Solar Photovoltaic System Modelling

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Solar Photovoltaic System Modelling
and Analysis
Design and Estimation
 Published 2024 by River Publishers
River Publishers
Alsbjergvej 10, 9260 Gistrup, Denmark
www.riverpublishers.com

Distributed exclusively by Routledge

605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017, USA
4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN

Solar Photovoltaic System Modelling and Analysis / by T. Mariprasath, P. Kishore,

K. Kalyankumar.

© 2024 River Publishers. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be
reproduced, stored in a retrieval systems, or transmitted in any form or by any
means, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written
permission of the publishers.

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa

business

ISBN 978-87-7004-090-7 (paperback)

ISBN 978-10-4002-308-2 (online)

ISBN 978-1-003-47589-7 (ebook master)

A Publication in the River Publishers series

RAPIDS SERIES IN POWER

While every effort is made to provide dependable information, the

publisher, authors, and editors cannot be held responsible for any errors
or omissions.
 Solar Photovoltaic System Modelling
and Analysis
Design and Estimation

T. Mariprasath
K.S.R.M College of Engineering (Autonomous), India

P. Kishore
IIITDM Kurnool, India

K. Kalyankumar
K.S.R.M College of Engineering (Autonomous), India

River Publishers
 Contents

Preface ix

About the Authors xi

1 Renewable Energy 1
1.1 Renewable Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Non-Conventional Power Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

2 Photovoltaic Systems 11
2.1 Photovoltaic System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2 Photovoltaic Power Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.3 Monocrystalline Silicon Solar Cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.4 Polycrystalline Silicon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.5 Solar Cells Made of a Thin Film (TFSC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.6 Solar Cells Made out of Amorphous Silicon (a-Si) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.7 Copper Indium Gallium Selenide (CIS/CIGS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

3 Types of Solar Photovoltaic Systems 23

3.1 Types of Solar Photovoltaic Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

v
Contents

4 Solar Charge Controller 29

4.1 Solar Charge Controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
4.2 Working Principle of a Charge Controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4.3 Benefits of a PWM Charge Controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4.4 MPPT Charge Controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.5 Development of MPPTs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
4.6 Limitation of Traditional MPPT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4.7 Merits of Conventional MPPT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
4.8 Bi-inspired MPPT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4.9 Characteristics of an MPPT Solar Charge Controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
4.10 MPPT with a PWM Charge Controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.11 Design of a Series Controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
4.12 Design of the Shunt Controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

5 Necessity of Boost converters 57

5.1 Necessity of Boost converters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
5.2 Components Used in a Boost Converter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
5.3 Necessity of a Buck converter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
5.4 Necessity of a Buck Boost Converter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
5.5 Effect of Duty Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
5.6 Circuit Configuration of a Boost Converter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
5.7 Result and Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
5.8 Modified Boost Converter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

6 Necessity of a Hybrid Power Plant 71

6.1 Necessity of a Hybrid Power Plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
6.2 Grid Connected Solar PV system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

7 Domestic Application 77
7.1 Domestic Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

vi
 Contents

7.2 Load Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

7.3 Measurements of the Converter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
7.4 Dimensions of the Battery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
7.5 Solar Photovoltaic Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

References 81

Index 89

vii
 Preface

The purpose of this book is to provide elaborate information about solar

photovoltaic (PV) system modelling and analysis. The requirement for electrical
energy has increased in a rapid manner due to sustainable development and
the socioeconomic status of people. Hence, power industries are enhancing
the power generation capacity of generating units to satisfy consumer
requirements. The primary resource for conventional power plants is fossil fuels,
which are extracted from the purification process of petroleum products. As per
statistics, the fossil fuel depletion rate is rapidly increasing, which harms the
environment. Therefore, renewable energy resources are getting more attention
because they are endlessly available in the earth’s atmosphere.

Globally, the electrical energy extraction rate from solar PV is rapidly

increasing compared to all other renewable energy resources. As a result,
technological advancement causes the cost per watt of solar PV to gradually
decrease every year. The challenge of solar PV is that efficiency is low.
Therefore, to improve efficiency, major technologies are incorporated, such as
boost converters, maximum power point tracing techniques, solar PV cleaners,
irradiation tracing systems, and adjusting the tilt angle of the panel. Around
the globe, there is a huge opportunity to improve the energy yield potential of
solar PV plants.

The book has seven chapters. Chapter 1 covers the importance of renewable
energy resources and their types, as well as their growth rate. In Chapter
2, we go over the fundamentals of how solar PV systems produce electrical
energy before examining various solar PV panel types and their significance.
In Chapter 3, different types of solar PV configurations and their structures
are described. In Chapter 4, the role of charge controllers, different types
of charge controllers, and a brief discussion on conventional and bioinspired
MPPT techniques. In Chapter 5, a brief discussion is given on the buck and
boost converters, the modelling of boost converters, and how boost converters
behave under steady and variable irradiations. In addition, with a modified

ix
Preface

boost converter, performance is analyzed. Chapter 6 describes the necessity

of hybrid power plants and grid-connected solar PV systems. In Chapter 7, we
provide information about the size of solar PV, which includes an estimation of
the load corresponding to the size of solar PV, a boost converter, and an inverter
rating for domestic applications. Hence, the book is very useful for bachelor’s
and master’s degree students as well as research scholars.

x
 About the Authors

Dr. T. Mariprasath received his Ph.D. degree from the Rural Energy Centre,
The Gandhigram Rural Institute (Deemed to be University), in January 2017,
fully funded by the Ministry of Human Resource Development—Government
of India. He has been working as an Associate Professor with the Department
of EEE, K.S.R.M. College of Engineering (Autonomous), Kadapa, since June
2018. He has published in 10 science citation indexed journals and 15 Scopus
indexed articles. Moreover, he has published a book with Cambridge Scholars
Publishing, UK. He also has an Indian patent granted. His research interests
include renewable energy engineering, renewable energy resources, micro grid,
green dielectrics, and artificial intelligence.

Dr. P. Kishore received his Ph.D. in Physics with Photonics Specialization

from National Institute of Technology in the year 2015. He completed his
M.Sc. Physics (Electronics) and B.Sc. (M.P.Cs.) from the Sri Venkateswara
University Tirupati. He has eight years of teaching experience in physics and
photonics subjects. He has published 70 research articles in reputed journals
and conference proceedings. He has also published four book chapters and
filed one Indian IPR patent. Currently he is working as an Assistant Professor
of Physics in the department of Sciences at Indian Institute of Information
Technology Desing and Manufacturing Kurnool, Andhra Pradesh India. He
works in the areas of optics, photonics, renewable energies and allied areas.

Mr. K. Kalyankumar is pursuing a Ph.D at Yogi Vemana University, Andhrap

Pradesh, India, He has been working as an Assistant Professor with the
Department of EEE, K.S.R.M. College of Engineering (Autonomous), Kadapa,
since December 2006. He has published five Scopus indexed articles and
four book chapters. His research interests include power systems, electrical
machines and power electronics.

xi
 CHAPTER

Renewable Energy

1.1 Renewable Energy

Renewable energy means energy derived from natural sources that are
replenished at a higher rate than they are consumed. Sunlight and wind are the
best examples of such sources that are constantly being replenished. Renewable
energy sources plentifully available all around us. On the other hand, fossil
fuels, coal, oil and gas, are non-renewable resources that take hundreds of
millions of years to form. In addition, fossil fuels when burned to produce
energy, produce harmful greenhouse gas emissions, such as carbon dioxide, etc.
However, generating renewable energy creates far lower emissions than burning
fossil fuels. Transitioning from fossil fuels, which currently account for the lion’s
share of emissions, to renewable energy is key to addressing the climate crisis.
Day to day renewables have become cheaper in most countries, and generate
three times as many jobs than fossil fuels.

The use of fossil fuels consumes non-renewable resources, which means that
these resources will eventually run out, at which point their extraction will
either be prohibitively expensive or environmentally detrimental. On the other
hand, the many different types of renewable energy resources, such as wind and
solar energy, are continuously being replenished and will never run out. When
coal is burned for energy, a wide variety of different kinds of particulate matter
are produced, all of which contribute to air pollution. When one considers
the various non-financial costs of using fossil fuels, such as pollution, climate
change, and the effect on biodiversity, renewable energy is actually much more
efficient than fossil fuels. This is because pollution causes climate change,

1
Renewable Energy

which in turn impacts biodiversity. One of the drawbacks of using renewable

sources of energy is that it is difficult to generate significant quantities of
electricity comparable to that which is produced by conventional generators
that run on fossil fuels [1], [2]. The supply of power for renewable energy sources
is frequently dependent on the elements. Rain is necessary to fill dams and
furnish hydroelectric generators with flowing water. The fact that most forms
of alternative energy are, on average, more expensive than energy derived from
fossil fuels is perhaps the most significant disadvantage of using renewable
sources of power. Because of this, there has not been as much of a shift toward
the use of sustainable sources of energy as there has been toward the use of
clean energy [3]–[5].

The majority of the energy that is renewable originates from the sun, either
directly or indirectly. Sunlight and solar energy can be used directly for a variety
of purposes, including the heating and lighting of homes and other structures;
the generation of electricity; solar cooking; solar water heating; and a wide
range of other commercial and industrial applications. Wind turbines are able
to harness the power of the wind because the heat from the sun is also what
powers the wind. Then, the heat from the sun and the breeze cause water
to evaporate; later, this water vapor condenses into precipitation in the form
of rain or snow, which then flows into rivers or streams. Renewable energy
sources have quickly become a preferred alternative to conventional methods
of producing electricity in settings where this type of production simply isn’t
feasible. In this day and age, we need to focus on renewable resources in order
to satisfy the desire for electricity. Wind power is widely recognized as one of
the most promising areas in the field of sustainable energy. Wind electricity
is a resource that is both clean and environmentally friendly. Because of the
variations in wind speed brought on by the changing seasons, the production of
electricity from wind turbines can be quite unpredictable. The wind generator
that is coupled with the wind turbine will generate voltage that is variable as
well as a frequency that is variable. As a result, the objective of the endeavor is
to keep the voltage and frequency on the output side at a constant level [6], [7].

The majority of agricultural irrigation is a complex interplay that involves

the consumption of renewable energy, the use of water, the conditions of the
market, as well as the application of experience and knowledge to guarantee
the best design for irrigation applications. The market for agricultural products
is shifting at a breakneck pace, making it impossible for farmers to depend
on the technology and practices of today. Induction motors with three phases
are typically found in agricultural applications. It is possible for it to be either
a three-phase or a one-phase induction motor, depending on the application.
One-phase induction motors are suitable for use in residential settings, while
three-phase and one-phase motors are suitable for use in commercial settings.

2
 Renewable Energy

They are maintenance motors in contrast to dc motors and synchronous motors

due to the absence of brushes, commutations, and slip rings. The construction of
these motors is simple and robust, and they have a lower cost than other types
of motors because they do not have these components [8].

The use of fossil fuels consumes non-renewable resources, which means that
these resources will eventually run out, at which point their extraction will
either be prohibitively expensive or environmentally detrimental. On the other
hand, the many different types of renewable energy resources, such as wind and
solar energy, are continuously being replenished and will never run out. When
coal is burned for energy, a wide variety of different kinds of particulate matter
are produced, all of which contribute to air pollution. When one considers
the various non-financial costs of using fossil fuels, such as pollution, climate
change, and the effect on biodiversity, renewable energy is actually much more
efficient than fossil fuels. This is because pollution causes climate change,
and pollution causes climate change, which in turn impacts biodiversity. One
of the drawbacks of using renewable sources of energy is that it is difficult
to generate significant quantities of electricity comparable to that which is
produced by conventional generators that run on fossil fuels. The supply of
power for renewable energy sources is frequently dependent on the elements.
Rain is necessary to fill dams and furnish hydroelectric generators with flowing
water. The fact that most forms of alternative energy are, on average, more
expensive than energy derived from fossil fuels is perhaps the most significant
disadvantage of using renewable sources of power. Because of this, there has not
been as much of a shift toward the use of sustainable sources of energy as there
has been toward the use of clean energy.

1.2 Non-Conventional Power Plants

1.2.1 Wind power plant

In order to generate electricity, a wind farm must first collect the dynamic
energy of the wind and then transform it into electrical energy. The wind
turbine, the rotor, the gearbox, the generator, and the management mechanism
make up the fundamental elements of a wind power facility. A wind turbine
comprises of a tall structure that supports a rotor that has two or three blades.
The number of blades can vary. The wind is captured by the blades, and their
construction allows them to transform the wind’s kinetic energy into rotational
energy. The rotor spins as a result of the wind’s force and powers a gearing,
which in turn causes an increase in the rotor’s rotational speed. The rotor’s

3
Renewable Energy

kinetic energy is transferred to an attached generator, which then produces

usable electrical current. The generator links to the transmission. The generator
generates electrical power, which is then sent to a transformer. The transformer
raises the voltage of the electricity, and then the electricity goes to the power
system. The management system of the wind power plant acts as a measure
for the performance of the turbine, ensuring that it continues to function in
an effective and secure manner at all times. In addition to this, it alters the
inclination of the blades so that the amount of power generated is maximized
in accordance with the speed and direction of the wind [9], [10]. However, the
growth of thermal power plants, as shown in Figure 1.1, is comparable to the
growth of wind power plants, as shown in Figure 1.2.

Figure 1.1: Thermal power plant growth.

In recent years, there has been a substantial increase in the number of

wind power plants, which can be attributed to a number of factors, including
technological breakthroughs, cost reductions, and government policies that
encourage the use of renewable energy sources. The expansion of wind power
facilities has been characterized by the following main trends. Capacity that has
been installed: The Global Wind Energy Council estimates that by the end of
2021, the total installed capacity of wind power facilities across the globe will
have reached 743 GW. This represents a significant increase from the meagre
total of 18 GW in the year 1999. At the moment, the market for wind power in
China is the biggest in the world. China is followed by the markets in the United
States, Germany, India, and Spain. The price of electricity generated by wind
has been gradually declining over the past few years, making it an increasingly
competitive alternative to more conventional forms of electricity production. In
some areas, the cost of electricity generated by wind power is already lower than

4
 Renewable Energy

Figure 1.2: Wind power plant growth.

that generated by natural fuels. It is anticipated that this pattern will continue
as technological advancements continue and efficiencies of scale are attained.
This is particularly the case in Europe, where they have the potential to provide
a substantial source of sustainable energy, and offshore wind power plants are
gaining a lot of popularity and are expected to continue doing so in the near
future. In 2010, offshore wind power facilities had a total operational capacity
of just 2 GW, but by the end of the year 2020, that number had increased to 35
GW [11], [12].

1.2.2 Biomass power plant

A biomass power plant is a form of renewable energy plant that generates

electricity by burning organic materials such as timber, crop residue, and waste
products from forests, fields, and industries. Timber and agricultural crops are
two examples of organic materials that can be burned in a biomass power
plant. The basic idea behind a biomass power plant is comparable to that
of a traditional thermal power plant; however, there are several important
distinctions between the two. The following is a list of the fundamental elements
that make up a bioenergy power plant. The organic materials that are used as
fuel are stacked in large heaps or housed in silos close to the power station.
In order to promote more efficient combustion, the fuel is generally chipped
or ground into minute fragments. The fuel is moved from the storage area to
the furnace using a conveyor belt or another mechanical device. This is part of
the fuel management process. The fuel is consumed in a combustion chamber,

5
Renewable Energy

and the resulting heat is used to heat the water in a furnace, which ultimately
results in the production of steam. The steam turns a turbine, which ultimately
results in the production of electricity. The combustion process results in
the discharge of various gases and particles into the environment, including
particulate matter, nitrogen oxides, and sulfur dioxide. Scrubbers, electrostatic
precipitators, and selective catalytic reduction systems are just some of the
technologies that are utilized in the process of reducing and controlling these
pollutants [13], [14].

Power production and distribution: After the turbine has finished

generating electricity, the current is sent to a transformer, which boosts the
voltage of the current before sending it on to the power infrastructure. Since
the biological materials that are used as fuel in biomass power plants can
be replenished over time, this type of power plant is regarded as a source of
sustainable energy. However, the sustainability of biomass as a fuel source is
contingent on the type of biomass that is utilized as well as the harvesting
practices and transportation methods that are utilized. In addition, biomass
power plants can have a significant effect on air quality in the surrounding
area; therefore, it is essential that pollutants be tightly monitored in order to
minimize the damage they cause to the environment [15], [16].

1.2.3 Ocean power plant

A form of sustainable energy plant that generates electricity by converting the

kinetic energy of ocean waves or tides is referred to as an ocean power plant.
This type of plant is also referred to as a wave energy conversion system or a
tidal power plant. Ocean power plants can take a few different forms, but the
basic idea behind all of them is the same: to transform the mechanical energy
of ocean waves or swells into electrical energy. The following is a list of some
of the key elements of a water power plant: A wave energy converter is a piece
of equipment that transforms the kinetic energy of waves into a usable form
of energy, typically electricity. Wave energy can be converted in a number of
different ways, depending on the specific design of the device, such as with point
absorbers, oscillating water columns, or overtopping devices. A turbine that is
propelled by the movement of tidal currents is referred to as a tidal turbine. The
tidal turbine is generally installed on the bottom of the ocean, and it spins as
the tidal currents travel past it. This rotation drives a generator, which in turn
produces electricity. The electrical energy that is generated by the wave energy
converter or the tidal turbine is then transferred to an electrical system, where
it is conditioned and transformed so that it can fulfil the requirements of the
power infrastructure. The power plant located in the water sends the electricity

6
 Renewable Energy

it generates to a transformer, which is then connected to the power system. From

there, the electricity is disseminated to various consumers. The establishment
of ocean power plants is still in its infancy, and there are presently only a
handful of commercial-scale ocean power plants operational. However, because
ocean waves and swells are a reliable and continuous source of energy, there is
a substantial opportunity for ocean power to serve as a source of sustainable
energy in the future. Ocean power also has the benefit of being situated near
heavily inhabited shoreline regions, which have a high demand for electricity
and can take advantage of the proximity of ocean power plants. Despite this,
there are still substantial hurdles to get over in terms of the expense of the
technology, its effect on the environment, and other factors [17], [18].

1.2.4 Hydro power plant

This is a form of sustainable energy plant known as a hydroelectric plant, and

its primary function is to produce electricity by capturing the kinetic energy of
flowing water. The size of hydropower facilities is not a determining factor in
their location; they can be constructed on rivers, streams, or even man-made
waterways. The following is a list of the fundamental parts that make up a
hydroelectric power plant: A reservoir can be created by constructing a dam
or weir, which are both types of structures that increase the water level in
a waterway or stream. The dam or the weir is used to store the water until
the time comes when it is required to generate electricity. An entrance or
other aperture within the dam or the weir that enables water to move into
the power facility. A conduit that transports water from the inflow to the
generator in the form of a pipeline. A machine that rotates as a result of
the power exerted by water as it passes through it. The generator, which is
connected to the turbine, is the component that generates the electricity. A
component that takes the mechanical energy that is produced by the turbine
and transforms it into electrical energy. A piece of equipment that raises the
frequency of the electricity generated by the generator so that it can be fed
into the public power supply. Cables or lines that connect the hydroelectric
plant to the power infrastructure and transport electricity from the plant to
the grid. The water that is used to generate electricity in hydropower facilities
is continually refilled by rain and precipitation, making this type of power
generation a source of sustainable energy. In addition, hydropower is a versatile
source of electricity because the quantity of power generated by hydroelectric
dams can be adjusted to meet fluctuating consumer needs. However, the
construction of large hydroelectric plants can have a substantial influence on
nature, including the relocation of wildlife and the modification of waterway

7
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
Desserts
Dessert adds a touch that gives a good dinner its final, satisfying
note.
Before using the dessert recipes in this bulletin, refer to the section
on ingredients and measurements (p. 16).
Cake recipes in this publication generally need to be adapted for
use in high-altitude areas. Write to your State Experiment Station or
contact your county extension agent for information on baking cakes
in your area.
For pies and cakes, use pans of the size specified.
To grease pans for cakes, coat lightly with unsalted fat or oil. Then
sprinkle lightly with a little flour. Tip pan from side to side to coat
evenly; then shake out excess flour.
In recipes that call for greased and floured cakepans, you may use
a wax paper lining if you prefer. Cut wax paper to fit the bottom of the
pan. Then grease the paper lightly.

Pastry
8- or 9-inch pastry shell
1 cup flour
½ teaspoon salt
⅓ cup shortening
About 2 tablespoons cold water
Mix flour and salt thoroughly. Mix in fat only until mixture is
crumbly.
Add a little water at a time, blending lightly. Dough should be just
moist enough to cling together when pressed.
 Shape dough into a ball. Roll out on a lightly floured surface or
between two sheets of waxed paper. Fit carefully into piepan. Lift
edges and smooth out air bubbles. For baked pastry shell, trim
pastry, leaving about 1 inch around the edge. Fold edge under and
shape into an upright rim.
Prick bottom and sides well with a fork. Bake at 450° F. (very hot
oven) 12 to 15 minutes, or until golden brown.
Variation
Two-crust pie.—Double the recipe. Form dough into two balls, one
slightly larger than the other. Roll out larger ball of dough and fit into
piepan. Roll out remaining dough for top crust; make several slits in
crust to let steam escape during baking. Put filling into pastry-lined
pan. Top with second crust. Fold edges of crusts under and press
together to seal. Bake as directed in pie recipe.

Apple pie
8-inch pie, 6 servings
Pastry for 2-crust 8-inch pie (above)
5 cups pared, sliced tart apples
⅔ cup sugar
1 tablespoon cornstarch
½ teaspoon cinnamon
1 or 2 tablespoons butter or margarine, if desired
Prepare unbaked pastry.
Mix dry ingredients lightly with apples in a bowl. Put filling into
pastry-lined pan. Dot with fat, if desired. Top with second crust.
Bake at 400° F. (hot oven) for 40 to 60 minutes, or until filling
bubbles and the crust is golden brown.
Note: If fruit is sweet, decrease amount of sugar; if unusually tart,
increase sugar.
Variations
 Blueberry pie.—Use 3 cups fresh blueberries instead of apples.
Omit cinnamon and increase cornstarch to 3 tablespoons. Sprinkle
fruit with 2 tablespoons lemon juice. Bake 50 to 60 minutes.
Cherry pie.—Instead of apples, use 1 can (1 pound) pitted red
sour cherries, water pack. Do not drain. Omit cinnamon. Increase
cornstarch to 2 tablespoons. Add ⅛ teaspoon almond extract and a
few drops of red food coloring, if desired. Bake 40 to 45 minutes.
Peach pie.—Use 3 cups fresh sliced peaches instead of apples.
Use only ¼ teaspoon cinnamon. Bake 40 to 50 minutes.

Vanilla cream pie

8-inch pie, 6 servings
1 8-inch pastry shell (p. 64)
3 tablespoons cornstarch
¼ cup sugar
½ teaspoon salt
2 cups milk
2 egg yolks, beaten
2 tablespoons butter or margarine
1 teaspoon vanilla
½ cup whipping cream
1 tablespoon confectioner’s sugar
Prepare, bake, and cool pastry shell.
Mix cornstarch, sugar, and salt in heavy saucepan. Gradually stir
in milk.
Cook over moderate heat, stirring constantly, until thickened.
Simmer 1 minute longer.
Stir a little of the hot mixture into egg yolks; then stir yolks into
remaining hot mixture. Cook 1 minute longer, stirring constantly. Stir
in fat and vanilla.
Set saucepan in cold water to cool. Stir frequently. Change water
occasionally.
 Pour filling into pastry shell. Chill thoroughly.
Before serving, whip cream until stiff and beat in confectioner’s
sugar. Spread over pie.
Notes: Use only clean, sound-shelled eggs in this recipe.
Use whipped dessert topping instead of whipped cream, if desired.
Variations
Coconut cream pie.—Stir ½ to 1 cup shredded coconut, as
desired, into the hot filling with fat and vanilla.
Banana cream pie.—Slice 2 bananas into pie shell before adding
filling.
Chocolate cream pie.—Increase sugar to ¾ cup. Cut 1½ ounces
bitter chocolate into cream filling after adding milk.

Graham cracker crust

8- or 9-inch pie
⅓ cup butter or margarine
2 tablespoons sugar
1¼ cups graham cracker crumbs
Stir fat and sugar together in a saucepan over low heat until fat is
melted. Blend in cracker crumbs. Press evenly into piepan. Chill.

Pecan pie
9-inch pie, 8 servings
1 unbaked 9-inch pastry shell (p. 64)
1 cup pecan halves
3 eggs, beaten
½ cup sugar
1 cup dark corn sirup
¼ teaspoon salt
1 teaspoon vanilla
¼ cup melted butter or margarine
Prepare unbaked pastry shell. Spread nuts in bottom of pastry
shell.
Combine remaining ingredients and pour over nuts. Bake at 375°
F. (moderate oven) 30 to 40 minutes, or until the filling appears set
when the pie is gently moved.

Pumpkin pie
8-inch pie, 6 servings
1 unbaked 8-inch pastry shell (p. 64)
1 cup canned pumpkin
½ teaspoon cinnamon
¼ teaspoon ginger
¼ teaspoon nutmeg
⅛ teaspoon cloves
1 cup milk, half-and-half, or evaporated milk
½ cup sugar
1 egg, slightly beaten
½ teaspoon salt
Prepare unbaked pastry shell.
Blend pumpkin and spices thoroughly. Stir in remaining
ingredients; mix well. Pour into pastry shell.
Bake at 400° F. (hot oven) about 1 hour. Pie is done when a table
knife inserted in center comes out clean. Filling may be soft but will
set on cooling.

Quick meringue-topped pie

8-inch pie, 6 servings
1 baked 8-inch pastry shell (p. 64)
1 package (3 to 4 ounces) pudding and pie filling mix, any flavor
2 egg whites
¼ teaspoon salt
¼ cup sugar
Prepare pastry shell.
Make pie filling according to package directions. Cool filling
slightly; then pour into baked pastry shell.
Beat egg whites until foamy. Add salt and beat until soft peaks
form. Add sugar gradually, beating constantly, and continue beating
until stiff peaks form.
Pile meringue on pie while filling is still warm. Bake at 350° F.
(moderate oven) 15 to 20 minutes, or until lightly browned.
Note: Use only clean, sound-shelled eggs in this recipe.

Lemon chiffon pie

8-inch pie, 6 servings
1 8-inch graham cracker crust (p. 65) or baked pastry shell (p. 64)
1 tablespoon unflavored gelatin
¼ cup cold water
3 egg yolks
½ cup lemon juice
½ teaspoon grated lemon rind
¾ cup sugar
3 egg whites
¼ teaspoon salt
Prepare graham cracker crust or pastry shell.
Soften gelatin in cold water. Beat egg yolks slightly. Add juice, rind,
and half the sugar. Cook over low heat, stirring constantly, until
mixture begins to thicken, 10 to 15 minutes.
Add gelatin; stir until dissolved. Chill until mixture begins to
thicken.
 Beat egg whites until foamy. Add salt and beat until soft peaks
form. Slowly add remaining sugar, beating constantly until stiff. Fold
into chilled mixture.
Pour into crust and chill until firm.
Note: Use only clean, sound-shelled eggs in this recipe.
Variation
Lime chiffon pie.—Use ½ cup lime juice and ½ teaspoon grated
lime rind in place of lemon. Add a few drops of green food coloring to
dissolved gelatin before chilling.

Fruit delight pie

9-inch pie, 8 servings
1 9-inch graham cracker crust (p. 65)
1 envelope whipped dessert topping mix
1 package (8 ounces) cream cheese, at room temperature
¼ cup confectioner’s sugar
¼ teaspoon vanilla
½ cup chopped pecans
1 cup canned blueberry, peach, or cherry pie filling
Make graham cracker crust.
Prepare whipped dessert topping according to package directions.
Beat in cream cheese, sugar, and vanilla until smooth. Stir in nuts.
Pour into pie shell. Top with pie filling. Chill at least 3 hours before
serving.

Spiced prune cake

Two 8- or 9-inch layers
1 package spice cake mix (for 2-layer cake)
1¼ cups drained, pitted, and chopped cooked prunes
 Prepare cake batter according to package directions. Thoroughly
mix prunes into cake batter. Pour batter into two greased and floured
8- or 9-inch layer cakepans.
Bake according to package directions but increase baking time by
10 minutes. Cool cake a few minutes before removing from the pans.
When cool, frost with creamy white frosting (p. 69).

Velvety white cake

Two 8-inch layers
2 cups cake flour
1¼ cups sugar
1 tablespoon baking powder
1 teaspoon salt
½ cup softened butter or margarine or shortening
1 cup milk
4 egg whites, unbeaten
1 teaspoon vanilla
¼ teaspoon almond extract, if desired
Mix dry ingredients well. Add fat and half of the milk; beat until
creamy. Add remaining milk, egg whites, and flavoring; beat until
creamy.
Pour into two 8-inch greased and floured layer cakepans. Bake at
375° F. (moderate oven) 25 to 30 minutes, or until the cake surface
springs back when touched lightly. Cool cake for a few minutes
before removing from the pans. When cool, frost as desired.

Gingerbread
6 to 9 servings
½ cup shortening
½ cup brown sugar, packed
1 egg
½ cup molasses
1½ cups flour
½ teaspoon salt
¾ teaspoon baking soda
½ teaspoon ginger
½ teaspoon cinnamon
½ cup boiling water
Beat shortening and sugar until creamy. Add egg and molasses;
beat well.
Mix dry ingredients thoroughly. Add to molasses mixture
alternately with boiling water. Beat after each addition.
Pour batter into a greased 8- by 8- by 2-inch baking pan. Bake at
350° F. (moderate oven) 35 to 40 minutes. Serve warm.

Upside-down cake
6 servings
2 tablespoons butter or margarine
½ cup brown sugar, packed
6 drained canned peach halves
6 drained maraschino cherries, halved
12 pecan halves
1 recipe quick coffee cake batter (p. 62)
Melt fat in a 9-inch layer cakepan over low heat. Sprinkle brown
sugar over fat. Arrange fruit and nuts in sugar mixture.
Prepare coffee cake batter and pour over fruit; spread evenly.
Bake at 350° F. (moderate oven) 30 to 40 minutes.
Loosen cake from sides of pan and invert on serving plate. Allow
to cool 5 minutes before removing pan.
Variations
Use 12 canned apricot halves or 6 canned pineapple slices or 1
cup of drained canned crushed pineapple for the fruit.
Timesaver
 Instead of quick coffee cake batter, use a 1-layer package of cake
mix, prepared by package directions.

Cherry cobbler
6 servings
½ recipe sweet biscuit dough (p. 60)
⅔ cup sugar
2 tablespoons cornstarch
1 can (1 pound) pitted red sour cherries, water pack
⅛ teaspoon almond extract
Few drops red food coloring
1 tablespoon butter or margarine
Make biscuit dough but do not roll out.
Blend sugar and cornstarch in a 1-quart saucepan. Gradually stir
in cherries. Cook over moderate heat until thickened and clear,
stirring constantly. Remove from heat. Add flavoring, food coloring,
and fat. Pour into a 1½-quart casserole.
Drop biscuit dough by spoonfuls onto hot cherry mixture. Bake at
425° F. (hot oven) 15 to 20 minutes, or until filling bubbles and
topping is lightly browned.
Timesaver
Quick cherry cobbler.—Use 1 can (1 pound 5 ounces) cherry pie
filling. Heat to boiling and stir in 1 tablespoon butter or margarine.
For biscuit topping, combine 1 cup packaged biscuit mix and 1
tablespoon sugar. Add ⅓ cup milk and 1 tablespoon melted butter or
margarine; stir until moistened. Drop by spoonfuls onto hot cherry
filling and bake as directed.

Chocolate cake
Two 8-inch layers
1¾ cups cake flour
1⅓ cups sugar
1 teaspoon salt
1 teaspoon baking soda
½ cup softened butter or margarine
1 cup milk
1 teaspoon vanilla
2 eggs
2 or 3 ounces (2 or 3 squares) unsweetened chocolate, melted
Mix dry ingredients well. Add fat and half of the milk; beat until
creamy. Mix in remaining milk, vanilla, and eggs. Add chocolate;
beat until creamy.
Pour into two 8-inch greased and floured layer cake pans. Bake at
350° F. (moderate oven) 30 to 35 minutes, or until the cake surface
springs back when touched lightly. Cool cake a few minutes before
removing from the pans. When cool, frost with creamy chocolate
frosting (this page).
Note: For a loaf cake, use a greased and floured 9- by 12-inch
cakepan. Bake about 40 minutes.

Creamy white frosting

For 8-inch layer cake or 9- by 12-inch loaf cake
About 2½ cups confectioner’s sugar
⅓ cup softened butter or margarine
3 tablespoons milk
1 teaspoon vanilla
Beat about 2 cups of the sugar with all other ingredients until
frosting is creamy and smooth. Beat in enough of the remaining
sugar for a frosting that will spread evenly. Spread on cooled cake.
Variation
Creamy chocolate frosting.—Mix in 1 or 2 ounces (1 or 2 squares)
of melted chocolate. Or increase milk to ¼ cup and use ⅓ cup
cocoa. Beat until creamy and smooth.

Caramel-nut frosting
For 8-inch layer cake or 9- by 12-inch loaf cake
½ cup butter or margarine
1 cup brown sugar, packed
¼ cup milk
2 cups confectioner’s sugar
⅔ cup finely chopped pecans or walnuts
½ teaspoon vanilla
Nut halves, as desired
Combine, fat, brown sugar, and milk. Cook over medium heat,
stirring constantly, only until mixture boils and sugar is dissolved.
Cool slightly.
Beat confectioner’s sugar into cooked mixture until frosting
reaches spreading consistency. Add chopped nuts and vanilla; mix
well.
Spread on cooled cake. Garnish with nut halves.

Orange bavarian cream

6 servings
1 tablespoon unflavored gelatin
¼ cup cold water
¾ cup orange juice
2 tablespoons lemon juice
½ teaspoon grated orange rind
⅓ cup sugar
¼ teaspoon salt
1 cup whipping cream
1 cup fresh orange sections, cut in pieces
 Soften gelatin in water. Combine fruit juices, orange rind, sugar,
and salt; heat to simmering. Dissolve gelatin in hot mixture. Chill until
mixture begins to thicken.
Whip cream only until stiff. Fold whipped cream and orange
sections into gelatin mixture. Pour into a 1-quart mold and chill until
firm.

Oatmeal cookies
3 to 4 dozen cookies
1 cup flour
1¼ teaspoons baking powder
½ teaspoon baking soda
½ teaspoon salt
½ cup shortening
1 cup brown sugar, packed
1 egg
¾ teaspoon vanilla
1½ cups quick-cooking rolled oats
Mix flour, baking powder, soda, and salt. Beat shortening and
sugar until creamy. Beat in egg and vanilla. Blend in flour mixture.
Stir in rolled oats. Chill.
Shape dough into balls about 1 inch in diameter. Place about 2
inches apart on an ungreased baking sheet. Bake at 350° F.
(moderate oven) 10 to 15 minutes.
Remove from baking sheet while warm.
Variations
Raisin-oatmeal cookies.—Add ½ cup raisins with the oats.
Coconut- or nut-oatmeal cookies.—Add ½ cup flaked coconut or ½
cup chopped nuts with the oats.
Orange-oatmeal cookies.—Add 2 tablespoons orange juice and 1
teaspoon grated orange rind to shortening and sugar mixture. Add ½
cup raisins and ½ cup chopped nuts with the oats. Chill dough
thoroughly; drop from teaspoon onto baking sheet.

Peanut butter cookies

4 to 5 dozen cookies
1 cup shortening
1 cup peanut butter
1 cup granulated sugar
1 cup brown sugar, packed
2 eggs
1 teaspoon vanilla
2½ cups flour
½ teaspoon salt
¾ teaspoon baking soda
½ teaspoon baking powder
Beat shortening and peanut butter until creamy. Gradually add
sugars, beating thoroughly after each addition. Beat in eggs and
vanilla.
Mix remaining ingredients and blend into peanut butter mixture.
Shape dough into balls about 1 inch in diameter. Place about 2
inches apart on an ungreased baking sheet. Flatten each cookie.
Criss-cross top of each cookie with a fork, if desired.
Bake at 375° F. (moderate oven) 10 to 15 minutes.
Remove from baking sheet while warm.
Variation
Top-hat cookies.—Roll balls of dough in granulated sugar before
placing on baking sheet. Do not flatten. Bake 10 minutes; then
remove from oven and press a milk chocolate candy kiss into center
of each cookie. Return to oven and bake 2 to 5 minutes longer, or
until cookies are done.

Molasses snaps
3 to 4 dozen cookies
¾ cup shortening
1 cup brown sugar, packed
2 eggs
¼ cup molasses
2¼ cups flour
2 teaspoons baking soda
½ teaspoon salt
½ teaspoon cloves
1 teaspoon cinnamon
1 teaspoon ginger
½ cup chopped nuts, if desired
½ cup raisins, if desired
Beat shortening and sugar until creamy. Beat in eggs and
molasses.
Mix dry ingredients and stir in raisins and nuts, if used. Stir flour
mixture into molasses mixture.
Drop dough from a teaspoon onto a lightly greased baking sheet;
space cookies about 2 inches apart. Bake at 375° F. (moderate
oven) 10 to 12 minutes, or until set but not hard.
Remove from baking sheet while warm.

Chocolate sparkles
5 to 6 dozen cookies
1 cup softened butter or margarine
1¼ cups sugar
2 eggs
2 ounces (2 squares) unsweetened chocolate, melted
½ teaspoon vanilla
2⅔ cups flour
2 teaspoons cream of tartar
1 teaspoon baking soda
½ teaspoon salt
¼ cup sugar
Beat fat and 1¼ cups sugar until creamy. Beat in eggs; add melted
chocolate and vanilla.
Mix flour, cream of tartar, soda, and salt. Stir into chocolate
mixture; blend well. Chill dough.
Shape dough into balls about 1 inch in diameter. Roll balls in ¼
cup sugar and place about 2 inches apart on an ungreased baking
sheet. Bake at 400° F. (hot oven) 8 to 10 minutes.
Remove from baking sheet while warm.
Variations
Cinnamon-sugar cookies.—Omit chocolate. Roll balls of dough in
a mixture of ¼ cup sugar and 1 tablespoon cinnamon; bake as
directed.
Chocolate chip cookies.—In place of 1½ cups granulated sugar,
use ½ cup granulated sugar and 1 cup brown sugar. Beat sugars
with butter or margarine. Omit the chocolate. Stir ⅔ cup chopped
nuts and 1 package (12 ounces) chocolate chips into the dough.
Drop dough from a teaspoon onto an ungreased baking sheet and
bake as directed.

Apple crisp
6 servings
2 tablespoons granulated sugar
¼ teaspoon cinnamon
4 cups pared, sliced tart apples
¼ cup water
½ cup flour
⅛ teaspoon salt
¼ teaspoon cinnamon
¼ teaspoon nutmeg
⅓ cup brown sugar, packed
3 tablespoons softened butter or margarine
Mix granulated sugar with ¼ teaspoon cinnamon; sprinkle over
apples and mix lightly. Spread apples in a greased 8- by 8- by 2-inch
baking pan. Sprinkle with the water.
Blend flour, salt, cinnamon, nutmeg, and brown sugar. Mix in fat to
make a crumbly mixture. Spread over apples. Bake uncovered at
350° F. (moderate oven) 40 minutes or until lightly browned and
apples are tender.

Baked apples
6 servings
6 large baking apples
6 tablespoons sugar
2 tablespoons butter or margarine
Cinnamon, as desired
½ cup water
Wash and core apples. Pare apples one-third of the way down or
slit the skin around the apple about half-way down.
Place apples in a baking dish. Put sugar and butter or margarine
in the center of each apple. Sprinkle with cinnamon. Pour the water
around apples to prevent sticking.
Bake uncovered at 400° F. (hot oven) until tender, 45 minutes to 1
hour.
Variation
Cranberry-baked apples.—Omit the sugar, fat, and cinnamon.
Combine ¾ cup chopped raw cranberries, ½ cup sugar, and 3
tablespoons chopped nuts. Stuff apples with this mixture before
baking.

Brownies
16 brownies
2 ounces (2 squares) unsweetened chocolate
⅓ cup shortening or oil
1 cup sugar
2 eggs, slightly beaten
1 teaspoon vanilla
⅔ cup flour
½ teaspoon baking powder
½ teaspoon salt
½ cup chopped nuts
Melt chocolate and fat together over low heat. Cool slightly. Mix
sugar with eggs.
Stir chocolate mixture into eggs gradually. Add vanilla.
Mix dry ingredients, stir in nuts, and add to chocolate mixture.
Spread batter in a greased 8-inch square baking pan. Bake at
350° F. (moderate oven) 25 to 30 minutes or until crust is shiny and
brownies begin to shrink from pan. Cool in pan. Cut into 2-inch
squares.
Variation
Chewy brownies.—Follow directions above, but omit baking
powder.

Baked custard
6 servings
4 eggs, slightly beaten
⅓ cup sugar
¼ teaspoon salt
3 cups hot milk
1 teaspoon vanilla
Nutmeg, as desired
 Combine eggs, sugar, and salt. Stir in the milk gradually. Add
vanilla.
Pour into custard cups. Sprinkle with nutmeg. Set cups in a pan of
hot water.
Bake at 325° F. (slow oven) 30 to 40 minutes, or until the tip of a
knife inserted in the center comes out clean.

Raisin-nut bread pudding

6 servings
2 cups milk
1 tablespoon butter or margarine
¼ cup brown sugar, packed
1 teaspoon cinnamon
½ teaspoon nutmeg
½ teaspoon vanilla
2 egg yolks, slightly beaten
4 slices bread, cut in 1-inch cubes
½ cup raisins
½ cup slivered almonds
2 egg whites
¼ teaspoon salt
Heat milk. Stir in fat, sugar, cinnamon, nutmeg, and vanilla.
Stir a little of the milk mixture into egg yolks; then stir yolks into
rest of milk mixture. Add bread cubes, raisins, and half the nuts.
Beat egg whites until foamy. Add salt and beat until stiff but not
dry. Fold egg whites into pudding mixture. Pour into greased 1-quart
casserole. Sprinkle top with rest of nuts. Place casserole in pan of
hot water.
Bake at 325° F. (slow oven) 1¼ to 1½ hours, or until the tip of a
knife inserted in the center comes out clean.

Quick ice cream desserts