | me 11} m2} ms | ms | my 10} ms | me | mn | mo 4 Variable map Grouping cells for Simplification: The grouping is nothing but combining terms in adjacent cells. The simplification is achieved by grouping adjacent 1's or 0's in groups of 2i, where i = 1, 2, ..., n and nis the number of variables. When adjacent 1’s are grouped then we get result in the sum of product form; otherwise we get result in the product of sum form, Grouping Two Adjacent 1's: (Pair) Ina Karnaugh map we can group two adjacent 1's. The resultant group is called Pai cD ep cD AEX 00 on 110 ABN 00 otto BK oo 00 00 00 o1 on () ala) 1 1 n 1 n 10 20 10 / ‘ABD BCDco eS co wo a nw Co a nw AC w of wo 0 1 00 0 Lf a al |@tp a n n 1 n \ Ly -OER -GOSG -oemat i> op cp xi ep Examples of Pairs Grouping Four Adjacent 1’ : (Quad) Ina Karnaugh map we can group four adjacent 1’s. The resultant group is called Quad. Fig (a) shows the four 1’s are horizontally adjacent and Fig (b) shows they are vertically adjacent. Fig (c) contains four 1’s in a square, and they are considered adjacent to each other. ep eo ep wo oa nw aCe o nw Co ot nw 00, 00 1 00 ifaw) aval araleny| ot 7 al [ipa 2 \ a Th af |i 1» 1% fl x» fa) AB b) cD © BD eo eo eo eV oa no BO wa co ot 20 00 09 oo| 2 1 a a a 2 n n 0 1 1. 1 1 7 ho] k } @ @& V oO AD BD BDExamples of Quads The four 1’s in fig (d) and fig (e) are also adjacent, as are those in fig (f) because, the top and bottom rows are considered to be adjacent to each other and the leftmost and rightmost columns are also adjacent to each other. Grouping Eight Adjacent 1's: (Octet) Ina Karnaugh map we can group eight adjacent 1's. The resultant group is called Octet. n\ 10 1 1 1 | Cr cD > PAB NSO (01 gt a1 bee 10 AB ere OL ee Let 10k AE Nest Ollaet 11b1 10) off1 fa fafa oo ff1 | 2 ofls | a fafa | se alla [4 aff alfa [a o1 n nfl fa n 10 ig eee ese ere eat @ a c ) 3 © plification of Sum of Products Expressions: (Minimal Sums The generalized procedure to simplify Boolean expressions as follows: 1. Plot the K-map and place 1’s in those cells corresponding to the 1's in the sum of product expression, Place 0's in the other cells. 2. Check the K-map for adjacent 1's and encircle those 1’s which are not adjacent to any other 1’s, These are called isolated 1's. 3. Check for those 1’s which are adjacent to only one other 1 and encircle such pairs.Check for quads and octets of adjacent 1’s even if it contains some 1's that have already been encircled. While doing this make sure that there are minimum number of groups. Combine any pairs necessary to include any 1’s that have not yet been grouped. Form the simplified expression by summing product terms of all the groups. ‘hree- Variable Map: 1. Simplify the Boolean expression, E(x, y,z) = Em (3, 4, 6,7). Soln: yet xz! WE yn) ys) ya) ya) (OOH sO1 eerie 0 xo;ojojijo) poled) 0 ele ieee ety ere yz 2. F(x, y,z)=Ym (0,2, 4,5, 6). iin: F je yo ye yz yz yz (OOH Ol aerlliaei0 OOH Olestle 19) ooO Oe Ot xifa ji joj a! xy’ 3. F=A’'C+A'B+ ABC + BC A‘C (Bt B’) + A’B (C+ C’) + AB'C + BC (At A’) = A’BC+ A'B'C + A’BC + A’BC’ + AB’C + ABC + A’BC = A’BC+ A'B'C + A’BC’ + AB'C + ABC st mrt mat mst m7=Ym(,2,3,5,7) BC BC BC BC BC BC BC Be Bc BC a 7 2B oo o1 11 10 oo o1 11 1 Ao] 0 1 1 1 AO | 3 | = Al 0 4 1 7 1 A oO 4 Al c Cral 4. AB’C + A’B‘C + A‘BC + AB'C’ + ABC’ Soln: m5 + m1 + m3 + m4 + m0 LmO1,3,4,5) aPC BC BC ac BS BC BC BC ac at oo o1 11 10 oo o1 11 10 AO 1 1 1 0 A 0 Eo oe oe Al 1 1 0 0 A A %] oS B F=A'C+B’ Four - Variable Map: 1. Simplify the Boolean expression, = A’BC'D’ + A’BC’D + ABC’D’ + ABC’D + AB’C’D + A’B'CD’& ar or al > me|(0 |) |oet pee Therefore, Y= A’B‘CD'+ AC’D+ BC’ 2. F (w,x,y, 2) =) m(0,1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 12, 13, 14) Soln wr\ 0 1 10 ofa ja joja ft os! afi fa1fofa tts od u ryosa af Out bd MLE es} 2 xi ¥ Therefore, ’B’C’+ BICD’+ A’BCD’+ ABC’ = A'BC (D+ D’) + BCD (A+ A’) + A’BCD’+ ABYC (D+ D) 'B'C’D+ A’B'C'D'+ AB‘CD’+ A‘B’CD’+ A’BCD'+ AB‘C’D+ AB'C’D’ mit mot miot mz+ mot mot msal B00 0110 = Ym 0,1,2,6,8,9,10) cp ol Et alt | 08 ajo}ojo}i Ee! 0] 02-0 Pr itajoja Therefore, F= B’D'+ B’C'+ A'CD’. 4. Y= ABCD+ AB'C’D'+ AB’C+ AB mast mst mit mot mut Must m2 = Ym (8, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15) cD AB\ 00011110 (00) Ore) 0 | 50.2) 20) a}oj;ojoloa nfafa ja folie oe |) calen Therefore, Y= AB+ AC+ AD’, ABCD+ AB'C’D’+ ABC (D#D')+ AB (C+) (D+D’) ABCD+ AB'C’D’+ AB’CD+ AB’CD’+ (ABC+ ABC) (D+ D’) = ABCD+ AB’C’D’+ AB’CD+ AB'CD’+ ABCD+ ABCD'+ ABC’D+ ABC’D’ ABCD¢+ AB’C’D’+ AB’CD+ AB’CD’+ ABCD’+ ABC’D+ ABC’D’ 2 a) 0 T AB ac 5. Y (A,B,C, D)=¥ m (7,9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15)cD (AB Ne Ook en Of atteAiten a0 00) 084||.0)||40):|/.00 dy | pep ol] Oo 0 0 de A amy. 1 1 yf a x i} 0 1 1 1 do) fal * al ac "AD Therefore, Y= AB+ AC+ AD+BCD. 6. Y= A’B'C’D+ A’BC’D+ A’BCD+ A’BCD’+ ABC’D+ ABCD+ ABCD 1+ mst mt met mst Mast mM =Ym (1,5, 6,7, 11, 13, 15)

an ei wlofo}i ja Therefore, Y= A’C’D+ ABC’+ ACD+ ABC. 8. Y= A’B‘CD’+ ABCD'+ AB‘CD'+ AB/CD+ AB‘C’D'+ ABC’D'+ A’B/CD+ A’B‘C'D! BD cD aB\ cb/eD 0 Therefore, Y= AD’+ B‘C+ B/D! 9. F (A,B,C, D)=Ym(0,1,4,8,9,10) cp cp aB\X 00 on 1110 4B Zp ep cd of 1]i1]ojfo AGD a5 1ffo }o qd | | afi}ojolo AB 0 e 21) on! 0) wlijijofa Therefore, F= A’C’D'+ AB‘D’+ B’ication of Sum of Products Expressions: (Minimal Sums) (A+ B+ C’) (A+ B’+ C’) (A’+ B’+ C’) (A’+ B+ C) (A+ B+ C) Mh. Ms. Mz. Ma. Mo 1M (,1,3,4,7) =Ym(2,5,6) BC BC kK ec Ae PoC Geno aec oat ao Re oo 01 11 10 BC BC/ BC BC m0) |e) Or al Ko |fo}|(o [fo arfo}ijo}a Al lo) 1 {WW} BC BC YY’ = BC's A'C+ BC. BIC'+ A'C+ BOY’ = (BCY. (A’CY. (BOY B"+C"). (A"+C). B+ C) (B+ C). (A+C). (B+ C) 2. Y= (A’+ B’+ C+ D) (A+ B’+ C’+ D) (A’+ B+ C’+ D’) (A’+ B+ C+ D) (At B’+ C’+ D) (A+ Bit C+ D’) (At B+ C+D) (A’+ BY C+D) = Mn. Mis. Mis. Ms. Ms. Mz. Mo. Mis =TIM 0, 6,7,8, 12, 13, 14, 15) peP DB Cp cb cb oo 01 _ 10 P70) 107) ote) lea A ABol] 1} 1 jo] o jis Od og BC AB 11} 0] 0 }0] 0 nl Sal Pit a aB 10} o} 1 fafa of Sul ad Y’ = B'C'D'+ AB+ BC Y=Y" (B'C'D'+ AB+ BC)’ BIC’D'Y’. (AB)’. (BCY’ B"+ C’+D"). (A’4B’). (B+ C’) (B+ C+ D). (A’+ BY), (B+ C’) Therefore, Y= (B+ C+ D). (A’+ B’). (B'+ C’)3. F(A, B,C, D)= [1M (0,2,3,8, 9, 12, 13, 14, 15) cD GD a B ape> CD CD cD cB oo or M10 ABOO} Oj} 1} 0 0 | AB 01 diditdcd tr AB 11] 0} 0.) OF 1 uf “ol ul AEF 10} On| Ole fae | = (ABDY. (A’B'C).. (ABD. (ACY (A"+ B+ D”). (A+ B’+C). (A’+ B’+ D’). (A’+ C”) A+ B+ D). (A+ B+ C’). (A’+ B'+ D’). (A+ C) Therefore, Y= (A+ B+ D). (A+ B+ C’), (A/+ B’+ D/). (A+ C) 4. F(A,B, C, D)= Ym (0, 1, 2,5, 8, 9, 10) =[IM@,4,6,7, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15) £D CD SD cD cD > on the output when any of the o]}o} o (7432) inputs are HIGH. The output is o}4 1 Y- A+B LOW only when all inputs are tr} 0 1 Low. aja _Itis a universal gate. When any A| Bly AB A of the inputs are LOW, the o fo NAND t 1 es | output will be HIGH, LOW ala (7400) — | output occurs only when all at 4 vad |i inputs are HIGH, 1 1 o Itis a universal gate. LOW A | Bly asp NOR output occurs when any of its pelzoe ea 5400) input is HIGH. When all its lala (7402) inputs are LOW, the output is Allo HIGH. al el a a | B ly-asB A EX-OR | 5 ) > The output is HIGH only when eee (7486) of 1 Y= ASB 1 oO 1 a1filio A A B |y= AOB} B » penon | 27" | evnumberatinputeietners | || ° |] y~ AGB Or NPE 7 of 0 a Or when all inputs are zeros males lee Y= A@B afijii UNIVERSAL GATES: The NAND and NOR gates are known as universal gates, since any logic function can be implemented using NAND or NOR gates. This is illustrated in the following sections. a) NAND Gate: The NAND gate can be used to generate the NOT function, the AND function, the OR function and the NOR function, i) NOT functi By connecting all the inputs together and creating a single common input.ii) AND function: By simply inverting output of the NAND gate. ice, > AB a = a] a ]yas a|e| ap | ap ofo] o ofo]o 1 0 1 oO = 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 z 0 0 i rtafia afaita 0 AND function using NAND gates iii) OR function: By simply inverting inputs of the NAND gate. i, =AtB OR function using NAND gates Bubble at the input of NAND gate indicates inverted input.A | B |y-asB Aa|B o}o] o o}o o}ai]{ 2 = foli ajo} a4 1 jo afifii. 1fi iv) NOR functi By inverting inputs and outputs of the NAND gate. b) NOR Gate: Similar to NAND gate, the NOR gate is also a universal gate, since it can be used to generate the NOT, AND, OR and NAND functions. i) NOT funct By connecting all the inputs together and creating a single common input.rr ‘ [2 * 3 ¥ > op) A ; 3 z z Bo+Bla ii) OR function: By simply inverting output of the NOR gate. ie., AYB= A+B a | B ly-atB a || ap | ate ofo] o oo] 4 ° onl a 1 = oF lea 0 il afo}a 1r}o] o 1 ajaili 1fijio 1 iii) AND function: By simply inverting inputs of the NOR gate. i.e., A a = Y- A+B +> AND function using NOR gates Bubble at the input of NOR gate indicates inverted input.A | B/Y=-A.B A |B] A+B o}o 0 o}o a Ola 9 = foi a | 9 1jo 1 lal A elie 0 ‘Truth table iv) NAND Function: By inverting inputs and outputs of the NOR gate. >| Pe tl ales a] 3] ae ofo} a ojo} a 0 1 ofa}oa ofa} o 1 ato} a Toe ° Hy 1filio a1filio 1 0 Conversion of AND/OR/NOT to NAND/NOR: 1. Draw AND/OR logic. 2. If NAND hardware has been chosen, add bubbles on the output of each AND gate and bubbles on input side to all OR gates. If NOR hardware has been chosen, add bubbles on the output of each OR gate and bubbles on input side to all AND gates. Add or subtract an inverter on each line that received a bubble in step 2. Replace bubbled OR by NAND and bubbled AND by NOR. Eliminate double inversions. » ae 1. Implement Boolean expression using NAND gates:@BOD Original Circuit: (A+ BY fcr [R90 Soln: NAND Circui A B Y c ee eo Elimination of double inversion Bf OSBp— —t [- : NOR Circuit:gouDp Elisnination of double inversion x \ 2. Implement Boolean expression for EX-OR gate using NAND gates. LD", Y= Apt AB B Soln: Adding bubbles on the output of each AND gates and on the inputs of each OR gate. A Adding an inverter on each line that received bubble,Es Eliminating double inversion, eT). > Replacing inverter and bubbled OR with NAND, we have — 4 Y= AB.BA = AB+ AB ey [