1

ENGINEERING SURVEY I
Chapter 3: Linear Measurements

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17 March 2024 © Raju BHELE

 1. Different methods of Linear Measurements
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 There are various methods of linear measurements and their relative merits
depends upon the degree of precision required.
 They can mainly be divided into three heads.

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 In direct measurements, distances are measured on the ground with the help of chain
or tape and other instruments.
 In optical method, observations are taken through telescope and calculations are
done for distances. For eg: Tacheometry, Triangulation etc.
 In electronic method, distances are measured with instruments that rely on

propagation, reflection and subsequent reception of either radio or light waves.

Instruments used in electronic method are Geodimeter, Tellurometer, Electronic
distance measuring (EDM), Total station etc.

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 2. Direct measurement
4

Different methods of direct measurements are as follows.

I. Pacing

II. Measurement with Passometer

III. Measurement with Pedometer

IV. Measurement with Odometer and Speedometer

V. Taping or chaining

VI. Measurement with EDM

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 Pacing
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 Pacing is mainly done for the preliminary surveys and explorations where rough
survey as quick as possible is required.
 It may also be used to roughly check the distances measured by other methods.

 The method consists of counting the number of paces between two points. The length

of the line then be calculated by multiplying the average pace length with the number
of paces counted.
 The length of the pace varies with the individual and also with the nature of the

ground. Normally accuracy of pacing is taken as 1:100.

 The length of one pace is known as pacing factor(P.F).

 A normal man takes a step of length 0.75 m to 0.8 m.

 P.F =
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 2.2 Measurement with Passometer
6

 It is an instrument used to count the number of paces.

 It is shaped like a watch and carried in pocket or
attached to one leg.
 It works according to the motion of the body.
 It records number of steps taken

 2.3 Measurement with Pedometer

 Pedometer is a device similar to the passometer except
the length of the pace of the person is adjusted so that it
directly gives the total distance travelled.

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 2.4 Measurement with Odometer and Speedometer
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 Odometer is an instrument used for registering the

number of revolutions of a wheel.
 It is fitted with the wheel which is rolled along the line.
 Knowing the circumference of the wheel, the distance
travelled may be found.

Speedometer
 Odometer calibrated to give distance directly is called
speedometer.
 This is to be used for particular vehicle only.
 All automobiles are provided with speedometers.
 By running the vehicle along the line to be measured
distance can be found.

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 2.5 Taping or chaining
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 Taping or chaining is the measurement of distances either with the help of the chain
or tape and is the most accurate method of making direct measurements.
 It is also the commonly employed method in surveying.

 For the work of ordinary precision chains can be used however for higher precision a

tape is used.

TAPE
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CHAIN
 3. Instruments used for linear measurements
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A. Chain
B. Tape
C. Arrows
D. Pegs
E. Ranging rods
F. Plumb bob
G. Offset rods

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 3.1 Chain
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 Chains are formed of straight links of galvanized mild steel wire bent into rings at the
ends and joined each other by three small circular or oval rings.
 These rings give flexibility to the chain.

 The ends of the chain are provided with brass handle with swivel joint.

 The length of the link is the distance between the centers of two consecutive middle

rings while the length of the chain is measured from the outside of the handle to the
outside of other handle.
 The length of the line is measured by counting the links and distance is calculated by

multiplying the number of links with the length of link.

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 20m chain: 100 links, each links measure 20 cm
30 m chain: 150 links, each link measures 20 cm

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 3.1.1 Types of chain
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 Metric chain
 Gunter's chain or surveyor's chain

 Engineer's chain

 Revenue chain

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 Metric chain
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 The metric chains are based on the metric system of measurements.

 They are generally found in the length of 5m, 10m, 20m and 30m.
 Commonly used metric chains are of 20 m length.

 They have 100 links with tallies at every 2m; each link is of 0.2 m length.

 Simple rings are provided at every one meter length except wherever tallies are provided.

 The total length of chain is marked on the brass handle.

 To distinguish the metric chain from other chain, tallies are marked with letter 'M'.

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Gunter's chain or surveyor's chain

 A Gunter's chain is 66 ft long with 100 links each link being 0.66 ft.

 It is generally used for land measurement purpose and linear distance.

Engineer's chain
 It is 100 ft long with 100 links , each link being 1ft long. At every 10 link, brass

tags are fastened.

Revenue chain
 It is 33ft long chain with 16 links, each link being 2.0625ft. It is mainly used for
cadastral survey.
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 3.2 Tape
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Tapes are used for more accurate measurements and they are classified as under
according to the material by which they are made.
 Cloth or linen tape

 Metallic tape

 Steel tape

 Invar tape

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 3.2.1 Cloth or linen tape
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 Linen tapes are closely woven linen and varnished to resist

moisture.
 They are generally 10m to 30m in length and 12mm to 15mm in
width.
 One end of the tape is provided with a ring whose length is included
in total length of tape.
 These tapes are used for less accurate works. Least count of this
tape is 5mm.
 However because of the following disadvantages they are not
popular:
 Due to moisture they shrink.

 Due to stretching they extend.

 They are not strong.

 They are likely to twist

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 3.2.2 Metallic tape
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 A linen tape reinforced with brass or copper wires to

prevent stretching or twisting is called a metallic tape.
 Since these tapes are light and flexible and are not

easily broken, they are particularly used in cross-

sectioning and some methods of topography.
 Metallic tapes are made in lengths of 2, 5, 10, 20, 30

and 50m.
 These tapes are supplied in a metal or leather case

fitted with a winding device.

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 3.2.3 Steel tape
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 Steel tape is generally superior to cloth or a metallic tape.

 A steel tape consist of a light strip of width 6mm to 10mm.
 Steel tapes are available in lengths of 1, 2, 10, 20, 30 and
50m.
 The tapes of 10, 20, 30 and 50m are provided with a brass
rings at outer end joined to the tape by metal strip of same
width.
 The length of the tape includes the length of metal ring.
 It is wound in a leather case or corrosion resisting metal
case.
 Steel tapes are superior to metallic tapes as far as accuracy
is concerned.
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 3.2.4 Invar Tape
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 Invar is an alloy of nickel (36%) and steel.

 It’s coefficient of thermal expansions low. Hence errors

due to variation in temperature do not affect

measurements much.
 The width of tape is 6 mm.

 It is available in length 30 m, 50 m and 100 m.

 It is accurate and give high degree of precision but

expensive.

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 3.3 Arrows
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 Arrows are marking pins and are made of stout steel

wire.
 When the length of the line to be measured is more

than a chain length, there is need to mark the end of

the chain length, for that purpose arrows are used.
 Arrows are made of good quality hardened and
tempered steel wire 4mm in diameter.
 The length of arrow may vary from 25-50cm.

 The most common length is 40 cm.

 One end of the arrow is made sharp and pointed and

other end is bent into a loop or circle for facility of
carrying.
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 3.4 Pegs
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 Wooden pegs are used to mark the

positions of the stations or terminal
points of a survey line.
 They are made of stout timber
generally 2.5 - 3 cm square and 15cm
long,
 It is tapered at one end so that they can

easily be driven into the ground.

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 3.5 Ranging rods
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 Ranging rods have a length of either 2m or 3m. 2m length

is common in use.
 They are provided with heavy iron point at the bottom.

 They are painted in alternative bands of either black and

white or red and white, each band being 20cm deep.

 Ranging rods are used to range some intermediate points
in the survey line.
 They are circular or octagonal in cross section of 3cm
nominal diameter and made of well seasoned straight
grained timber.

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 3.6 Plumb bob
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 Plumb bob is a instrument used to transfer the points to the ground.

 It is also used to make ranging rods vertical.

 In addition, it is also used for centering in theodolite, compass, plane table etc.

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 3.7 Offset Rods:
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 These rods are also similar to ranging rods

and they are 3 m long.
 They are made up of hard wood and are

provided with iron shoe at one end.

 A hook or a notch is provided at other end.

 At height of eye, two narrow slits are also

provided for using it for setting right angles.

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 4. Ranging
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 When the line is long which can not be measured by

one tape length or the end stations are not visible
due to undulating ground, ranging is required.
 Ranging is the process of marking a number of

intermediate points on a survey line joining two

stations in the field so that the length between them
may be measured correctly and easily.
 Ranging can be done either by eye estimation or by

using a line ranger or a theodolite.

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 Fig: Ranging
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 4.1 Types of ranging
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A. Direct ranging
B. Indirect ranging (Reciprocal ranging)

Indirect Ranging

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 4.1.1 Direct ranging
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Direct ranging is done when the two end stations of the survey line are intervisible.
Intermediate ranging rods are fixed along the line by direct observations from either
end station.

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Procedure of direct ranging

 Ranging rods are erected vertically at each ends of the
survey line.
 Surveyor should stand 0.5m to 2m behind the ranging
rod at the end of the line.
 Assistant then holds the ranging rod at the point
approximately in the line where intermediate point is to
be established.
 Then the assistant is directed to move the rod right and
left until the three ranging rods appear to be exactly in a
straight line.
 Ranging is done by sighting over lower ends of the
rods to avoid the error due to non verticality of rods.
 After confirming the rods are in straight line, arrow is
fixed.
 Similarly other intermediate points can be established.
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 4.1.2 Indirect ranging
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Indirect ranging is done when the ends of the survey line are not intervisible due
to raised ground or due to long distances between them. It is also known as
reciprocal ranging.
Procedure
 Two ranging rods are fixed vertically at points A and B.

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 Two intermediate points let M1 and N1 are selected near to the chain line in such a
way that from M1 both N1 and B are visible and from N1 both M1and A are visible.
 Person at M1 should direct the person at N1 to move to a new position N2 in a line
with M1B. Then person at N2 should direct the person at M1 to move to a new
position M2 in a line with N2A.
 The process is repeated continuously until both the positions are exactly on line AB.

i.e. person at M finds the person at N in line with MB and the person at N finds
person at M in line with NA.
 Ranging rods are erected vertically at M and N which serve as a intermediate station

for fixing the other points by direct ranging.

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 5. Methods of chaining on sloping ground
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 Chaining on the surface of sloping ground gives the sloping distance but for survey
work, horizontal distances are required.
 It is therefore necessary either to reduce the sloping distance to horizontal equivalent

or to measure the horizontal distance between the stations directly.

 There are two methods of getting the horizontal distance between two points on

sloping ground.
1. Direct method( stepping method)
2. Indirect method

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 5.1 Direct method (stepping method)
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 In direct method horizontal distances are measured in short horizontal lengths or

stretches.
 Depending upon the steepness of the ground, length of the stretches should be

chosen.
 Higher the steepness of the ground, shorter the length of the stretch and vice versa.

 Direct method is also known as stepping method.

C
D
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 Direct method contd.
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Procedure
 Let A and B be the points, the distance between two have to be determined.

 Range the intermediate points between A and B at suitable length.

C
D

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 Direct method contd.
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 Then the follower holds the zero end of the tape at A while the leader stretches the
tape tight and makes it horizontal by swing method.
 The length of the stretch is measured as D1.

 Then the point is transferred to the ground and named as C.

 The follower then goes to the point C and the process is repeated until the point B
is reached.
 Thus the length of the line AB is found by adding the length of all the stretches

ie.D1,D2,D3 etc.

C
D
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 5.2 Indirect method
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 In case of regular or even slope, sloping distance is measured and horizontal distance
can be calculated.
 In such methods, in addition to sloping distance, the angle of slope or difference

between two points is to be measured.

 This method is applicable only when desirable accuracy is low.

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 5.2.1 Measuring sloping distance and vertical angle(sloping
angle)
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 To find the horizontal distance between two points, intermediate points are ranged and fixed
on ground where slope of ground changes.
 The inclined distance between C and D is measured. D
 Angle of line CD with horizontal is also measured.
l1
Let, inclined distance be l1 and vertical angle be α1.
Then, horizontal distance (L1) = l1 X cos α1 α1
 Similarly, the process is repeated for next segments. C
 Total horizontal distance between two points is then

L = = l1cos α1 + l2cos α2 + ……………..+ ln cos αn

 The vertical angle of line can be measured

with help of Clinometer or Abney level.
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 Abney level and Clinometer
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 5.2.2 Measuring sloping distance and difference in level measured
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 Sometimes instead of slope angle, difference in level between two points

is measured with the help of levelling instrument and horizontal distance
is computed.
 Let, H is the level difference between two points and L is the sloping

distance, then
Horizontal distance (D)= 𝐿2 − 𝐻 2
L H

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 5.2.3 Hypotenusal allowance
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 A correction is applied in the field at every chain length and at every point where the slope
changes.
 The slope of the ground is first found out by using clinometer. Hypotenusal allowance is then
made for each tape length.

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 6. Errors in chaining
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1. Erroneous length of chain or tape

2. Bad ranging
3. Careless holding and marking
4. Bad straightening
5. Non verticality
6. Sag in chain
7. Variation in temperature
8. Variation in pull
9. Personal mistakes

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 6.1 Error due to incorrect chain length
43

Let L be true length of the chain

L’ be faulty length of the chain
Measuring length of line is l
L'
The true length of line = xl
L

Measured area of plot = a 2

 L' 
The true area of the plot =   xa
L

Measured volume of the excavation = v

3
 L' 
The true volume of excavation =   xv 3/17/2024

L
 The area of plot was measured with a 30 m chain and found to be 5000 sq.m. It
was afterward detected that the chain used was 10 cm too short. What is the true
area of the field?
44

Faulty length of chain = L’ = 30-0.1=29.9 m

True length of chain = L = 30 m
Measured area = a = 5000 sq.m
Then, 2
 L' 
The true area of plot is   xa
L
2
 29.9 
 The true area of plot is   x5000  4966.72 sq.m
 30 

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 The area of the plan of an area plotted to a scale of 10 m to 1 cm measures now as 100.2
sq.cm as measured by planimeter. The plan is found to have shrunk so that a line originally 10
cm long now measures 9.7 cm only. Further, the 20 m chain used is 8 cm too short. Find the true
area of the survey. 2
 10 
Original area plotted in the map is   x100.2  106.494sq.cm
 9.7 
The scale on the map is 1 cm = 10m
1 sq.cm = 100 sq.m
The original area of the plot is 106.496 x 100 sq.m = 10649.4 sq.m
True area when measured with tape of 20 m which was found 8 cm too short is
2
 19.92 
  x10649.4  10564.38sq.m
 20 

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 7. Tape corrections
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7.1 Correction for standardization

If L = measured length of a line
Ca = correction for absolute length
l = nominal or designated length of tape
C = correction to be applied in the tape per length = l’- l
l’ = actual length of tape

The correction is positive when the actual length is greater than nominal length and vice versa

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 7.2 Correction for slope
Case 1: if vertical distance between first and last point is known
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 Case 2 if angle of slope is known
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 Horizontal distance = ?
Q
P
A B
49

 A survey line PQ is run on a terrain having 240 m along a downward slope 1 in 12 from P to A, a distance of 225 m
from A to B having an angle of elevation 50 30’, a rise of 20 m from B to Q at a distance of 250 m. Find the horizontal
distance between P and Q if the distance were measured with a 20m tape which was 5 cm too long
P
12
1 tanΦ = 1/12
Find Φ = ?
Φ Horizontal distance between P and A = cosΦ x PA = D1
D1 A
B
225 m Horizontal distance between A and B = cos 50 30’ x AB = D2
50 30’
A
D2
Q Horizontal distance between B and Q = D3 (Find using Pythagoras theorem)

250 m
20 m Measured Horizontal distance between P and Q = D1+ D2 +D3 = 712.334 m
𝑳′ 𝟐𝟎.𝟎𝟓
𝒙𝒍 = 𝒙𝟕𝟏𝟐. 𝟑𝟑𝟒 = 714.115 m
B True Horizontal distance between P and Q = 𝑳 𝟐𝟎
D3 3/17/2024
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7. 3.Correction for temperature

If the temperature in the field is more than the temperature at which the tape was
standardized, the length of tape increases, measured distance becomes less and the
correction is therefore additive and vice versa.
The temperature correction is given by
Ct   (Tm  To ) xL
Tm = mean temperature in the field during measurement
To = temperature during standardization of the tape
L = measured length
 = coefficient of thermal expansion of tape
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Solution:

Hints:

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7. 4. Correction for pull or tension

If the pull applied during measurement is more than the pull at which the tape was
standardized, the length of tape increases and measured distance becomes less and the
correction is positive or vice versa.
Cp = the correction for pull

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53

A line was measured with a steel Tape which

was exactly 30 m at 18oC and a pull of 50 N and
the measured length was 459.242
m. Temperature during measurement was 28oC
and the pull applied was 100 N. The tape was
uniformly supported during the
measurement. Find the true length of the line
if the cross-sectional area of the tape was 0.02
cm2, the coefficient of expansion per oC =
0.0000117 and the modulus of elasticity = 21 x
106 N per cm2.

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7. 5. Correction for sag

When the tape is stretched on support between two points, it takes the form of a horizontal catenary.
The horizontal distance will be less than the distance along the curve. The difference between
horizontal distance and the measured length along catenary is called sag corrections.
sag
2
Then correction for sag is l ( wl ) P P
c s1  1 12 W = weight of tape per length
24 P
If l is total length of tape and is suspended 𝑙1
in n equal numbers of bays, the sag catenary
correction per tape length is
𝑛𝑙1 (𝑤𝑙1 )2 𝑙(𝑤𝑙1 )2 𝑙(𝑤𝑙)2 𝑙𝑊 2
𝑐𝑠𝑎𝑔 = 𝑛𝑐𝑠1 = = = =
24𝑃2 24𝑃2 24𝑛2 𝑃2 24𝑛2 𝑃2
If the tape is standardized in the catenary
condition and used in flat, the
𝑳𝑾𝟐 𝑳𝑾𝟐 l3
𝒄𝒔𝒂𝒈 = − l1 l2
𝟐𝟒𝑷𝒔𝟐 𝟐𝟒𝑷𝒎𝟐
= n𝑙1 W = weight of tape l
L = length measured
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Ps= pull at standardization
Pm= pull at measurement
55

 A 30 m steel tape was standardized at a temperature of 20˚c and under a pull of 10 kg. The tape was used in catenary to
fix a distance of 28 m between two points at 40˚c under a pull of 5 kg. Find the correct distance between the points and
find the value of pull for which the measured distance would be equal to correct distance. Given cross sectional area 0.02
sq.cm, the coefficient of expansion per oC = 0.000011, the modulus of elasticity = 2.1 x 106 kg per cm2.
 Hints:
1. The temperature correction (+ve) is given by Ct   (Tm  To ) xL 4. Total correction = ……..(Ans: -0.00625 m)
5. Correct distance: ………..(Ans: 27.994 m)
2. The correction for pull (-ve) 6. The measured distance would be equal to correct
distance if the correction due to sag and pull is equal i.e.
𝑐𝑠𝑎𝑔 = 𝑐𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑙
𝑛𝑙1 (𝑤𝑙1 )2 𝑙1 (𝑃𝑚− 𝑃𝑜 )
=
24𝑃2 𝐴𝐸
28(0.470/30)2 (28)2 28(𝑃− 10)2
= = 0.02 𝑥 2.1 x 106
24𝑃2

3. The sag correction (-ve) On solving

𝑛𝑙1 (𝑤𝑙1 )2 P = 12.248 kg
𝑐𝑠𝑎𝑔 =
24𝑃2
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 A steel tape was exactly 20 m long at 10°C when supported throughout its length under a pull of 5 kg. A line measured with this
tape under a pull of 16 kg and at a mean temperature of 22° C, was found to be 680 m long. Assuming the tape is supported at
every 10 m, find the true length of the line. Given that (a) cross-sectional area of tape = 0.03 cm^2 (b) E = 2.1 x 10^6 kg/cm2
(c) α = 11 x 10^-6 per °C and (d) weight of tape = 10 g/cc

𝑛𝑙1 (𝑤𝑙1 )2
𝑐𝑠𝑎𝑔 =
24𝑃2

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57

 A 20 m steel tape standardized in a catenary at temp of 12.5 °C and pull of 100 N was found to be 19.978. A line measured with
this tape under a pull of 16 kg and at a mean temperature of 25° C, was found to be 1120 m long. find the true length of the line.
Given that E = 2.1 x 10^5 N/mm2, α = 12 x 10^-6 per °C, weight of tape = 0.077N/mm^2, weight of suspended tape = 7.85 N
The correction is positive when the actual length is greater than nominal length and vice
versa

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 Degree of accuracy in chaining
58

The various conditions affecting the degree of accuracy in chaining are

 Nature of ground

 Time and money available

 Weather

 The error may be expressed as a ratio such as 1/n which means there is error of 1 unit in the
measured distance of n units.
 The value depends upon the purpose and extend of the different conditions
Invar tape, spring balance, thermometer 1 in 10000
Steel tape, plumb bob chain pins 1 in 1000
Chain under average condition 1 in 500

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