Tantric Buddhist Temples of the Kedu Plain

Dr Uday Dokras

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Shailendras

The bas relief of 8th century Borobudur depict a King sitting in Maharajalilasana (king's
posture or royal ease) pose, with his Queen and their subjects, the scene is based on
Shailendran royal court.
The Shailendra dynasty derived from Sanskrit combined words Śaila and Indra, meaning
"King of the Mountain", also spelled Sailendra, Syailendra or Selendra) was the name of a
notable Indianised dynasty that emerged in 8th-century Java, whose reign signified a cultural
renaissance in the region. The Shailendras were active promoters
of Mahayana Buddhism and covered the Kedu Plain of Central Java with
Buddhist monuments, one of which is the colossal stupa of Borobudur, now
a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

The Shailendras are considered to have been a thalassocracy and ruled vast swathes of
maritime Southeast Asia; however, they also relied on agricultural pursuits, by way of
intensive rice cultivation on the Kedu Plain of Central Java. The dynasty appeared to be the
ruling family of the Mataram Kingdom of Central Java, and for some period,
the Srivijaya Kingdom in Sumatra.

The inscriptions created by Shailendras use three languages; Old Javanese, Old Malay,
and Sanskrit — written either in the Kawi alphabet, or pre-Nāgarī script. The use of Old
Malay has sparked speculation of a Sumatran origin, or Srivijayan connection of this family.
On the other hand, the use of Old Javanese suggests their firm political establishment on
Java. The use of Sanskrit usually indicates the official nature, and/or religious significance, of
the event described in any given inscription.

Primary sources

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The Sojomerto inscription (9th century CE) discovered in Batang Regency, Central Java,
mentioned the name Dapunta Selendra and Selendranamah. The name 'Selendra' has been
suggested as another spelling of Shailendra, meaning that Dapunta Selendra was the
progenitor of Shailendra family in Central Java. However, recent analysis suggested that this
was not true: The inscription has diphthong ai in it, so it is unlikely that Selendra was another
name for Shailendra, and the Sumatran origin of Sailendra dynasty was thus unproven.

The earliest dated inscription in Indonesia in which clearly mentioned the dynastic name
of Śailēndra as Śailēndravamśatilaka appears is the Kalasan inscription (778) of central Java,
which mention its ruler Mahārāja dyāḥ Pañcapaṇa kariyāna Paṇaṃkaraṇa and commemorates
the establishment of a Buddhist shrine, Candi Kalasan, dedicated for the goddess Tara.

W. Purser - Engraved by: S. Bradshaw - Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book 1836

The name also appears in several other inscriptions like the Kelurak inscription (782) and
the Karangtengah inscription (824). Outside Indonesia, the name Shailendra is to be found in
the Ligor inscription (775) on the Malay peninsula and Nalanda inscription (860) in India.[7] It
is possible that it was Paṇaṃkaraṇa that create the Chaiya, or Ligor inscription (775), and
took control over Srivijayan realm in the Southern Thailand Malay Peninsula.

Possible origins
Although the rise of the Shailendras occurred in Kedu Plain in the Javanese heartland, their
origin has been the subject of discussion. Apart from Java itself, an earlier homeland
in Sumatra, India, Funan, or Cambodia has been suggested. The latest studies apparently
favour a native origin of the dynasty. Despite their connections with Srivijaya in Sumatra and
Thai-Malay Peninsula, the Shailendras were more likely of Javanese origin.

Sanjaya dynastyof Java

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One theory suggests that Shailendra was a native Javanese dynasty and the Sanjaya
dynasty was actually a branch of the Shailendras since Sri Sanjaya and his offspring belong
to the Shailendra family that were initially the Shaivist rulers of the Mataram Kingdom. The
association of Shailendra with Mahayana Buddhism began after the conversion of Panaraban
or Panangkaran to Buddhism. This theory is based on the Carita Parahyangan, which tells of
the ailing King Sanjaya ordering his son, Rakai Panaraban or Panangkaran, to convert to
Buddhism because their faith in Shiva was feared by the people in favor of the pacifist
Buddhist faith. The conversion of Panangkaran to Buddhism also corresponds to the Raja
Sankhara inscription, which tells of a king named Sankhara (identified as Panangkaran)
converting to Buddhism because his Shaiva faith was feared by the people. Unfortunately, the
Raja Sankhara inscription is now missing.

Sumatra
Other scholars hold that the expansion of Buddhist kingdom of Srivijaya was involved in the
rise of the dynasty in Java. Supporters of this connection emphasize the shared Mahayana
patronage; the intermarriages and the Ligor inscription. Also the fact that some of
Shailendra's inscriptions were written in old Malay, which suggested Srivijaya or Sumatran
connections. The name 'Selendra' was first mentioned in Sojomerto inscription as "Dapunta
Selendra". Dapunta Selendra is suggested as the ancestor of Shailendras. The title Dapunta is
similar to those of Srivijayan King Dapunta Hyang Sri Jayanasa, and the inscription —
although discovered in Central Java north coast — was written in old Malay, which
suggested the Sumatran origin or Srivijayan connection to this family. The Sojomerto
inscription is often used as evidence that the Shailendra dynasty came from Sumatra because
it assumes the word Selendra as the Malay designation for Shailendra and assumed that
Dapunta Selendra was the predecessor of the dynasty. Recent studies show no such evidence:
According to Damais, the Sojomerto inscription dates from early 9th century, placing it after
the Kedukan Bukit inscription (683 AD). In addition, the name Selendra from the Sojomerto
inscription does not seem to have anything to do with Shailendra: The inscription mentions
the words hakairu and daiva which have the diphthong ai, so that diphthong should also be
used in the name Dapunta Selendra. In addition, this theory is obsolete because there is no
data on the existence of the Shailendra dynasty in Sumatra earlier than the ninth century and
Srivijaya was unable to conquer Java. What happened was the opposite — the Shailendra
dynasty subdued Srivijaya and its area on the Malay peninsula.

Odisha (Kalinga)
According to the old theory of Ramesh Chandra Majumdar (1933), an Indian scholar, the
Shailendra dynasty that established itself in the Indonesian archipelago originated
from Kalinga (modern Odisha) in Eastern India. This opinion is also shared by Nilakanta
Sastri and J. L. Moens. Moens (1937) further describes that the Shailendras originated in
India and established themselves in Palembang before the arrival of Srivijaya's Dapunta
Hyang Sri Jayanasa. In 683, the Shailendras moved to Java because of the pressure exerted
by Dapunta Hyang and his troops.

Discounted proposal
In 1934, the French scholar Coedes proposed a relation with the Funan kingdom
in Cambodia. Coedes believed that the Funanese rulers used similar-sounding 'mountainlord'
titles, but several Cambodia specialists have discounted this. They hold there is no historical
evidence for such titles in the Funan period.

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Shailendras in Java

Borobudur, the largest Buddhist

structure in the world
The Shailendra rulers maintained cordial relations, including marriage alliances
with Srivijaya in Sumatra. For instance, Samaragrawira married Dewi Tara, a daughter of
Srivijayan Maharaja Dharmasetu. The mutual alliance between the two kingdoms ensured
that Srivijaya had no need to fear the emergence of a Javanese rival and that the Shailendra
had access to the international market.

Karangtengah inscription dated 824 mentioned about king Samaratungga. His daughter
named Pramodhawardhani has inaugurated a Jinalaya, a sacred buddhist sanctuary. The
inscription also mentioned a sacred Buddhist building called Venuvana to place the cremated
ashes of King Indra. The Tri Tepusan inscription dated 842 mentioned about the sima (tax
free) lands awarded by Śrī Kahulunan (Pramodhawardhani, daughter of Samaratungga) to
ensure the funding and maintenance of a Kamūlān called Bhūmisambhāra. Kamūlān itself
from the word mula which means 'the place of origin', a sacred building to honor
the ancestors. These findings suggested that either the ancestors of the Shailendras were
originated from Central Java, or as the sign that Shailendra have established their holds on
Java. Casparis suggested that Bhūmi Sambhāra Bhudhāra which in Sanskrit means "The
mountain of combined virtues of the ten stages of Boddhisattvahood", was the original name
of Borobudur.]

The received older version holds that the Shailendra dynasty existed next to the Sanjaya
dynasty in Java. Much of the period was characterized by peaceful co-existence and
cooperation but towards the middle of the 9th century relations had deteriorated. Around 852
the Sanjaya ruler Pikatan had defeated Balaputra, the offspring of the Shailendra monarch
Samaratunga and princess Tara. This ended the Shailendra presence in Java and Balaputra
retreated to the Srivijaya kingdom in Sumatra, where he became the paramount ruler.Earlier
historians, such as N.J. Krom and Coedes, tend to
equate Samaragrawira and Samaratungga as the same person. However, later historians such
as Slamet Muljana equate Samaratungga with Rakai Garung, mentioned in Mantyasih
inscription as fifth monarch of Mataram Kingdom. Which means Samaratungga was the
successor of Samaragrawira, and Balaputradewa that is also Samaragrawira's son, is
Samaratungga's younger brother and ruled in Suvarnadvipa (Sumatra), and he is not
Samaratungga's son. This version holds Balaputra that reign in Sumatra challenged the
Pikatan-Pramodhawardhani legitimation in Java, arguing that his niece and her husband has
less rights to rule Java compared to his.

In 851 an Arabic merchant named Sulaiman recorded an event about Javanese Sailendras
staging a surprise attack on the Khmers by approaching the capital from the river, after a sea
crossing from Java. The young king of Khmer was later punished by the Maharaja, and
subsequently the kingdom became a vassal of Sailendra dynasty. In 916 CE, Abu Zaid Hasan

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mentioned that a polity called Zabag invaded the Khmer kingdom, using 1000 "medium-
sized" vessels, which resulted in a Zabag victory. The head of the Khmer king was then
brought to Zabag. Regardless of whether the story was true or not or just a legend, it may
have a connection with the independence of Cambodia from Javanese suzerainty in 802 CE.
Zabag might corresponds to Jawaka/Javaka, which may refer to Java or South Sumatra.

Shailendras in Sumatra
After 824, there are no more references to the Shailendra house in the Javanese epigraphic
record. Around 860 the name re-appears in the Nalanda inscription in India. According to the
text, the king Devapaladeva of Bengala (Pala Empire) had granted 'Balaputra, the king of
Suvarna-dvipa' (Sumatra) the revenues of 5 villages to a Buddhist monastery near Bodh
Gaya. Balaputra was styled a descendant from the Shailendra dynasty and grandson of the
king of Java.

From Sumatra, the Shailendras also maintained overseas relations with the Chola kingdom in
Southern India, as shown by several south Indian inscriptions. An 11th-century inscription
mentioned the grant of revenues to a local Buddhist sanctuary, built in 1005 by the king of
the Srivijaya. In spite the relations were initially fairly cordial, hostilities had broken out in
1025. Rajendra Chola I the Emperor of the Chola dynasty conquered some territories of the
Shailendra dynasty in the 11th century. The devastation caused by Chola invasion of
Srivijaya in 1025, marked the end of Shailendra family as the ruling dynasty in Sumatra. The
last king of Shailendra dynasty — the Maharaja Sangrama Vijayatunggavarman — was
imprisoned and taken as hostage. Nevertheless, amity was re-established between the two
states, before the end of the 11th century. In 1090 a new charter was granted to the old
Buddhist sanctuary, it is the last known inscription with a reference to the Shailendras. With
the absence of legitimate successor, Shailendra dynasty seems ceased to rule. Other family
within Srivijaya mandala took over the throne, a new Maharaja named Sri Deva according to
Chinese source establishing new dynasty to rule Srivijaya. He sent an embassy to the court of
China in 1028 CE.

Shailendras in Bali
Sri Kesari Warmadewa was said to be a Buddhist king of the Shailendra dynasty who led a
military expedition to establish a Mahayana Buddhist government in Bali. In 914, he left a
record of his endeavour in the Belanjong pillar in Sanur in Bali. According to this inscription,
the Warmadewa dynasty was probably the branch of Shailendras that ruled Bali.

List of Shailendran rulers

Traditionally, the Shailendra period was viewed to span from the 8th to the 9th century,
confined only in Central Java, from the era of Panangkaran to Samaratungga. However the
recent interpretation suggests the longer period of Shailendra family might existed, from the
early 9th century (edict of Sojomerto inscription) to early 11th century (the fall of
Shailendran dynasty of Srivijaya under Chola invasion). For certain period, Shailendras ruled
both Central Java and Sumatra. Their alliance and intermarriage with Srivijayan ruling family
resulted with the merging of two royal houses, with Shailendran finally emerge as the ruling
family of both Srivijaya and Mataram (Central Java).

Some historians tried to reconstruct the order and list of Shailendra rulers, although there is
some disagreement on the list. Boechari tried to reconstruct the early stage of Shailendra
based on Sojomerto inscription, while other historians such as Slamet Muljana and

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Poerbatjaraka tried to reconstruct the list of Shailendran king in middle and later period with
their connections to Sanjaya and Srivijaya, based on inscriptions and Carita
Parahyangan manuscript. However, there is some confusion occurred, because the Shailendra
seems to rule many kingdoms; Kalingga, Mataram and later Srivijaya. As the result name of
the same kings often overlapped and seem to rule these kingdoms simultaneously. The
questionmark (?) signify doubt or speculation because of the scarcity of available valid
sources.

King's or Stone inscription and

Date Capital
ruler's name source of historical account

Carita Parahyangan,
Kalingga, Chinese account on Hwi-
somewhere ning visits to Ho-
674—703 Shima (?)
between Pekalong ling kingdom (664) and the
an and Jepara reign of queen Hsi-
mo (674)

Mandiminyak
703—710 (?)
? Carita Parahyangan

Canggal
710—717 Sanna ? inscription (732), Carita
Parahyangan

Canggal
Mataram, Central
717—760 Sanjaya
Java
inscription (732), Carita
Parahyangan

Raja Sankhara
Rakai Mataram, Central inscription, Kalasan
760—775 Panangkaran Java inscription (778), Carita
Parahyangan

Kelurak
Mataram, Central
775—800 Dharanindra
Java
inscription (782), Ligor
inscription (c. 782 or 787)

Mataram, Central
800—812 Samaragrawira
Java
Ligor inscription (c. 787)

Mataram, Central Karangtengah

812—833 Samaratungga
Java inscription (824)[18]: 92

Pramodhawardh
ani co-reign with
Mataram, Central
833—856 her
Java
Shivagrha inscription (856)
husband Rakai
Pikatan

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 King's or Stone inscription and
Date Capital
ruler's name source of historical account

Shivagrha
Srivijaya, South
833—850 Balaputradewa
Sumatra
inscription (856), Nalanda
inscription (860)

Śri
Srivijaya, South Embassies to China (960
c. 960 Udayadityavarm
Sumatra
an and 962)

Srivijaya, South Embassies to China (980–

c. 980 Haji (Hia-Tche)
Sumatra 983)

Embassies to China (988-

Sri Cudamani Srivijaya, South 992-1003), Tanjore
c. 988 Warmadewa Sumatra Inscription or Leiden
Inscription (1044)

Sri
Srivijaya, South
c. 1008 Maravijayottun
Sumatra
Embassies to China (1008)
gga

Sumatrabhum Srivijaya, South

c. 1017 Sumatra
Embassies to China (1017)
i

Sangrama
Srivijaya, South Chola Inscription on the
c. 1025 Vijayatunggavar
Sumatra
man temple of Rajaraja, Tanjore

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 II
The Concept of the Buddhist Shiva and associated Temples in East
Java.Indonesia

Jago Temple is located in Jago Hamlet of Tumpang Village, Tumpang Subdistrict, Malang
Regency, or 22 km to the east of Malang. Because it is located in Tumpang village, the
temple is also called Tumpang Temple. Local villagers call the temple Cungkup.

According to Negarakertagama and Pararaton, the original name of this temple is Jajaghu.
Verse 41 phrase 4 of Negarakertagama describes that King Wisnuwardhana who ruled
Singasari was a Buddhist Shiva, a religious sect that combines the teachings of Hindu and
Buddhist. The teaching flourished during the ruling of Singasari Kingdom, a kingdom
located 20 km from Jago Temple. Jajaghu, which means 'greatness', is a term used for
referring a shrine.

Still according to Negarakertagama and Pararaton, Jago Temple was built between 1268 and
1280 AD, as a tribute to the 4th King of Singasari Sri Jaya Wisnuwardhana. Although the
temple built during the ruling of Singasari Kingdom, the two books mentioned that in 1359
AD Jago Temple was one of the places most frequently visited by King Hayam Wuruk of the
Majapahit Empire. The connection between Jago Temple and Singasari Kingdom can also be
traced from lotus carvings, which ramble upwards from their stems and decorate the statues’
pedestals. Such lotus motif was highly popular during Singasari Kingdom.

Important to note from temple history is the habit of past kings to restore temples erected by
their predecessors. Jago Temple had probably been restored in 1343 AD as ordered by King
Adityawarman of Melayu, who had blood relation to King Hayam Wuruk.

Today Jago Temple is still in ruined condition and yet to restore. The whole structure of the
temple is a square, 23 m x 14 m in dimension. Its roof has gone, so it is not possible to find

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out the exact height of the temple. It is estimated that the temple stood 15 m high.

Facing west, the temple sits on a 1-meter high base and three-terraced feet. Going upward,
the temple feet are getting smaller, providing a walkway on the first and second floor where
people can walk around the temple. Graba ghra (main room) is shifted slightly to the back.

This temple is pyramidal in structure with walkways and shifted rearward, a common shape
of building found during megalithic age, which is called punden berundak (pyramidal
shrines). The shape was generally applied in the construction of a shrine to worship ancestral
spirits. The shape indicates that Jago Temple was built as a shrine to worship ancestral spirits
as well. However, further research and study are still required to prove the truth of it.
Important to consider is that during the ruling of kingdoms in East Java, there are many
variations in shape and function of building. This can be related to the deviation in religious
practices which, by itself, affects the arts in holy shrines, including temple.

To go to the upper floor, there are two narrow stairs to the left and right hand side of the front
part (west). The most important and holiest floor is the highest, of which the construction is
shifted rearward.

Jago Temple is full of relief panels carved skillfully from the feet up to the walls of the
highest room. There is virtually no vacant space, because they are all decorated with various
ornaments that tell interrelated stories conveying a message of a “release”.

This has reinforced the assumption that Jago Temple was built in close relation to the death
of Sri Jaya Wisnuwardhana. In line with the religion followed by King Wisnuwardhana, i.e.

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Shiva Buddhist, reliefs on Jago Temple contain the elements of both Hindu and Buddhist
teachings.

Buddhist teaching is reflected in reliefs telling the story of Tantri Kamandaka and the story
of Kunjarakarna, which are carved on the lowest terrace. The walls on the second terrace are
carved with the next sequence of Kunjarakarna story and parts Mahabharata story that
contain Hindu teachings, Parthayajna and Arjuna Wiwaha. The third terrace is full of reliefs
telling the next sequence of Arjunawiwaha. The temple body’s walls are also carved with
Hindu stories of Krishna and Kalayawana war.

In the middle of the front yard, around 6 m from the temple’s feet, there is a big carved stone,
1 m in diameter, which resembles the shape of giant pedestal. On top of it, there is a relief of
lotus flower rambling out of its stem.

On the west side of temple front yard is the statue of eight-armed Amoghapasa in the
foreground of giant-head-shaped thrones in a position of one opposing the other. The statue’s
head is missing and the arms broken. Around 3 meters to the south of the statue is a giant
head 1 m. high. No information is available whether the objects in the temple yard are in
their original places.

This temple is located on the foot of Welirang Hill, Candi Wates village, Prigen Subdistrict,
Pasuruan Regency, around 31 km from the city of Pasuruan. The temple is relatively still
intact after frequent restorations. The second restoration of Jawi Temple was performed
between 1938 and 1941 out of its ruined condition. The work, however, was discontinued
because there are many missing stones, and was completed further between 1975 and 1980.

Verse 56 of Negarakertagama mentions that Jawi Temple was built by the last king of
Singasari Kingdom, Kertanegara, as a worship shrine for Shiva-Buddhist followers. King
Kartanegara was a Shiva-Buddhist follower. While being a worship shrine, Jawi Temple is
also a place where Kertanegara ashes are kept. This is rather strange because Jawi Temple is
located quite distant away from the center of Singasari Kingdom. It is probably because of
the fact that the people in the area were so loyal to their king and many of them were Shiva-
Buddhist followers. The assumption is founded on a reality that as Raden Wijaya,
Kertanegara’s son-in-law, fled after Kertanegara was dethroned by King Jayakatwang from
Gelang-gelang (Kediri); he had once hidden in this area before taking refuge to Madura.

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Jawi Temple occupies a large area of approximately 40 x 60 m2. The temple is encircled by a
ditch, which today has lotus flowers. The temple stands around 24.5 meters high, 14.2 m
long and 9.5 m wide. The temple is slim and high like Prambanan Temple in Central Java,
while the pointed, pyramidal roof is a combination between stupa and cube.

Facing the East, Jawi Temple has Pananggungan Mountain on its background, reinforcing
the assumption of some experts that this temple is not a shrine or pradaksina, because
worship temple usually heads towards mountains where the gods dwell. Some other experts
retain their beliefs that Jawi Temple is a place of worship. Entrance position that does not
face the mountain is considered to be resulting from Buddhist influence.

One of this temple’s unique characteristics is the use of two types of stone as its construction
materials. From the base to veranda, the temple uses stones of dark colors; the body uses
white stones, while the roof combines dark and white stones. This temple was probably built
in two period of construction. Negarakertagama mentions that in the Javanese year of 1253
(chronogram: Fire Shooting Day) Jawi Temple was struck by lighting. In the incident, the
statue of Maha Aksobaya disappeared. The disappearance of the statue had made King
Hayam Wuruk sad when the king visited the temple. A year after the incident, Jawi Temple
was rebuilt. It is in this period that the white stones were presumably applied. The use of
white stones also stimulates questions, because there are only dark-colored stones in
Welirang Mountain. The stones were probably taken from the north coasts of Java or
Madura.

The temple base sits on a shelf 2 m high engraved in relives that depict a story of a
meditating woman. The relatively narrow stairs are positioned right in front of the entrance to
graba grha (room in temple body). Detailed engravings decorate the left and right handrails

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of the stairs into veranda, while the handrails of the stairs from the veranda into temple floor
are decorated with a couple of long-eared animal figures.

The temple body is encircled by wide enough verandas. It appears that there used to be a
statue inside the temple. The door frame is plain without engravings, but reliefs of
kalamakara with a pair of fangs, lower jaw and decoration on its hair are engraved above the
door to fill the space between door top and roof base. There is a niche on each of the left and
right hand sides of the door to place a statue. Sills above each of the niche are decorated with
engravings of fanged and horned creature heads.

The inner room of temple body is currently in empty. Negarakertagama mentions that inside
the temple’s niche there was a statue of Shiva with Aksobaya on his crown. The book also
mentions that there are a number of god statues in the Shiva system of belief, such as
Nandiswara, Durga, Ganesha, Nandi, and Brahma statues. None of the statues remain in their
place. Reportedly the Durga statue is now kept in Empu Tantular Museum, Surabaya.

The outer walls of the temple body are decorated in reliefs, which to this day none can
interpret. It is probably due to the excessively thin engravings, or because there is a lacking
in supporting information such as sculptured stone or scripts. Even Negarakertagama, which
tells this temple in detail, does not mention anything about the reliefs. According to
gatekeeper of the temple, the reliefs must be read using prasawiya technique (counter-
clockwise reading), similar to that used in reading Kidal Temple reliefs. Still according to the
gatekeeper, reliefs engraved on the west side of the north wall describe the map of temple
compound and its neighbouring areas.

A narrow stream separates the temple’s backyard, which is wide and orderly arranged, from
settlement area. On the south corner of the yard, there is a ruined construction of red bricks,
which probably was a gateway or gopura. However, there is not record available concerning
its original shape and function.

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0o0o0o0o0o0o0o0o0o0o0o0o0o0o0o0o0o0o0o0o0o0o0o0o0o0o0o0o0o0o0o0o0o0o0o0o0o0o0o0

III
Prambanan temple compounds and its Buddhist counterparts

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Prambanan temple compounds, named after the village nearby, has 5 major temples
complexes and more than five-hundred temples. The major temple complex is Prambanan
temple complex with 240 Hindu temples.
Another major temple complex is Candi Sewu, the second largest Buddhist temple complex
in Indonesia after Borobudur with a total of 249 temples though the striking feature is the
massive dwara balas or protectors of the temple gates. The other temples are Bubrah,
Lumbung and Asu. All these temples except Asu are at different stages of restoration by the
UNESCO working with the Indonesian Government. Do note that Asu is still buried under
the soil due to the impact of the Mount Merapi volcano and yet to be excavated.

Prambanan Temple Complex

Prambanan temple complex is a Hindu Mandir and the most popular one among these various
temples.

Arrangement of Prambanan temple complex - Photo Credit - From Wikipedia

It has 240 temples. They are organized as follows

1. The 3 main temples for the 3 murtis of the Hindu religion - Siva, Vishnu and Brahma with
the Siva temple in the center.
2. Vahana or vehicle temples of the respective murtis are opposite to each one of
the murtis for a total of 3 temples. The 3 Vahana temples are Garuda, Nandi and Angsa (or
swan).
3. There are two Apit temples or flank temples on either side of the 6 temples in the center
row between the rows of Vahana and Murthy temples.
4. There are 4 Kelir temples on four cardinal directions outside the inner courtyard.
5. There are 4 Pathok temples on 4 corners of the inner courtyard.
6. Then outside all these temples are the Perwara (“waiting woman”) temples organized in 4
concentric squares with different number of temples from the inner square to outer square as
follows - 44, 52, 60, 68

The Prambanan has striking architecture, which is a typical representation of the South
Indian Pallava-Chola architecture. It is typical of that architecture to have very tall Vimanas
and Gopurams (towers), large courtyards and aesthetically carved bass reliefs. Also the

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Prambanan temples follow the Mandala concept of the Vastu Shastra, an ancient Indian
science of architecture and construction. The inner space with the Murti temples, the Perwara
temples and the space outside Perwara temples make up the three mandala concept of the
Vastu Shastra.
Today only the Murthy, Vahana, Apit and Kelir temples has been restored while the Pathok
and Perwara are not restored yet though work is in progress.

Siva temple on left and Vishnu temple on right

The temples of Prambanan itself are organized as per the Logam concept. The foot of each
temple represents the Boologam or the realm of the mortals. The middle realm or the body of
the temple represents Bhuvarlogam or realm for the holy people. The upper realm or the
holiest part of the temple or the topmost layer is the realm of gods called Swarkalogam. The
upper realm is completed by a Vajra (it can mean both thunderbolt or diamond) on the roof.

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The Bas reliefs of Prambanan is very extensive and narrative. The narrative part is about
Ramayana epic and Bhagavata Puranam - stories about Vishnu and his avatars. The reliefs
also have depictions about Kalpataru, Apsaras, Devadas - all part of Hindu/Buddhist
mythology.
History
The temple is believed to have been built by Rakai Pikatan of Sanjaya dynasty around 850
AD and expanded by subsequent kings building the Perwara temples surrounding the
centerpiece in concentric squares.

HINDU DHARAMSHALAS -Mini Universities with residences for the

Brahmins/ Priests

At its peak, hundreds of Brahmins lived in the temple complex while the royal court with
the urban center was located nearby. The royal court was shifted either due to Mount Merapi
volcano eruption or due to power struggle throwing Prambanan into disuse. The locals knew
about the existence of the temple but did not know the background and so the folklore of
Roro Jonggrang was attached to the temple.
.
Folklore of Roro Jonggrang
Candi Prambanan is also called as Candi Roro Jonggrang based on the folklore in these parts
of the island. Roro Jonggrang is the story of a princess by the same name and her love and
betrayal. The other architectural sites existing today, Ratu Boko, Candi Sewu temple complex
and the statue of Durga Mahishasuramardini within Prambanan temple complex all have their
mythical connections to this story.

Father of Roro Jonggrang, Prabu Boko was killed in a battle by neighboring kingdom’s
prince, Bandung Bondowoso. Prince Bondowoso along with his army captures the Ratu Boko
palace. On seeing Princess Roro Jonggrang, he falls in love with her and wishes to marry her.
Roro Jonggrang, not wishing to marry him for killing her father but at the same time does not
want to reject him for him being the victor, places an impossible condition to be fulfilled by
the prince - build 1000 temples in a night.

But Prince Bondowoso, has the magical powers to invoke demon spirits (kind of like Genies)
to build the 1000 temples. But the demon spirits can only work in the night as the sunlight
can burn these spirits during daytime. They proceed to build the temples and had completed
999 temples when the princess hears this news. She tricks the rooster in the Palace by having
the maids light candles on the eastern side. The rooster, thinking that the sun was rising, starts
to crow and the spirits rush back to below the earth.

Prince Bondowoso tries to build the 1000th temple but fails. In his anger at being tricked, he
curses the Princess, who becomes a statue in the Prambanan temple complex, that of the
statue of Durga.

18
 Roof Stuopoas that resemble Borobudur’s

Candi Bubrah: It is a Buddhist temple constructed in the 9th century by the Sailendra
dynasty. It is named as Bubrah as it was discovered in complete ruins. What exists today is a
12 meters x 12 meters platform where I could see works carried on to restore this temple. As
per my conversation with the workers, the temple is made up of volcanic rocks. Candi
Bubrah and Candi Lumbang. It is however smaller which is found within the Prambanan
Cultural Park near Yogyakarta, in Central Java. The name means the Broken Temple in
Javanese, as it was in poor condtion when found. It has recently undergone substansive
restoration. The buildings date from the 9th century at the same time as Candi Lumbung and
Candi Sewu. The floor of the main temple is around 12 metres on each side. It is notable for
the stūpas that decorate the roof. Most of the Buddha statues are damaged, with missing
heads.

19
Side/ Front View showing Roof Stupas resembling BOROBUDUR// Buddha on Lotus

Side Wall

20
 Makara and Lion RIGHT Apsara and Kala

Candi Lumbung- Buddhist Temple

Fifteen minutes walk from Candi Bubrah si - Candi Lumbung which was built around the
same time frame as Candi Bubrah in the 9th century by Sailendra Dynasty but predates
Prambanan temple. The main temple is a Buddhist temple dedicated to Manjushri
Bodhisattva. There are sixteen Perwara temples similar to the Perwara temples of Prambanan.
On top of the main temple is the stupa, typical of a Buddhist temple. The main temple can be
accessed from the 4 cardinal points. Just like other temples in the compounds, Lumbung is
going through renovation but is in a better condition than Bubrah.

Candi Lumbang stands nearby to Candi Bubrah and south of Candi Sewu in the Park, and
dates to around the same time as those temples, in the 9th century CE. The name means the
Rice Barn Temple in Javanese, because of its shape. The temple compound is composed of a
main temple surrounded by 16 perwara (smaller) temples in concentric formal layout. The
architectural style is similar to those of the Sewu temple complex nearby. Just like the Sewu
and Prambanan temples, this temple faces east with its main entrance located on the east side
of the temple compound. However the temple can be reached from all cardinal points. The
structure is crowned with stūpas (partly adapted from Wikipedia).

21
 Main

Side
Chapels

22
 Founda\
Kala Figure

Main chamber where the bronze statue of Manjushri is missing/TOP RIGHT PIC Bodhisattva

In walking distance is also Candi Sewu, which is a large temple complex unlike the smaller

23
ruins of Bubrah.It is the second largest Buddhist temple complex in Indonesia after
Borobudur with a total of 249 temples in its complex. The architecture resembles the Pala
architecture due to the Perwara temples arranged in a geometric fashion similar to
Prambanan. But Sewu predates Prambanan by at least a century. The original name for this
temple was Manjusrigrha (meaning “house of Manjushri”) and was dedicated to Manjushri
Bodhisattva similar to the Lumbung temple nearby.

The main temple itself is 30 meters in height and 29 meters in diameter and is in a 20 sided
Polygon shape. The temple was believed to have had a bronze statue of Manjushri. The main
temple is surrounded by four concentric rows of Perwara temples similar to Prambanan and
the temple complex itself follows the same Vaastu-based Mandala concept. Candi Sewu
shares its Folklore of Roro Jonggrang with the Prambanan as many associate it with this
temple complex.

Decorated stupas
Stupas were soon to be richly decorated with sculptural reliefs, following the first
attempts at Sanchi Stupa No.2 (125 BCE). Full-fledged sculptural decorations and
scenes of the life of the Buddha would soon follow at Bharhut (115 BCE), Bodh
Gaya (60 BCE), Mathura (125–60 BCE), again at for the elevation of the toranas (1st
century BCE/CE) and then Amaravati (1st–2nd century CE).[62] The decorative
embellishment of stupas also had a considerable development in the northwest in the
area of Gandhara, with decorated stupas such as the Butkara Stupa ("monumentalized"
with Hellenistic decorative elements from the 2nd century BCE) or the Loriyan
Tangai stupas (2nd century CE). Stupa architecture was adopted in Southeast and East
Asia, where it became prominent as a Buddhist monument used for enshrining sacred
relics.[45] The Indian gateway arches, the torana, reached East Asia with the spread of
Buddhism. Some scholars hold that torii derives from the torana gates at the Buddhist
historic site of Sanchi (3rd century BCE – 11th century CE).

Sanchi Stupa No.2, the earliest known stupa with important displays of decorative reliefs, c. 125 BCE
RIGHT PUC East Gateway and Railings of Bharhut Stupa. Sculptured railings: 115 BCE, toranas: 75
BCE

24
 The Great Stupa at Sanchi. Decorated toranas built from the 1st century BCE to the 1st century CE./
Slab of Amaravati Marbles, depicting of the Great Amaravati Stupa, with a Buddha statue at the
entrance, Amaravathi, Andhra Pradesh, India

Panorama of the stupa. BOROBUDUR line drawing is below

One of the Stupas Kesariya stupa shares many architectural similarities with the Buddhist

25
temple located in Indonesia, Borobodur which points to a historical connections between east
India and South East Asia.
A. Both monuments share a circular mandala form with
B. terraces containing figures of Buddha in the niches.
C. Like Borobodur, Kesariya is also built atop of a hill.
D. The excavated chambers at Kesariya show a combination of statues
in bhumisparsha (of Akshobya) and dhyanimudra (of Amitabha) on the same side,
whereas Borobudur houses four Jina Buddhas, displaying their respective mudras on
the four sides of the monument.
This Kesariya Stupa is a Buddhist stupa in Kesariya, located at a distance of 110
kilometres (68 mi) from Patna, in the Champaran (east) district of Bihar, India. The first
construction of the Stupa is dated to the 3rd century BCE.[1] Kesariya Stupa has a
circumference of almost 400 feet (120 m) and raises to a height of about 104 feet (32 m).

Buddha Statue
The site's exploration reportedly started in the early 19th century, from its discovery led by
Colonel Mackenzie in 1814 to General Cunningham's proper excavation in 1861–62. An
excavation was conducted by archaeologist KK Muhammed of the Archaeological Survey of
India (ASI) in 1998.[1] The original Kesariya stupa probably dates to the time
of Ashoka (circa 250 BCE), as the remains of a capital of a Pillar of Ashoka were discovered
there.
The stupa mound may even have been inaugurated during the Buddha's time, as it
corresponds in many respects to the description of the stupa erected by the Licchavis
of Vaishali to house the alms bowl the Buddha has given them.
The current stupa dates to the Gupta Dynasty between 200 AD and 750 AD, and may have
been associated with the 4th century ruler Raja Chakravarti. The local people call this stupa
"Devala", meaning "house of god".
The ASI has declared the stupa a protected monument of national importance. Despite being
a popular tourist attraction, Kesariya is yet to be developed and a large part of the stupa still
remains under vegetation. In fact Swati Chemburkar in her brilliant research paper --Stūpa
to Maṇḍala: Tracing a Buddhist Architectural Development from Kesariya to
Borobudur to Tabo- Swati Chemburkar Jnanapravaha, Mumbai

According to her, a paradigm shift in architecture occurred from stūpa to maṇḍala at the
ritual center of the royal Buddhist sphere. The mandalic architecture of Kesariya and
Borobudur1, a central supreme deity and subordinate deities, reflects the political structure of
samānta feudalism. Ronald Davidson in his Indian Esoteric Buddhism: A Social History of
the Tantric Movement (1st Indian ed., Delhi: Motilal Banarasidas, 2004), 118, 302, the

26
circular arrangement of deities in certain numerological configurations on the upper three
terraces of Borobudur—reflect a characteristic of the yoginī-tantras that developed at
Nālandā in the late eighth to early ninth centuries. Unlike her I do not place too uch
importance to the Buddhist strains that emanated out of Tibet- having visited and studied
there I feel that there is a Richard Gere type of moement to give importance to Tibetan
Buddhism but if one visits Tibet one can find too little of everything ( man and Materials)
and to lift it on a pedestal higher than it deserves does injustice to the real precipitate of
evolutiuonary Buddhist thought and dogma.
But I will agree to the Kesariya hypothesis. Having said that the evolutionary nature of the
STUPA starts at the change of topology as brought about by Sanchi Stupa. Discussing
Further:

In a later paper Swati ( referred to above) 1 connects architectural concepts between India and
Java as a “movement of architectural ideas can be seen from studying the corpus of the
temples in the Pāla (ad 750–1214) and Śailendra (ad 7 75–1090)2 domains of India and
Indonesia. “ She proposes that we see a paradigm shift in the design of a stūpa architecture at
Kesariya (Bihar) that emphasizes the arrangement of deities in the circular maṇḍalic fashion
with a certain numer-ological configuration of life-size Buddha figures placed in the
external niches of the monument. This new architectural concept possibly played a
key role in the development of a more elaborate structure of Borobudur in Java.

________________________________________________________-_______________
1. Chapter 8. Borobudur’s Pāla Forebear? A Field Note from Kesariya, Bihar, India
From the book Esoteric Buddhism in Mediaeval Maritime Asia,Swati Chemburkar

27
souvenirs

I agree to this but let us not forget the contribution of the Ghandhara movement to adding
complexity to Stupa design starting from Sanchi and onwards. In fact the souveniers sold in
the markets at Pasar Beringharjo Market which is the oldest market in the Kraton area of
Yogyakarta( see pic above) point towards how the designers and architects must have
climbed the stairs to reach a more magnificent and meaningful design of Stupa Typology.

28
 IV
Unravelling the Complex SEWU Mandala

Historic Ind
osphere cultural influence zone of Greater India for transmission of elements of Indian elements such as the honorific
titles, naming of people, naming of places, linguistic borrowings, mottos of organisations and educational institutes as
well as adoption of Hinduism, Buddhism, Indian architecture, martial arts, Indian music and dance, traditional
Indian clothing, and Indian cuisine, a process which has been also aided by the ongoing historic expansion of Indian
diaspora

Southeast Asia was in the Indian sphere of cultural influence from 290 BCE to the 15th
century CE, when Hindu-Buddhist influences were incorporated into local political systems.
Kingdoms in the southeast coast of the Indian subcontinent had established trade, cultural and
political relations with Southeast Asian kingdoms in Burma, Bhutan, Thailand, the Sunda
Islands, Malay Peninsula, Philippines, Cambodia, Laos, and Champa. This led to
the Indianisation and Sanskritisation of Southeast Asia within the Indosphere, Southeast
Asian polities were the Indianised Hindu-Buddhist Mandala (polities, city states and
confederacies).

Indian culture itself arose from various distinct cultures and peoples, also including early
Southeast Asian, specifically Austroasiatic influence onto early Indians. A reason for the
acceptance of Indian culture and religious traditions in Southeast Asia was because Indian
culture already had similarities to indigenous cultures of Southeast Asia, which can be
explained by earlier Southeast Asian (specifically Austroasiatic, such as
early Munda and Mon Khmer groups), as well as later Himalayan (Tibetic) cultural and
linguistic influence onto various Indian groups. Several scholars, such as Professor Przyluski,
Jules Bloch, and Lévi, among others, concluded that there is a significant cultural, linguistic,
and political Mon-Khmer (Austroasiatic) influence on early Indian culture and
traditions. India is seen a melting pot of western, eastern and indigenous traditions. This
distinctly Indian cultural system was later adopted and assimilated into the indigenous social
construct and statehood of Southeast Asian regional polity, which rulers gained power and
stability, transforming small chieftains into regional powers.

Unlike the other kingdoms which existed on the Indian subcontinent, the Pallava
empire which ruled the southeastern coast of the Indian peninsula did not impose cultural
restrictions on people who wished to cross the seaThe Chola empire, which executed
the South-East Asian campaign of Rajendra Chola I and the Chola invasion of Srivijaya,
profoundly impacted Southeast Asia. This impact led to more exchanges with Southeast

29
Asia on the sea routes. Whereas Buddhism thrived and became the main religion in many
countries of Southeast Asia, it became a minority religion in India.

The peoples of maritime Southeast Asia — present-day Malaysia, Indonesia and

the Philippines — are thought to have migrated southward from South China sometime
between 2500 and 1500 BC. The influence of the civilization which existed on the Indian
Subcontinent gradually became predominant among them, and it also became predominant
among the peoples which lived on the Southeast Asian mainland.Southern Indian traders,
adventurers, teachers and priests continued to be the dominating influences in Southeast Asia
until about 1500 CE. Hinduism and Buddhism both spread to these states from India and for
many centuries, they existed there with mutual toleration. Eventually the states of the
mainland mainly became Buddhist.The key drivers of the Indianisation of Southeast Asia
were the Austronesian and Indian maritime trade especially the Spice trade and the Maritime
Silk Road, the emissaries of Ashoka, and the Buddhist missions of Emperor Ashoka the
Great.

Fragment of a wall painting depicting Buddha from a stupa in Miran along the Silk Road
(200AD - 400AD) A blue-eyed Central Asian monk teaching an East-Asian
monk, Bezeklik, Turfan, eastern Tarim Basin, China, 9th century; the monk on the right is
possibly Tocharian,[51] although more likely Sogdian.
The transmission of Buddhism to China via the Silk Road began in the 1st century CE,
according to a semi-legendary account of an ambassador sent to the West by the Chinese
Emperor Ming (58–75). During this period Buddhism began to spread throughout Southeast,
East, and Central Asia. Mahayana, Theravada, and Tibetan Buddhism are the three primary
forms of Buddhism that spread across Asia via the Silk Road.

The Buddhist movement was the first large-scale missionary movement in the history of
world religions. Chinese missionaries were able to assimilate Buddhism, to an extent, to
native Chinese Daoists, which brought the two beliefs together. Buddha's community of
followers, the Sangha, consisted of male and female monks and laity. These people moved
through India and beyond to spread the ideas of Buddha. As the number of members within
the Sangha increased, it became costly so that only the larger cities were able to afford having
the Buddha and his disciples visit. It is believed that under the control of the Kushans,
Buddhism was spread to China and other parts of Asia from the middle of the first century to
the middle of the third century. Extensive contacts started in the 2nd century, probably as a
consequence of the expansion of the Kushan empire into the Chinese territory of the Tarim
Basin, due to the missionary efforts of a great number of Buddhist monks to Chinese lands.

30
The first missionaries and translators of Buddhists scriptures into Chinese were either
Parthian, Kushan, Sogdian, or Kuchean.

One result of the spread of Buddhism along the Silk Road was displacement and conflict. The
Greek Seleucids were exiled to Iran and Central Asia because of a new Iranian dynasty called
the Parthians at the beginning of the 2nd century BCE, and as a result the Parthians became
the new middle men for trade in a period when the Romans were major customers for silk.
Parthian scholars were involved in one of the first Buddhist text translations into the Chinese
language. Its main trade centre on the Silk Road, the city of Merv, in due course and with the
coming of age of Buddhism in China, became a major Buddhist centre by the middle of the
2nd century. Knowledge among people on the silk roads also increased when Emperor
Ashoka of the Maurya dynasty (268–239 BCE) converted to Buddhism and raised the
religion to official status in his northern Indian empire.

From the 4th century CE onward, Chinese pilgrims also started to travel on the Silk Road to
India to get improved access to the original Buddhist scriptures, with Fa-hsien's pilgrimage to
India (395–414), and later Xuanzang (629–644) and Hyecho, who traveled from Korea to
India. The travels of the priest Xuanzang were fictionalized in the 16th century in a fantasy
adventure novel called Journey to the West, which told of trials with demons and the aid
given by various disciples on the journey.

1. Bilingual edict (Greek and Aramaic) by Indian Buddhist King Ashoka, 3rd century BCE

2. A statue depicting Buddha giving a sermon, from Sarnath, 3,000 km (1,864 mi) southwest of Ürümqi, Xinjiang,
8th century

There were many different schools of Buddhism travelling on the Silk Road. The
Dharmaguptakas and the Sarvastivadins were two of the major Nikaya schools. These were
both eventually displaced by the Mahayana, also known as "Great Vehicle". This movement
of Buddhism first gained influence in the Khotan region. The Mahayana, which was more of
a "pan-Buddhist movement" than a school of Buddhism, appears to have begun in
northwestern India or Central Asia. It formed during the 1st century BCE and was small at
first, and the origins of this "Greater Vehicle" are not fully clear. Some Mahayana scripts
were found in northern Pakistan, but the main texts are still believed to have been composed
in Central Asia along the Silk Road. These different schools and movements of Buddhism
were a result of the diverse and complex influences and beliefs on the Silk Road. With the
rise of Mahayana Buddhism, the initial direction of Buddhist development changed. This
form of Buddhism highlighted, as stated by Xinru Liu, "the elusiveness of physical reality,

31
including material wealth." It also stressed getting rid of material desire to a certain point;
this was often difficult for followers to understand.

During the 5th and 6th centuries CE, merchants played a large role in the spread of religion,
in particular Buddhism. Merchants found the moral and ethical teachings of Buddhism an
appealing alternative to previous religions. As a result, merchants supported Buddhist
monasteries along the Silk Road, and in return the Buddhists gave the merchants somewhere
to stay as they traveled from city to city. As a result, merchants spread Buddhism to foreign
encounters as they traveled. Merchants also helped to establish diaspora within the
communities they encountered, and over time their cultures became based on Buddhism. As a
result, these communities became centers of literacy and culture with well-organized
marketplaces, lodging, and storage. The voluntary conversion of Chinese ruling elites helped
the spread of Buddhism in East Asia and led Buddhism to become widespread in Chinese
society. The Silk Road transmission of Buddhism essentially ended around the 7th century
with the rise of Islam in Central Asia.

The height of the Hindu and Buddhist era in Java was marked by the establishment of large kingdoms
and kings who made carvings of personal names which are recorded in historical documents, on
epigraphs and on temple reliefs. The names of Javanese people during this era were influenced by
HinduBuddhist traditions and beliefs. These reached the island of Java sometime around the 4th or 5th
century BC. This period is categorised as the time when the influence of Shaivism Buddhism
(Mahayana Buddhism) spread from India via the trade route, through marriages, priests and Brahmans
and via the path of knights along as stated above. Not long after, i n a ceremony, Jayavarman II the
Khmer King proclaimed himself a chakravartin,-Lord of the Universe, and took on the
title devaraja, God-king. His successors would continue to use these titles and draw on them
to cement their power and authority as absolute rulers ordained by the gods. An inscription
from the temple at Sdok Kok Thom recounts the story of a ritual that occurred in AD 802 on
top of the sacred mountain Mahendraparvata. In this ceremony, Jayavarman II was
proclaimed a chakravartin, Lord of the Universe, and took on the title devaraja, God-king.
In Java, Kings took up names showing that they were descendents of Hindu /Buddhist Gods
1. tunggadeva, "reincarnation of the god Shiva" and
2. Ansuman, "reincarnation of the god of the sun",
3. Rakai Dyah Balitung Dharmodaya Mahasambu and
4. Rakai Watukara Ishwara Kesawasawatungga (Samarattungga),
At 3 and 4 are names for the god Shiva to indicate that a person with this name was a
follower of Shaivism. A similar form appears in the case of the name
5. Purnawarman (purnna meaning "perfect" and varmman meaning "coat of armour").
meaning a worshipper of the god Mithra-Surya or Shiva.

It can be concluded that the names of kings in Java during the Hindu-Buddhist era showed a
strong imitative tendency of the Hindu-Buddhist tradition (from India):
A, The forms of these kings' names are related to the existence of Batara Teri [təri] or
Trimurti (Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva).
B. The concept is that of a "king god", which means that the kings were reincarnations of the
gods. ( Javanese Names during the Height of the Hindu-Buddhist Kingdoms in Java: An Ethnolinguistic
Study SAHID TEGUH WIDODO, KEMANUSIAAN Vol. 20, No. 2, (2013), 81–89 )

32
 The Real Mandala of Sewu

The real mandala of Sewu that few know or have the capacity to understand is the mandala of the 2
kingdons-one Hindu and the other Buddhist that gave birth to the Sewu temple. I am referring to the
marriage of Pramodini, daughter of Sailendran king Samaratungga- a Buddhist with the Hindu
King Pikatan, the prince of the Sanjaya dynasty, was believed as the political reconciliation
between Buddhist Sailendra and with Hindu Sanjaya dynasties.

Ploasan Pic above See Chapter on the Rakai Pinkaton Design Structure later

Maṇḍala is a Sanskrit word meaning 'circle'. The mandala is a model for describing the
patterns of diffuse political power distributed among Mueang or Kedatuan (principalities)
in medieval Southeast Asian history, when local power was more important than the central
leadership. The concept of the mandala balances modern tendencies to look for unified
political power, e.g. the power of large kingdoms and nation states of later history – an
inadvertent byproduct of 15th century advances in map-making technologies. In the words
of O. W. Wolters who further explored the idea in 1982:

The map of earlier Southeast Asia which evolved from the prehistoric networks of small
settlements and reveals itself in historical records was a patchwork of often overlapping
mandalas.It is employed to denote traditional Southeast Asian political formations, such
33
as federation of kingdoms or vassalized polity under a center of domination. It was adopted
by 20th century European historians from ancient Indian political discourse as a means of
avoiding the term "state" in the conventional sense. Not only did Southeast
Asian polities except Vietnam not conform to Chinese and European views of a territorially
defined state with fixed borders and a bureaucratic apparatus, but they diverged considerably
in the opposite direction: the polity was defined by its centre rather than its boundaries, and it
could be composed of numerous other tributary polities without undergoing administrative
integration. In some ways similar to the feudal system of Europe, states were linked
in suzerain–tributary relationships.

The term Mandala draws a comparison with the mandala of

the Hindu and Buddhist worldview; the comparison emphasises the radiation of power from
each power center, as well as the non-physical basis of the system. Other metaphors such
as S. J. Tambiah's original idea of a "galactic polity" describe political patterns similar to the
mandala. The historian Victor Lieberman prefers the "solar polity" metaphor, referencing the
gravitational pull the sun exerts over the planets.

Intersecting mandalas c. 1360: from north to south: Lan

Xang, Lanna, Sukhothai, Ayutthaya, Khmer and Champa.

Historically, the main suzerain or overlord states were the Khmer

Empire of Cambodia; Srivijaya of South Sumatra; the successive kingdoms
of Mataram, Kediri, Singhasari and Majapahit of Java; the Ayutthaya
Kingdom of Thailand; Champa and early Đại Việt. China occupies a special place in that the
others often in turn paid tribute to China, although in practice the obligations imposed on the
lesser kingdoms were minimal. The most notable tributary states were post-Angkor
Cambodia, Lan Xang (succeeded by the Kingdom of Vientiane and Luang Prabang)
and Lanna. Cambodia in the 18th century was described by the Vietnamese emperor Gia
Long as "an independent country that is slave of two". The system was eventually ended by
the arrival of the Europeans in the mid-19th century. Culturally, they introduced Western
geographical practices, which assumed that every area was subject to one sovereign.
Practically, the colonisation of French Indochina, Dutch East Indies, British Malaya and
34
Burma brought pressure from the colonisers for fixed boundaries to their possessions. The
tributary states were then divided between the colonies and Siam, which exercised much
more centralised power but over a smaller area than thitherto.

The advent of Islam in the archipelago saw the application of this system which is still
continued in the formation of the government, such as the formation of the 18th
century Negeri Sembilan coalition which focused on Seri Menanti as a center flanked by four
inner luak serambi and four outer districts. Another example is the post-Majapahit Islamic
kingdoms in Java.

The obligations on each side of the relationship varied according to the strength of the
relationship and the circumstances. In general, the tributary was obliged to pay bunga mas, a
regular tribute of various valuable goods and slaves, and miniature trees
of gold and silver (bunga mas dan perak). The overlord ruler reciprocated with presents often
of greater value than those supplied by the tributary. However, the tributary also had to
provide men and supplies when called on, most often in time of war. The main benefit to the
tributary was protection from invasion by other powers, although as South East Asia
historian Thongchai Winichakul notes, this was often "mafia-like protection"[14] from the
threats of the overlord himself. In some cases, the overlord also controlled the succession in
the tributary, but in general interference with the tributary's domestic affairs was minimal: he
would retain his own army and powers of taxation, for example. In the case of the more
tenuous relationships, the "overlord" might regard it as one of tribute, while the "tributary"
might consider the exchange of gifts to be purely commercial or as an expression of
goodwill .

The emphasis on personal relationships was one of the defining characteristics of the mandala
system. The tributary ruler was subordinate to the overlord ruler, rather than to the overlord
state in the abstract. This had many important implications. A strong ruler could attract new
tributaries, and would have strong relationships over his existing tributaries. A weaker ruler
would find it harder to attract and maintain these relationships. This was put forward as one
cause of the sudden rise of Sukhothai under Ramkhamhaeng, for example, and for its almost
equally steep decline after his death (Wyatt, 45 and 48). The tributary ruler could repudiate
the relationship and seek either a different overlord or complete independence. The system
was non-territorial. The overlord was owed allegiance by the tributary ruler, or at most by the
tributary's main town, but not by all the people of a particular area. The tributary owner in
turn had power either over tributary states further down the scale, or directly over "his"
people, wherever they lived. No ruler had authority over unpopulated areas.

The personal relationship between overlord and subordinate rulers also defined the dynamic
of relationship within a mandala. The relations between Dharmasetu of Srivijaya
and Samaratungga of Sailendra, for instance, defined the succession of this dynastic family.
Dharmasetu was the Srivijayan Maharaja overlord, while the house of Sailendra in Java is
suggested to be related and was subscribed to Srivijayan mandala domination. After
Samaratungga married Princess Tara, the daughter of Dharmasetu, Samaratungga became his
successor and the house of Sailendra was promoted to become the dynastic lineage of later
Srivijayan kings, and for a century the center of Srivijaya was shifted from Sumatra to Java.

35
Pramodhawardhani (also known as Çrī Kahulunnan or Çrī Sanjiwana) was the queen
consort of King Rakai Pikatan (r. 838-850) of Mataram Kingdom in 9th century Central Java.
She was the daughter of Sailendran king Samaratungga (r. 812—833).Her royal marriage to
Pikatan, the prince of the Sanjaya dynasty, was believed as the political reconciliation
between Buddhist Sailendra and with Hindu Sanjaya dynasties. Sojiwan Buddhist temple,
dedicated for the queen mother Sanjiwana, which identified as Pramodhawardhani.

She was credited for the inauguration of Borobudur and the construction of several Buddhist
temples in Prambanan Plain; among others the small pervara temples
in Sewu compound, Plaosan, and Sajiwan Buddhist temples. Her name was mentioned in
several inscriptions, such as the Karangtengah inscription, Tri Tepusan inscription,
and Rukam inscription. Tri Tepusan inscription dated 842 mentioned about the sima (tax-
free) lands awarded by Çrī Kahulunnan to ensure the funding and maintenance of
a Kamūlān called Bhūmisambhāra (Borobudur), while the Rukam inscription dated 829 Saka
(907 CE) mentioned about the inauguration of Rukam village restoration by Nini Haji
Rakryan Sanjiwana, previously the village was being devastated by a volcanic eruption, and
the obligation of Rukam village inhabitants to take care of a sacred building located in
Limwung. This sacred building was identified as the Sajiwan temple.

According to the interpretation of Loro Jonggrang legend, Pramodhawardhani's likeness was

the model for Durga's image in the Prambanan temple.

A chakravarti (Sanskrit: चक्रवर्तिन्) is an ideal (or idealized) universal ruler, in the history,
and religion of India. The concept is present in Indian subcontinent cultural traditions,
narrative myths and lore. There are three types of chakravarti: chakravala chakravarti, an
emperor who rules over all four of the continents (i.e., a universal monarch); dvipa
chakravarti, a ruler who governs only one of those continents; and pradesha chakravarti, a
monarch who leads the people of only a part of a continent, the equivalent of a local king.
Dvipa chakravarti is particularly one who rules the entire Indian subcontinent (as in the case
of the Mauryan Empire. The first references to a Chakravala Chakravartin appear in
monuments from the time of the early Maurya Empire, in the 4th to 3rd century BCE, in
reference to Chandragupta Maurya and his grandson Ashoka.

The word cakra-vartin- is a bahuvrīhi compound word, translating to "one whose wheels are
moving", in the sense of "whose chariot is rolling everywhere without obstruction". It can
also be analysed as an 'instrumental bahuvrīhi: "through whom the wheel is moving" in the
meaning of "through whom the Dharmachakra ("Wheel of the Dharma) is turning" (most

36
commonly used in Buddhism). The Tibetan equivalent (khor los sgyur ba'i rgyal po)
translates to "monarch who controls by means of a wheel".

14 Ratnas of Chakravartin, 17th century manuscript/Chakravarti, from Amaravati

Stupa, 1st century CE, using the "Imperial Gesture" and surrounded by his attributes.
Possibly represents Ashoka of the Mauryan Empire.

In Buddhism, a chakravarti is the secular counterpart of a Buddha. The term applies to

temporal as well as spiritual kingship and leadership, particularly in Buddhism and Jainism.
In Hinduism, a chakravarti is a powerful ruler whose dominion extends to the entire earth. In
both religions, the chakravarti is supposed to uphold dharma, indeed being "he who turns the
wheel (of dharma)".
The Indian concept of chakravarti later evolved into the concept of devaraja – the divine right
of kings – which was adopted by the Indianised Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms of Southeast
Asia through Hindu Brahmin scholars deployed from India to their courts. It was first
adopted by Javanese Hindu-Buddhist empires such as Majapahit; through them by the Khmer
Empire; and subsequently by the Thai monarchs.In Buddhist chronicles, Buddha supposedly
told the boy that he would indeed become an Chakravarti emperor in next life as a result of
his act of generosity in offering sand and the boy in next life born as Ashoka.

It was believed that once a chakravarti emerged the "Future Buddha" Maitreya would appear
on earth. In early Buddhist art there are more than 30 depictions, all from the Deccan. In most
the Chakravarti King uses the "Royal Gesture" in which the king "clenches his left hand at his
chest and reaches up with his right hand". He is surrounded by his seven attributes:
the Chakraratna wheel, his state elephant, charger horse, "the octagonal gem which is so
luminous it can light the path of his army by night", his queen, defense minister and finance
minister. The early Buddhist Mahāvastu and the Divyāvadāna, as well as
the Theravadin Milindapañha, describe the marks of the chakravarti as
ruler: uṣṇīṣa, chhatra "parasol", "horn jewel" or vajra, whisk and sandals. These were the
marks of the kshatriya. Plastic art of early Mahayana Buddhism illustrates bodhisattvas in a
form called uṣṇīṣin "wearing a turban/hair binding", wielding the mudras for "nonviolent
cakravarti rule".

37
 list of 12 chakravartin
of Avasarpini as per Jainism is as
follows
1. Bharata, son
of Tirthankara Rishabhanath
a
2. Sagara, ancestor
of Bhagiratha as in
the Puranas
3. Maghava
4. Sanata Kumara
5. Tirthankara Shantinatha
6. Tirthankara Kunthunatha
7. Tirthankara Aranatha
8. Subhauma
9. Padmanabha
Tibetan mandala of the six 10.Harishena
chakravartis 11.Jayasena
12.Brahmadatt

Mahāmaṇḍala-cakravartin, royal title andis defined in the “Indian epigraphical glossary” as it

can be found on ancient inscriptions commonly written in Sanskrit, Prakrit or Dravidian
languages. Mahāmaṇḍala (महामण्डल):—[=mahā-maṇḍala] [from mahā > mah] m. Name of
a king, [Buddhist literature] The Great Chronicle of Buddhas (by Ven. Mingun Sayadaw)
Biography (2-3): Sāriputta and Moggallāna Mahātheras [Chapter 43 - Forty-one Arahat-
Mahatheras and their Respective Etadagga
Garga Samhita (English) (by Danavir Goswami)-Verse 8.13.136 < [Chapter 13 - A Thousand
Names of Lord Balarāma]

In Buddhism, a chakravarti is the secular counterpart of a buddha. The term applies to

temporal as well as spiritual kingship and leadership, particularly in Buddhism and Jainism.
In Hinduism, a chakravarti is a powerful ruler whose dominion extends to the entire earth.
Ikeda, Daisaku (1977) in Buddhism, the first millennium. Quotes Buddha as saying that-

“One hundred years after my death, this boy will become a Chakravarti king at Pataliputra
who will rule over all regions. His name will be Ashoka, and he will rule through the true
Dharma. In addition, he will distribute my relics abroad, will build eighty-four thousand
stupas.”
(Internet Archive. Tokyo ; New York : Kodansha International ; New York : distributed through Harper &
Row. p. 41. ISBN 978-0-87011-321-5. )

According to Hindu traditions, "Vishnu, in the form of Chakra, was held as the ideal of
worship for Kings desirous of obtaining Universal Sovereignty", a concept associated with
the Bhagavata Puranas, a religious sanction traceable to the Gupta period, which also led to
the chakravartin concept. There are relatively few examples of chakravartins in both northern
and southern India.
38
Bharata, the son of Dushyanta and Shakuntala, was conferred the title of cakravartin samrāj,
according to some legends. Another emperor of the same name, who was the son of
Rishabha, was also given the title cakravartin.

In Southern India, the Pallava period beginning with Simhavishnu (575–900 CE) was a
transitional stage in southern Indian society with monument building, establishment of
(bhakti) sects of Alvars and Nayanars, flowering of rural Brahmanical institutions of Sanskrit
learning, and the establishment of Chakravartin model of kingship over a territory of diverse
people; which ended the pre-Pallavan era of territorially segmented people, each with their
culture, under a tribal chieftain. The Pallava period extolled ranked relationships based on
ritual purity as enjoined by the shastras. Burton distinguishes between
the Chakravatin model and the Kshatriya model, and likens kshatriyas to locally based
warriors with ritual status sufficiently high enough to share with Brahmins; and states that in
south India the kshatriya model did not emerge.

Sewu Temple was built by the end of the eighth century at the end of Rakai Panangkaran's
reign and was completed during the reign of his successor, King Indra. Rakai Panangkaran
(746–780 CE) was well-known as a devoted Mahayana Buddhist king who ruled the Medang
Mataram Kingdom.

Giant Mandala Named Sewu Temple

The Complex of Sewu Temple is located inside the complex of Prambanan Temple,
exactly in the northern part of the complex. According to the inscriptions that have been
found, this temple was built at the same time while building Kalasan temple in 782 AD,
according to the Kelurak inscription. Meanwhile, according to another inscription,
Manjushrigriha, this temple was expanded in 792 AD. So it can be concluded that the
making of this temple in the beginning before the expansion. If looked at the
architectural design of the building Sewu Temple, The temple has a possibility to inspire
the design of Plaosan and Prambanan Temple.

The name of the temple itself is based on the number of temples located in the complex.
Sewu which means a thousand in the Javanese language describes the number of temples
that actually consists of only 249 temples, with one main temple and 240 perwara
temples. The main temple is in the middle with its four sides surrounded by flanking
temples and ancillary temples. On some inscriptions, are written that Sewu Temple was
built as a giant Mandala, with the geometry of the building illustrated the universe. In

39
this Mandala, Vairocana Buddha is placed in the middle and surrounded by five
tathagatas (personification from the quality of a Budha), namely Akshobhya,
Ratnasambhava, Amitabha, and Amogasiddhi.

Sewu temple has four gates on the front side of the outer court which each part is
guarded by a pair of Dwarapala statues that are facing each other. In the inner court also
has four gates with a pair of Dwarapala statues on each door. The four flanking temples
that lie outside the main wall are divided by the east, west, south and north sides. Each
part has a name, that is Bubrah Temple on the south side, Asu Temple on the east side,
Kulon Temple on the west side, and Lor Temple on the north side. Currently only temple
Bubrah and Asu temple that can be enjoyed by visitors, while Kulon Temple and Candi
Lor just leaving only with stone composition.

The uniqueness of this temple is also located in its location which is in complex of
Prambanan temple. Sewu temple is a Buddhist temple while Prambanan temple is the
largest and complex of Hindu temple. This indicates that in ancient times the Hindus and
Buddhists were very harmonious and lived together. Historically, Sewu Temple was built
during the reign of King Panangkaran of the Sanjaya dynasty. This temple was later
expanded during the reign of Rakai Pikatan who later married Hindu descendants namely
Pramodhyawardani of the Syailendra dynasty. This marriage then successfully united
both two great dynasties at that time, the Sanjaya dynasty and Syailendra dynasty.

The central temple enshrines Vairocana and the surrounding housed the 4 Tathagatas :

1. Aksobya- (Sanskrit: अक्षोभ्य "Immovable One ) is one of the Five Wisdom Buddhas, a
product of the Adibuddha, who represents consciousness as an aspect of reality. By
convention he is located in the east of the Diamond Realm and is the lord of the
Eastern Pure Land Abhirati ('The Joyous'). His consort is Lochanā and he is normally
accompanied by two elephants. His color is blue-black and his attributes include a
bell, three robes, and staff, as well as a jewel, lotus, prayer wheel, and sword. He has
several emanations.
2.

3. Ratnasambhava (Sanskrit: रत्नसम्भव, lit. "Jewel-Born") is one of the Five Dhyani

Buddhas (or "Five Meditation Buddhas") of Mahayana and Vajrayana or Tantric

40
 Buddhism. Ratnasambhava's mandalas and mantras focus on developing equanimity
and equality and, in Vajrayana Buddhist thought is associated with the attempt to
destroy greed and pride. His consort is Mamaki and his mount is a horse or a pair of
lions.

4. Amitabh (Sanskrit: अमिताभ 'Infinite Light') is the principal Buddha of Pure Land
Buddhism. which is understood to be his enjoyment body (Saṃbhogakāya).
In Vajrayana Buddhism, Amitābha is known for his longevity, discernment, pure
perception, and the purification of aggregates with deep awareness of the emptiness of
all phenomena.In the Mandala of the Two Realms, Amitābha is associated with
the Diamond Realm, while Amitāyus appears in the Womb Realm. He is widely
represented in Borobudur.See Chapter ….below for a discussion of the Amitabh in
Borobudur.

5. Amoghasiddhi (Devanagari: अमोघसिद्धि) is one of the Five Wisdom Buddhas of

the Mahayana and Vajrayana tradition of Buddhism. He is associated with the
accomplishment of the Buddhist path and of the destruction of the poison of envy. His
name means Unfailing Accomplishment. His consort is Tara, meaning Liberator and
his mounts are garudas. He belongs to the family of karma whose family symbol is
the double vajra. (Pic Below left)

Amitabh
6. The niches with Parivar Devatas (The family gods)
Parivāradevatā (परिवारदेवता) refers to the “subsidiary deities”, as discussed in chapter
10 (Kriyāpāda) of the Padmasaṃhitā: the most widely followed of Saṃhitā covering
the entire range of concerns of Pāñcarātra doctrine and practice (i.e., the four-fold
formulation of subject matter—jñāna, yoga, kriyā and caryā) consisting of roughly
9000 verses.—
Guardians of the cosmic directions at Sewu

In each of the five courtyards it is proper to install certain aspects of the Lord in the form of
parivāradevatā. Parivāradevatā (परिवारदेवता) refers to a “group of Gods” that are not
positioned in garbhagṛha (the temple’s main room), yet the corridor instead (Liebert, 1976,
p. 214). And are divided into subs parivāra and main parivāra. The small parivāra have
specific names, but their existence is not known specifically in the mythology of Indian Gods.
For examples-

41
 1. First Courtyard: Garuḍa, Viṣvaksena, Śaṅkara, Kṣetrapāla, Ṣaṇmukha, etc., are in the
first courtyard (94-99);
2. Second Courtyard- Sūrya, Candra, Hayagrīva, and others will be located in the second
courtyard (100-105); the
3. Third Courtyard- twelve Ādityas, Manmatha, the Pitṛgaṇas, Gaṇeśa, etc., will be
found in the third courtyard (106-1102);
4. Fourth Courtyard: Upendra, the Gaṇadevatās, etc., will be placed in the fourth
courtyard (110b144a—no mention is made of the fifth courtyard). Description of the
chapter [parivārādidevatā-kalpana]:

Chapter 22 (parivāra-vidhi says the following about attendant dieties

“rules regarding the attendant deities”): Iconometry continues, this chapter being
given over to rules for the attendant deities [parivāradevatā]:

1. Hayagrīva
2. Garuḍa
3. Sūrya
4. Soma
5. Kāma
6. Gajānana
7. Ṣaṇmukha
8. Dhanada
9. Rudra
10. Kṣetrapāla
11. Viṣvaksena
12. Brahmā
13. Vīrabhadra ,
14. Vināyaka
15. Ajāmukha
16. Āditya ,
17. Pitṛs and
18. Viśvedeva (From : Shodhganga: The significance of the mūla-beras (śilpa)

One can also understanbd Parivāradevata to refer to the “gods related in a family” whose images are
found scattered within Hindu temples.Each temple is filled with numerous images of :
a. Gods, goddesses,
b. Narivāra-devatas (gods related in a family),
c. Devas (attendants to the gods),
d. Sālagrāmās (cakra–an ammonite shell),
e. Bānaliṅgās (egg-shaped pebbles),
f. Yantras (mystic and magical diagrams engraved upon metallic plates),
g. Navagrahas (the nine planetary divinities),
h. certain divine animals and birds,
i. certain holy rivers, tanks, trees and
j. Sepulchers of saints.

VII
Sewu
42
Manjusrigrha
Manjusri is a Bodhisattva from Mahayana Buddhist teachings that symbolizes the "gentle
glory" of transcendent wisdom (Sanskrit: prajñā). Sewu Temple was built by the end of
eighth century at the end of Rakai Panangkaran's reign and was completed during the reign of
his successor, King Indra. Rakai Panangkaran (746–780 CE) was well known as a devoted
Mahayana Buddhist king who ruled the Medang Mataram Kingdom.
Sewu an eighth century Mahayana Buddhist temple located 800 metres north
of Prambanan in Central Java, Indonesia. The word for a Hindu or Buddhist
temple in Indonesian is "candi," hence the common name is "Candi Sewu." Candi Sewu is the
second largest Buddhist temple complex in Indonesia; Borobudur is the largest. Sewu
predates nearby "Loro Jonggrang" temple at Prambanan. Although the complex consists of
249 temples, this Javanese name translates to 'a thousand temples,' which originated from
popular local folklore (The Legend of Loro Jonggrang). Archaeologists believe the original
name for the temple compound to be Manjusrigrha. Sewu which means a thousand in the
Javanese language describes the number of temples that actually consists of only 249
temples, with one main temple and 240 perwara temples. The main temple is in the middle
with its four sides surrounded by flanking temples and ancillary temples.

The Shiva Temple’s Lokapalas – Guardians of the Directions of Space

On the outside-facing walls of the Shiva temple’s central cella there are a total of 24 relief
panels. Eight of these figures collectively represent a group of Deities called the Lokapalas
— the guardians of the eight directions of space. Vedic cosmology associates six of the eight
Lokapalas with six of the planets of ancient astronomy: Kubera (Venus), Varuna (Mercury),
Yama (Mars), Agni (Saturn), Issana (Moon) and Indra (Jupiter). In addition, the Lokapalas
Nirriti and Vayu were assigned stations in the sky that corresponded with certain star signs of
Vedic astronomy, called the nakshatras.

The Temple Complex

The architecture of the Prambanan temple complex follows Vastu Shastra and was built on the
model of Mount Meru, the Cosmic mountain. The whole temple complex is a model of the
Universe according to Hindu cosmology.
The urban center and the court of Mataram were located nearby, in what would later
become Yogyakarta. Hundreds of brahmins lived with their disciples within the outer wall of
the temple compound.

43
Originally there were a total of 240 temples standing in Prambanan. The temple complex
consist of:
• 3 Trimurti temples: three main temples dedicated to Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva Mahadeva
• 3 Vahana temples: three temples in front of Trimurti temples dedicated to the vahana of
each gods; Garuda, Nandi and Hamsa
• 2 Apit temples: two temples located between the rows of Trimurti and Vahana temples on
north and south side
• 4 Kelir temples: four small shrines located on 4 cardinal directions right beyond the 4 main
gates of inner zone
• 4 Patok temples: four small shrines located on 4 corners of inner zone
• 224 Pervara temples: hundreds of temples arranged in 4 concentric square rows; numbers
of temples from inner row to outer row are: 44, 52, 60, and 68. Today, only 2 out of the
original 224 perwara temples are renovated.
The Tri Mandala principle
The Prambanan temple consists of 3 zones, according to the Indonesian Hindu tri
mandala principle:
• Nista Mandala (outer zone) — a large space marked by a walled perimeter, which
originally measured about 390 m per side, and contained a sacred garden, an ashram for
monks and accommodation for the priests.
• Madya Mandala (middle zone) that contains hundreds of small temples
• Utama Mandala (holiest inner sanctum) that contains 8 main temples and 8 small shrines.
Just like Borobudur, Prambanan is structured in three mandalas, from the less holy to
the holiest realms. Both the compound site plan (horizontally) and the temple structure
(vertically) represents 3 layers of the Universe:
• Bhurloka (in Buddhism: Kāmadhātu), the lowest realm of common mortals; humans,
animals also demons. Where humans are still bound by their lust, desire and unholy way of
life. The outer courtyard and the foot (base) part of each temples is symbolized the realm of
bhurloka.
• Bhuvarloka (in Buddhism: Rupadhatu), the middle realm of holy people, occupied by rishis,
ascetics, and lesser gods. People here begin to see the light of truth. The middle courtyard and
the body of each temple symbolizes the realm of bhuvarloka.
• Svarloka (in Buddhism: Arupadhatu), the highest and holiest realm, reserved for the gods.
Also known as svargaloka. The inner courtyard and the roof of each temple symbolizes the
realm of svarloka. The roof of Prambanan temples are adorned and crowned with ratna
(sanskrit: jewel), the shape of Prambanan ratna took the altered form of vajra that represent
diamonds. In ancient Java temple architecture, ratna is the Hindu counterpart of the Buddhist
stupa, and served as the temple’s pinnacle.

44
The Shiva temple
The inner zone or central compound is the holiest among the three zones. It is the square
elevated platform surrounded by a square stone wall with stone gates on each four cardinal
points. This holiest compound is assembled of 8 shrines or candi. The 3 main shrines, called
are dedicated to the three Gods of the Trimurti: Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva Mahadeva.
The Shiva temple is the tallest and largest structure in Prambanan Loro Jonggrang
complex. Candi Shiva — the central shrine — rises 47 m high and contains 4 inner chambers
that face the 4 points of the compass. The eastern gate of Shiva temple is flanked by two small
shrines, dedicated to the guardian gods Mahakala and Nandhisvara.

45
The Shiva temple is encircled with galleries adorned with bas-reliefs telling the Ramayana. To
follow the story accurately, visitors must enter from the East side and began to
perform pradakshina.
The Shiva shrine is located at the center and contains five chambers, four small chambers in
every cardinal direction and one bigger main chamber in the central part of the temple. The
east chamber connects to the central chamber that houses the largest temple in Prambanan, a
three-metre high statue of Shiva Mahadeva.
The statue bears the lakçana (attributes or symbol) of Shiva such as the skull and sickle
(crescent) at the crown, and third eye on the forehead. The four hands that holds Shiva’s
symbols: prayer beads, feather duster, and trisula (trident).
The other three smaller chambers contain statues of Shiva’s consort Durga
Mahisasuramardini, Rishi Agastya — one of the Saptarishis who took the yogic sciences
across South Asia — and Ganesha.
The shrine of Durga is also called the temple of Rara Jonggrang, after the Javanese legend
of Rara Jonggrang. Indeed, Javanese folk religion was always superposed with the more
elitist Shiva-Buddha syncretism.
A well containing the peripih was discovered under the center of the Shiva temple. The stone
casket contained sheets of copper, charcoal, ashes, earth, 20 coins, jewels, glass, pieces of gold
and silver leaves, seashells and 12 gold leaves (which were cut in the shapes of a turtle, Nāga
serpent, padma, altar, and an egg).

The sacred peripih is the core of the shrine in all Indonesian temples

Shiva and Saraswati

Goddesses Lakshmi, Saraswati, and Durga are the same?
They all were the menifestation of goddess adiparashakti , the supreme mother of the whole
universe from whom everything in this universe have born from her .

When the Tridevas ie lord shiva, lord brahma , lord vishnu started the formation of universe ,
lord brahma was unable to complete the formation so they started praying the supreme energy
ie devi adiparashakti to guide them on a right path how to establish life and this universe .
They started tapasya of the supreme mother …….
After the long time of prayer devi adiparashakti listened to them and devi adiparashakti
showed herself to them (gave them darshan) in her real form. She told them who is she, the
mother of all beings and the tridev also originated from her then tridev told them about the
problem and wanted to know why they are unable to complete the creation of the universe
then she told that nothing in this universe can be accomplish by the prsence or contribution of
shakti or woman presence . Then they ask what is the solution, she gave a solution so to help
you i will separate myself into three halves

Without knowledge brahma cannot complete the creation of the universe so he with have a
consort the goddess of knowledge- Sarasvatī

Without luxuries the universe cannot be managed so with Vishnu the consort will be one who
will be the goddess of wealth ie goddess Lakshmi Saraswati is the sister of Shiva. The story
of birth of Ganga that I have read in my childhood. Narada and Tumburu are the two celestial

46
musicians of the Devaloka. Their rivalry over mastery of music leads them to Lord Shiva.
Shiva directs them to Lord Vishnu.

Lord Vishnu points out to them that Hanuman is the better of them. They decide to try him
out and prove their mastery. At the appointed time, Bramha, Vishnu, Shiva, Narada,
Tumburu and Hanuman gather. To make the test interesting, Shiva freezes everyone in ice till
their abdomen, with only their head and limbs movable. The test is to melt the ice with your
music and free yourself. Both Narada and Tumburu fail, and Hanuman succeeds in thawing
himself out.After accepting his greatness, both Narada and Tumburu request Hanuman to free
them too. Upon their request, Hanuman sings and the soulful and celestial music melts the ice
and both Narada and Tumburu are free. But Hanuman is now in a different universe and
continues to sing. The song is so powerful that Vishnu enters trance, and a part of his aura
melts and trickles down to the feet. Bramha promptly collects and stores the aura in his
kamandala. This aura of Vishnu melted by the divine and mellifluous song of devotee
Hanuman, now collected by Bramha is Ganga.

Descent from heavens.

Pleased by Bhagirath’s penance to bring peace to his ancestors’ souls, Ganga agreed to
descend from the heavens. But the force for her descent would crush the earth and lead to
devastating catastrophe. To prevent the same, Bhagirath started penance unto Shiva. Shiva is
pleased with the penance and agrees to arrest Ganga’s descent of destruction.

When at the opportune moment Bramha releases Ganga from the heavens to the earth, Shiva
is ready with his locks open to contain Ganga’s destructive dance. In her arrogance, Ganga
swelled up to cause maximum destruction but Shiva caught her in his locks and imprisoned
her, to teach her a lesson. Bhagirath was distraught and did penance unto Shiva a second
time. Shiva softened and released Ganga, falling on the ground and flowing into 7 streams. 3
to the east, 3 to the west and one followed Bhagirath, who led the waters over his ancestors’
ashes and their souls were redeemed. This having completed the incomparable task,
Bhagirath brought Ganga to earth.

Bramha ordained that Ganga would also be known as Bhagirathi.

For the symbolism:

1. Ganga (Knowledge) flows from Shiva (God) to man (consciousness) to free the
cursed souls (mind)

2. Knowledge has the power to enrich or crush you. Only the enlightened ones
(Bhagirath) with their penance can bring the knowledge to the masses.

47
Sewu is only 1.7 Km away from Prambanan. Prambanan is built in 850 AD and Sewu
Temple was built by the end of the eighth century at the end of Rakai Panangkaran's
reign and was completed during the reign of his successor, King Indra. Rakai
Panangkaran (Pinkaton ) (746–780 CE) was well-known as a devoted Mahayana
Buddhist king who ruled the Medang Mataram Kingdom.

48
49
50
So when the northwestern region of ancient India experienced a major earthquake which
resulted in the loss of the flow of the sacred Saraswati River, it was seen that this incident had
major consequences for the existence of Hinduism above Indian civilization, the loss of an
element of purity and holiness mentioned in its holy book (Veda).

Could it be that the big earthquake that obliterated the Saraswati River was the turning point
for Hinduism in India? which in the course of its history after the holy river which was
mentioned repeatedly in his holy book it actually dried up and disappeared without a trace,
then followed by Prayag which is the holy place where for the first time Lord Brahma
received his offerings also it was controlled by the Muslim Mughal Empire even later
controlled by the British Empire until it changed its name to Allahabad.

It seems that since the big earthquake which resulted in the disappearance of the Saraswati
River in northeastern India is an early sign of the fading of India's brilliance from a Hinduism
side and it could be that the belief in the Saraswati River as a mystical river is a religious
effort and a political step to defend India's existence against Indian Hindus. which dominates
Indian society and the recognition of India itself in world civilization as a place where the
gods reside in the greatness of Hinduism.

In the year 2006 a fault was detected during the Yogyakarta earthquake along the Prambanan
plain to the east towards the Ganwarno area.The Opak flows from its source on the slopes

51
of Mount Merapi in the north, heading southward and passes the west side of 9th-
century Prambanan temple compound, located to the east of Yogyakarta and west of Kota
Gede. It also passes the historical locations of Plered, Karta, and Imogiri before draining into
the Indian Ocean in the southern part of Bantul.
The river runs upon the major Opak tectonic fault, in southern Central Java responsible for r
earthquakes which have not only put focus on the opak, but also highlighted the existence of
the Opak River and a river that once existed along Prambanan and Sewu Temples just as the
Ganga and Jamuna are important to the Sacred buildings around it. It is therefore believed by
some that this point was chosen to base the location for the construction of the Prambanan
Temple as the river formed from the Prambanan-Gantiwarno earthquake path flows from east
to west towards the Opak River which is located right under the Prambanan Temple building.
So that the existence of the confluence of the 2 rivers resembles the confluence of the
Yamuna river in India which flows into the Ganges River which is referred to as "sangam".
In the "sangam" place between the Ganges and Yamuna in India there is a place called
Allahabad, Allahabad itself was formerly a place called Prayag. The word Prayag means "a
place to ask (blessings)", this place is an ancient place mentioned in the Vedas as the first
place where Lord Brahma received his offerings. In the course of its history, Prayag was
controlled by the Mughal Empire and changed its name to Ilahabad which in Persian means
"city of Allah", and after that, Illahabad was often called Allahabad by the British colonialists
until now.

Until now, Prayag is still used as one of the venues for the sacred Maha Kumbh-mela
( Kumbh Fair) procession which is held about once every 12 years based on the constellation
of the celestial body.As mentioned in the Vedas, there are 3 main rivers flowing in India,
namely the Ganges, Yamuna and Saraswati. It is possible that these 3 rivers still existed when
Allahabad was named Prayag. However, after that, of the 3 rivers, only 2 remained physically
because the Saraswati River is no longer known, so for Hindus in India, the Saraswati River
is often considered a mystical river.The Saraswati River flowed from the mountains and
ended in the sea (Rgveda VII.95.2 ) . Using satellite photography technology, the experts
found traces that the Saraswati River used to exist in India, but now it is almost
unrecognizable because it has dried up for a long time and has changed its shape. The trail of
the river can still be observed, namely around the Himalayas crossing the edge of the Thar
Desert (passing through several countries) and ending in the Bay of Bengal.
It is thought that this river dried up as a result of a massive earthquake, and it is possible that
the same earthquake brought the end of civilizations along the Indus Valley (Migration of the
Aryans)

Sangam (meeting ) in-Java?

The earthquake fault, indicates that it once formed a river (call it the Gantiwarno River)
which flows into the Opak River, resulting in a meeting point for 2 rivers as the Gangga-
Yamuna "sangam", if Prayag is on the edge of the sangam/battle of the river, then Prambanan
Temple Instead, it was built in the middle of the confluence of the Opak River and the
Gantiwarno River by diverting the flow of the Opak River so that it formed a large pond
around it.

Apart from the Opak River and the Gantiwarno River, there are 2 other rivers which can be
considered as to which one the Saraswati River is of Java, namely: the Bengawan Solo River

52
in the east which currently empties into Gresik, East Java and the Progo River to the west
which empties into Kulon Progo.
However, if we look at the historical flow of the loss of the Saraswati River in India, it seems
that there is a very small possibility that the Progo River is the Saraswati River of Java,
because throughout its history the Progo River has not experienced a drought like the
Saraswati River in India.

Personally, I am more inclined to the Bengawan Solo River as the Javanese Saraswati River,
but what I mean by Bengawan Solo is not the river which currently flows north and empties
into the Gresik area, East Java, but the Ancient Bengawan Solo River which empties into
Sadeng Beach, Gunung Kidul, Yogyakarta.

3 approximate river basins

The Bengawan Solo River (Ancient) has quite an interesting history to study. And has
become the icon of the city of Solo. It currently flows northwards towards the Java Sea by
meandering across several areas.It was stated that during the period of 4 million years ago
this river flowed southwards towards the South Sea (Indian Ocean), then a devastating
earthquake occurred as a result of the process of the Australian earth plate hitting the
mainland of Java Island so that the seabed of the Indian Ocean on the south side was lifted up
to become new land along Gunung Kidul (Yogyakarta), Wonogiri (Central Java) and Pacitan
(East Java). The elevation of the area made the mouth of the Bengawan Solo (ancient) River
which is in the south also bright and made the flow of the river reverse to change direction
from south to north, while the mouth of the river which was raised became a dry valley/basin
because the water of the Ancient Bengawan Solo was unable to erode it, now the community
named the dry valley as Telaga Suling and its estuary became known as a new area called
Sadeng Beach.

The disappearance of the Saraswati River from the map of mainland India due to a large
earthquake and the reverse of the flow of the Ancient Bengawan Solo River with dry
conditions at its estuary due to a large earthquake are a similarity of natural events that may
have the same philosophical meaning.

The missing river on the Saraswati River in India and the water that does not flow in the
direction it should be on the Bengawan Solo River in Jaws are similar from a philosophical
point of view that both are no longer purifying as they should be by referring back to the
passage of the Rig Veda II. 35.3 which reads:

"sama yanty upa yanty anyah

samanam urvam na-dyah prnanti,
guest u Sucim sucayo diivamsam
apam napatam pari tasthur apah"

A large amount of water, along with others, gathers into rivers which flow together towards
the reservoir. the pure water that flows, both from springs and from the sea, has a purifying
power.

There is a straightforward thought from the series of estimates above, throughout the span of
history that started from the time of the big earthquake which resulted in the disappearance of

53
the Saraswati River in India, whether the construction of Çiwagrha (Prambanan Temple) on
Java Island is a series of efforts to purify Hinduism in India which is considered that the Gods
have departed from the “singhasana” which is marked by the abandonment of India by one of
its sacred rivers?

If Prayag in India is the place where Brahma first received offerings, could the Prambanan
temple our Shivalaya in Java led by Rakai Pikatan in presenting the palace to Lord Shiva? If
this is indeed the case, then the steps taken by the kings before, during the reign of Rakai
Pikatan –Pramodhawardani and afterward were steps of human civilization, not only steps to
maintain the hegemony of Ancient Mataram power.

If the Saraswati River in India can dry up and disappear without a trace, then the situation is
the same in Java, the river that is imaged as the Saraswati River of Java is experiencing the
same thing. Javanese history speaks of massive migration from the Ancient Mataram
Kingdom which was located in central Java to eastern Java by Mataram King Pu Sindok, this
move almost coincided with a natural process of MahaPralaya ( The great disaster/ Flood),
which is interpreted as a major disaster on the land of Java caused by the eruption of Mount
Merapi which is located on the north side of Prambanan Temple which is the headwaters of
the Opak River which is manifested as the Ganges River of the land of Java.

Some information states that around the Mahapralaya incident there was also another event,
namely the return attack from Srivijaya on Java, it seems that the old grudge for power over
Pramodhawardani's brother who had become the king of Srivijaya continued to grow into a
grudge that was passed down for several generations, if you look closely at the efforts this
attack carried out by Sriwijaya in the period leading up to Mahapralaya was an attempt to
thwart the migration preparations of the entire Mataram kingdom so that there would be a
delay in saving from Mahapralaya's rampage.

If Mahapralaya is referred to as a major disaster in the form of Mount Merapi which erupted
on a large scale which was able to completely bury the top of the Sambisari temple which
incidentally is located further south from the Prambanan point, then the fate of the Ganwarno
River lost its traces of being buried by volcanic material from the eruption of Mount Merapi,
so that the Yamuna-River disappeared. The island of Java, the support for the sanctity of
Prambanan who stands at the Ganges-Yamuna “sangam” (battle of the river) of Java.

The question is whether the reversal of the direction of the ancient Bengawan Solo River
from north to south to south to north is part of the Mahapralaya event?

So when Mahapralaya occurred, what caused Mount Merapi to erupt violently was it really a
purely independent eruption from within Mount Merapi, or was it triggered by other factors
in the form of a very powerful wave of earthquake energy from the same earthquake source
with the 2006 Yogyakarta earthquake. And the same earthquake that caused Mount Merapi to
erupt violently in Mahapralaya also made the ancient Bengawan Solo River turn north. Thus
the assumption appears that the Mahapralaya process (in terms of natural events) is a natural
disaster that starts with a major earthquake (megathrust) in the South Sea (Indian Ocean)
which causes the lifting of the ocean floor so that the flow of the Bengawan Solo Ancient
River reverses direction, then the energy spreads far to the north forced Mount Merapi to
erupt violently and the material buried a civilization that had previously been destroyed by a
large earthquake.

54
So if it is equated with the depiction of the disappearance of the Saraswati River in India, the
Mahapralaya incident in Java is: a big earthquake, the Saraswati River of Java reversed
direction, the Prayag building of Jawa (Prambanan Temple) collapsed in the earthquake,
Mount Merapi was flooded with earthquake energy and then erupted violently , the volcanic
material of Mount Merapi covered all ancient Mataram buildings.

However, if we look at the pattern of the disappearance of the Saraswati River in India,
which has similarities with the process of drying up the mouth of the Ancient Bengawan Solo
River due to the earthquake, and the existence of the Prambanan Temple in choosing an
unusual location for its construction, in my opinion there is a possibility that one day it could
be examined again.

And from this possibility at least a new question is opened, have we made a mistake in
calculating the historical time, have we miscalculated that in fact the event of the lifting of
the sea floor that forms the land of Gunung Kidul, Wonogiri and Pacitan did not occur 4
million years ago but several hundred years ago as ancient historians calculate based on the
artifacts they reveal

That the existence of Prambanan Temple on the island of Java is not as old as what ancient
historians say, but at the same age as the estimated formation of land along Gunung Kidul,
Wonogiri and Pacitan which is marked by the traces of the Ancient Bengawan Solo Valley
which were 4 million years ago.In relation to the above, it should be underlined that efforts to
search for traces of the Saraswati River in India using satellite imagery suggest that the
Saraswati River used to exist (around 2,500-2,000 BC) and disappeared due to a very
powerful earthquake, and the same earthquake which was indicated as the trigger for the
migration of the Aryans in the civilization of the Indus river valley sparked a controversy
regarding the age of the Vedas.

Hence
1. Should the brother (SHIVA) be near the Sister ( Sarswati)
2. Is not the temple of Prambanan better placed near the confluence of the rivers such
as in ancient India

opak

55
Ganges

The Mandala of the Sewu temple

As an architectural masterpiece built in the 8th century and older than Borobudur and
Prambanan Temples, Sewu Temple has an important role in the development of archipelago’s
architecture. The background of the temple building can be known through the ornaments
that decorate parts of the temple. Ornaments contain certain meanings with Hindu-Buddhist
principles, not only as visual ornament elements, so the role of ornaments is important.
Ornaments are an artistic component that is added to decoration in crafts, including
architecture. Ornamentation cannot be separated from the socio-cultural background of the
community and the area of origin of the ornament, because ornamentation is a means of
communication to reduce culture from the previous generation to the next generation.
Therefore, it is necessary to further study the evolution or development of the forms and
meanings of architectural ornaments in the archipelago with a time series of architectural
developments in the Hindu-Buddhist era and traditional architecture, especially Java,
following the location of the temple. The purpose of this study is to examine the evolution of
forms, patterns, and meanings of Hindu-Buddhist architectural ornaments found in Sewu
Temple in their development towards traditional Javanese architecture. This research uses
descriptive qualitative method. This research found that there is a relationship between
1
Javanese architectural ornaments and architectural ornaments
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------E
olution of
Hindu–Buddhist Architectural Ornaments Into Javanese Traditional Architecture: Case Study of Sewu Temple
Ayu Ratna Pertiwi- Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research, volume 421 4th
International Conference on Arts Language and Culture (ICALC 2019)

The Buddhist king Panangkaran who ruled the Medang Kingdom started the construction of
the great Manjusrigrha Temple (‘House of Manjushri’, the Bodhisattva of Wisdom), which is
the original name of the Sewu Temple complex, the second largest Buddhist complex in
Indonesia after Borobudur, with 249 buildings. Archaeologists believe the original name for
the temple compound to be Manjusrigrha which is Sewu an eighth
century Mahayana Buddhist temple located 800 metres north of Prambanan in Central
Java, Indonesia. The word for a Hindu or Buddhist temple in Indonesian is "candi," hence the

56
common name is "Candi Sewu." Candi Sewu is the second largest Buddhist temple complex
in Indonesia; Borobudur is the largest. Sewu predates nearby "Loro Jonggrang" temple at
Prambanan. Although the complex consists of 249 temples, this Javanese name translates to
'a thousand temples,' which originated from popular local folklore (The Legend of Loro
Jonggrang). Here we see a clear Mandala and remains of several Perwara temples.

Candi Sewu temple layout

Sewu is an eighth century Mahayana Buddhist temple located 800 metres north
of Prambanan in Central Java, Indonesia. The word for a Hindu or Buddhist
temple in Indonesian is "candi," hence the common name is "Candi Sewu." Candi Sewu is the
second largest Buddhist temple complex in Indonesia; Borobudur is the largest. Sewu
predates nearby "Loro Jonggrang" temple at Prambanan. Although the complex consists of
249 temples, this Javanese name translates to 'a thousand temples,' which originated from
popular local folklore (The Legend of Loro Jonggrang). Archaeologists believe the original
name for the temple compound to be Manjusrigrha.

57
Perwara temples surrounding the Prambanan- above right

CONSTRUCTION

Manjusrigrha inscription (792 CE), discovered in 1960 at the outer west perwara temple no. 202 (row 4
no. 37) of Sewu Buddhist temple.

According to the Kelurak inscription (dated from 782 CE) and the Manjusrigrha
inscription (dated from 792 CE), which were discovered in 1960, the original name of the
temple complex was probably "Manjusri grha" (The House of Manjusri). Manjusri is
a Bodhisattva from Mahayana Buddhist teachings that symbolizes the "gentle glory" of
transcendent wisdom (Sanskrit: prajñā). Sewu Temple was built by the end of eighth century
at the end of Rakai Panangkaran's reign and was completed during the reign of his
successor, King Indra. Rakai Panangkaran (746–780 CE) was well known as a devoted
Mahayana Buddhist king who ruled the Medang Mataram Kingdom.
Built 70 years before the Hindu Shiva temple of Prambhanan, the Manjusrigrha temple
was the largest Buddhist temple in the Prambanan Plain region and the Borobudur was
completed 37 years later.
Located in the heart of Mataram, the temple served as the royal Buddhist temple of the
kingdom. Stately religious ceremonies were held here regularly. The Manjusrigrha inscription
(792) praises the perfect beauty of the prasada (tower) of this temple compound.
The Bubrah temple, (read later in this paper ) is located several hundred meters south, and
the Gana temple, located is ob east of the Sewu temple. Both these are supposedlyguardian
temples for the Manjusrigrha complex, guarding the four cardinal directions around the Sewu
temple. Prior to the construction of Borobudur and Prambanan, Sewu likely served as the
kingdom's main temple. The temples are arranged in the mandala layout, which symbolizes
the universe in Buddhist cosmology.
Sewu temple was probably expanded and completed during the rule of Rakai Pikatan, a
prince who married a Buddhist princess from the Sailendra dynasty, Pramodhawardhani.
Most of his subjects retained their old religions after the court returned to favour Hinduism.
The proximity of the Sewu temple to Prambanan, a Hindu Temple, suggests that the Hindu
and Buddhist communities lived in harmony during the era in which the temples were built.

58
And the scale of the temple complex suggests that Candi Sewu was a royal Buddhist temple
that served as an important religious site.
Rediscovery

Although buried deep beneath the volcanic debris around Mount Merapi, the temple ruins
were not completely forgotten by the local Javanese inhabitants. However, the origins of the
temple were a mystery. Over the centuries, tales and legends infused with myths of giants and
a cursed princess were recounted by villagers. Prambanan and Sewu were purport to be of
supernatural origin, and in the legend of Loro Jonggrang they were said to have been created
by a multitude of demons under the order of Bandung Bondowoso. Such tales are most likely
the reason the temples were preserved through the centuries prior to the Java War (1825–
1830). The local villagers dared not remove any of the temple stones, believing the ruins to
be haunted by supernatural beings.
1. In 1733, Pakubuwono II granted the Dutch merchant Cornelius Antonie Lons
permission to make a sightseeing tour through the heartland of Mataram. Lons' report
of this trip contains the first known extant description of the Sewu and Prambanan
temples and in the years 1806–07, the Dutch archaeologist Hermann
Cornelius unearthed the Sewu temples.
2. During the Java War (1825–1830) some of the temple stones were carted away and
used in fortifications. In the years that followed the temples suffered from looting.
3. Many of the Buddha statues were decapitated and the heads stolen. Some Dutch
colonists stole sculptures and used them as garden ornaments, and native villagers
used the foundation stones as construction material.
4. Some of the temple's best preserved bas-reliefs, Buddha's head, and some ornaments
were carried away from the site and ended up in museums and private collections
abroad.
5. In 1867, Isidore van Kinsbergen photographed the ruins of Candi Sewu after an
earthquake had caused the dome in main temple to collapse.
6. In 1885 Jan Willem IJzerman, revising some plans of the temple complex made
earlier by Cornelius, made notes regarding the temple's condition. He noted that
several Buddha heads were missing.
7. By 1978 none of the Buddha heads had survived, all of them having been looted from
the site completely
8. In 1901 a new set of photographs was taken, sponsored by Leydie Melville.
9. In 1908 Theodoor van Erp [nl] initiated the clearing and reconstruction of the main
temple.
10. In 1915 H. Maclaine Pont drew the reconstruction of a temples of the second row. It
was de Haan who reconstructed the Perwara temples with the aid of Van Kinsbergen's
photographs.
11. Subsequently, the temple became a subject of study among archaeologists
Contemporary events
Since the early 20th century the temple has been slowly and carefully reconstructed, yet it has
not been completely restored. There are hundreds of temple ruins, and many stones are

59
missing. The main temple reconstruction and two of the apit temples on the east side were
completed in 1993 and inaugurated by President Soeharto on 20 February 1993.
The temple was severely damaged during the 2006 Yogyakarta earthquake. The structural
damage was significant, and the central temple suffered the worst. Large pieces of debris
were scattered about on the grounds, and cracks between stone blocks were detected. To
prevent the central temple from collapsing, metal frame structures were erected on the four
corners and attached to support the main temple. Although some weeks later in 2006 the site
was reopened for visitors, the main temple remained closed for safety reasons. Today the
metal frame has been removed, and visitors may visit and enter the main temple. The Sewu
Temple often hosts the annual Vesak ceremony.

A lithograph of Tjandi Sewoe ruins near Prambanan, circa 1859

Image extracted from page 281 of volume 1 of Neerlands-Oost-Indie. Reizen over Java, Madura,(1852-
1857), by BUDDINGH, Steven Adriaan. Original held and digitised by the British Library.

60
 Candi Sewu
main temple at left and one of apit temple at right BELOW Aerial view of Sewu temple near
Prambanan
shows the mandala layout of the main temple surrounds by smaller perwara temples.

Prambanan courtyard shows the Perwara ARPIT are RED

61
 Candi Sewu Layout Mandala

An architectural model of Candi Sewu temple compound, reconstruct the complete condition of the 8th
century Sewu temple in Central Java, Indonesia. PERWARA temples

62
Perwara temples

2 of three perwara temples.

The main temple compound located on the uppermost terrace, consists of a large main temple
facing west and three perwara temples on front of it facing east. These three perwara temples
was meant to honor Trimurti, having cella or room and there are windows perforated in the
rhombus shape. The roof is arranged in three stages adorned with rows of ratnas.

The main temple, showing the three niches. One of the perwara
temples can be seen behind it.
The main temple has square ground plan with a large linga and yoni adorned
with naga serpent. The union of phallic linga and yoni symbolize the cosmic sacred union
between Shiva and Parvati as his shakti. There are three niches on each sides of inner wall in
the room, each niches flanked with a pair of devata, Hindu lesser gods and goddesses flying
toward the niches.The roof of main temple is arranged in three ascending terraces decreased
in size to the top forming stepped pyramid.
In the case of Prambanan these 224 shrines are also the "Candi Perwara", guardian or
complementary temples, the additional buildings of the main temple. Some believed it was
offered to the king as a sign of submission. The Perwara are arranged in four rows around the
central temples.
Apit temples and smaller shrines. Apit in Javanese means "flank". It refers to the position of
the two temples that flanked the inner courtyard on the north and south sides. The room
inside the Apit temples is now empty. It is not clear to which deities these Apit temples were
dedicated.

63
Apit (अपित् means Dry, waterless, as a river.Not having the इत् (it) or अनुबन्ध प्
(anubandha p). सार्वधातुकमपित् (sārvadhātukamapit) Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit
Dictionaries: Cappeller Sanskrit-English Dictionary
Apit as an adjective would mean barren, dry.A temple that does not feature an Idol. But they
can have a depiction on the outer walls. For example:
Prambanan Apit temple of Saraswati is an Apit temple from the 9th-century located within
the complex of the Prambanan Temple Archaeological Park, in Central Java, Indonesia. Apit
temple and smaller shrines, Between these rows of the main temple, on the north and south
side, stand two Apit temples. However, examining the southern Apit temple bas-reliefs on
the outer wall, a female deity is depicted, most probably Sarasvati, the Shakti (consort) of
Brahma. Considering the Hindu pantheon represented in Prambanan temples, it is possible
that the southern Apit temple was dedicated to Sarasvati, while the northern Apit temple was
dedicated to Lakshmi.
Complex of Complexes

Prambanan temple compounds, has 5 major temples complexes and more than five-hundred
temples. The major temple complex is Prambanan temple complex with 240 Hindu temples.
Another major temple complex is Candi Sewu, the second largest Buddhist temple complex
in Indonesia after Borobudur with a total of 240 temples though the striking feature is the

64
massive dwara balas or protectors of the temple gates. The other temples are Bubrah,
Lumbung and Asu. All these temples except Asu are at different stages of restoration by the
UNESCO working with the Indonesian Government. Do note that Asu is still buried under
the soil due to the impact of the Mount Merapi volcano and yet to be excavated.Prambanan
1
temple complex is the most popular one among these various temples.
Inside the Temple Complex

The temple complex has 240 temples. They are organized as follows
1. The 3 main temples for the 3 murtis of the Hindu religion - Siva, Vishnu and Brahma with
the Siva temple in the center.
2. Vahana or vehicle temples of the respective murtis are opposite to each one of
the murtis for a total of 3 temples. The 3 Vahana temples are Garuda, Nandi and Angsa (or
swan).
3. There are two Apit temples or flank temples on either side of the 6 temples in the center
row between the rows of Vahana and Murthy temples.
4. There are 4 Kelir temples on four cardinal directions outside the inner courtyard.
5. There are 4 Pathok temples on 4 corners of the inner courtyard.
6. Then outside all these temples are the Perwara (“waiting woman”) temples organized in 4
concentric squares with different number of temples from the inner square to outer square as
follows - 44, 52, 60, 68. According to the brilliant article by Dr Subhash Kak, the concentric
circular placement of the Prambanan temples is after a Tantric diagram followed at that time
and his technical details and knowledge is fascinating.

1. The total varies from 249 to 239 ( calculated by me). Be as it may, it is a large number.
That apart, which I do not want to focus upon and also lack the knowledge to do so, Rakai’s
contribution is bringing a synthesis of Buddhism and |Hinduism in the same compounds
while keeping things separate

Prambanan (LEFT) and SEWU ( RIGHT) Aerial views showing the compounds and temple arrangements.

65
The striking feature of the Prambanan is the architecture, which is a typical representation of
the South Indian Pallava-Chola architecture. It is typical of that architecture to have very tall
Vimanas and Gopurams (towers), large courtyards and aesthetically carved bass reliefs. Also
the Prambanan temples follow the Mandala concept of the Vastu Shastra, an ancient Indian
science of architecture and construction. The inner space with the Murti temples, the Perwara
temples and the space outside Perwara temples make up the three mandala concept of the
Vastu Shastra. Today only the Murthy, Vahana, Apit and Kelir temples has been restored
while the Pathok and Perwara are not restored yet though work is in progress.

The temples of Prambanan itself are organized as per the Logam concept. The foot of each
temple represents the Boologam or the realm of the mortals. The middle realm or the body of
the temple represents Bhuvarlogam or realm for the holy people. The upper realm or the
holiest part of the temple or the topmost layer is the realm of gods called Swarkalogam. The
upper realm is completed by a Vajra (it can mean both thunderbolt or diamond) on the roof.

66
The Bas reliefs of Prambanan is very extensive and narrative. The narrative part is about
Ramayana epic and Bhagavata Puranam - stories about Vishnu and his avatars. The reliefs
also have depictions about Kalpataru, Apsaras, Devadas - all part of Hindu/Buddhist
mythology.
Expansion. Though the temple is believed to have been built by Rakai Pikatan of Sanjaya
dynasty around 850 AD it was expanded by subsequent kings building the Perwara temples
surrounding the centerpiece in concentric squares.This is an indication that the large
compounds were specifically kept for later expansions without destruction or alteration to the
main temple. There was, nothing ofcourse, to stop subsequent Kings from building another
Main Temple near the older one.

At its peak, hundreds of Brahmins lived in the temple complex while the royal court with the
urban center was located nearby. The royal court was shifted either due to Mount Merapi
volcano eruption or due to power struggle throwing Prambanan into disuse. The locals knew
about the existence of the temple but did not know the background and so the folklore of
Roro Jonggrang was attached to the temple.

Candi Lumbung - Main temple renovation goes on with Perwara temples on the side

Candi Bubrah: Hundred or so meters to away is Candi Bubrah, which is a Buddhist temple
constructed in the 9th century by the Sailendra dynasty. It is named as Bubrah as it was
discovered in complete ruins. What exists today is a 12 meters x 12 meters platform where I
could see works carried on to restore this temple. As per my conversation with the workers,
the temple is made up of volcanic rocks.

The Sewu temple complex is the largest Buddhist compound in the Prambanan area,
with rectangular grounds that measure 185 meters north-south and 165 meters east-west.

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There is an entrance on all four cardinal points, but the main entrance is located on the east
side. Each of the entrances is guarded by twin Dvarapala statues. These large guardian statues
have been better preserved, and replicas can be found at Jogja Kraton. There are 249
buildings in the complex are arranged in a Mandala pattern around the main central hall. This
configuration expresses the Mahayana Buddhist view of the universe. There are 240 smaller
temples, called Perwara (guardian) temples, with similar designs that are arranged in four
rectangular concentric rows. Two outer rows are arranged closer and consist of 168 smaller
temples, while two inner rows, arranged at certain intervals, consist of 72 temples. The 249
temples located in the second precinct were all made with a square frame but varied by
different statues and orientations. Many of the statues are now gone, and the arrangements on
the current site are not in the original orientations. The statues are comparable to the statues
of Borobudur and were likely made of bronze.
Along the north-south and east-west central axis at a distance of about 200 meters, between
the second and third rows of the smaller temple are located the apit (flank) temples, a couple
on each cardinal point facing each other. The apit temples are the second largest temples after
the main temple, however only eastern twin apit and a northern one still remain today. These
smaller temples encompass a larger sanctuary that has been heavily looted. Behind the fourth
row of smaller temples lies the stone paved courtyard where the main temple stood on the
center.
The nearby temples, Gana temple in the east and Bubrah temple in the south, are suggested as
the part of greater Manjusrigrha vajradhatu mandala complex. Both temples are located
around 300 metres from the Sewu main temple. There are northern and western ruins
discovered around the same distance from the main temple, however the stones was too
scarce for reconstruction. These temples suggested that indeed the Sewu temple compound
was completed with four additional temples, located 300 metres from the main temple, which
is corresponds with the mandala and the guardians of the directions concept.
The main temple measures 29 meters in diameter and soars up to 30 meters high. The
ground plan of the main temple is a cross-shaped 20-sided polygon. On each of the four
cardinal points of the main temple, there are four structures projected outward, each with its
own stairs, entrances and rooms, crowned with stupas, which form a cross-like layout. All of
the structures are made from andesite stones.
The main temple has five rooms, one large garbhagriha in the center and four smaller rooms
in each cardinal direction. These four rooms are all connected with outer corner galleries with
balustrades bordered by rows of small stupas. From the findings during the reconstruction
process, it was suggested that the original design of central sanctuary only consisted of a
central roomed temple surrounded by four additional structures with open portals. Doorways
were added later. The portals were narrowed to create door frames on which to attach wooden
doors. Some of the holes to attach doors are still visible. The doorways join the temples
together into one main building with five rooms.
The central chamber can be reached from the eastern room. The central chamber is larger
than other rooms with a higher ceiling and a taller roof. Now all the five rooms are
empty. However the lotus carved stone pedestal in the central chamber suggests that the
temple once contained a large bronze Buddhist statue (possible the bronze statue
of Manjusri), probably reaching a height of four meters. The statue is missing, probably
looted for scrap metal over the centuries. However another theory suggested that the main
statue was probably constructed from several stone blocks coated with vajralepa plaster.

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The ruin of Bubrah temple in 2006, prior of reconstruction/ The makara stairs adornment of
Bubrah temple in 1900s

Once a bustling city, Prambanan is a multi-religious temple-complex at the center of Java.

While the site is best known for its Hindu temples, it is also home to Candi Sewu, the largest

69
enterable Buddhist temple in all of Indonesia. Composed of hundreds of small stupas
surrounding a cruciform central shrine, the complex covers more than twenty-seven square
kilometers (seventeen square miles) and is replete with finely carved Buddhist deities. In the
spread of Indian religious ideas, Buddhists played an especially active role. Buddhist
communities found great sponsorship in Indonesia’s eighth- and ninth-century rulers. The
plethora of Buddhist figures at Candi Sewu proclaim the establishment’s religious dedication,
and the temple’s massive scale points to elite patronage.

Candi Sewu; Right: Sundaravarada-Perumal temple; south India, Tamil Nadu, Uttiramerur; Pallava period, 9th century; granite.
(RIGHT) Today, many of Candi Sewu’s freestanding buddhas are missing their heads. Such losses are due
to looting, intentional destruction, and forces of nature over the course of the last millennium.

The eighth and ninth centuries were a period of heightened contact between India and
Southeast Asia. Imagery and texts circulated along with the people who traveled across the
regions. Candi Sewu’s sculptures show close connections with Indian sculpture from this
period. See, for example, the lions that are positioned at corners along the temple’s base.
Much like the lion at a temple in Tamil Nadu, the animal sits back on its haunches, its tail
upturned and mouth open, and its head seems to support the structure above.

70
Relief carvings on surviving and restored buildings have better stood the test of time.
Prominent imagery includes bodhisattvas in palatial settings, gandharvas and devatas (minor
deities), and flying rishis (sages) who shower devotees with blessings as they enter the
temple. Bells and billowing garments evoke sound and movement.RIGHT - A flight of stairs
leads through a vestibule and into the central shrine, which quickly plunges into darkness.

In the middle of the chamber is an altar with an empty throne positioned high on a
semicircular platform.From the top, temple priests could have lustrated an image or a holy
person with sacred fluids and possibly flowers. https://asia.si.edu/collections-area/southeast-
asian/sacred-sites-in-southeast-asia-candi-sewu/

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 V
Tamarind Temple of Kalasan

In Buddhism there is the story of the |Tamrind to be symbols of faithfulness and forbearance.
While the story doesn’t say much about the tamarind as food, it does illuminate a little bit
about the history of this venerable plant and its incredible sweet and sour fruit. Originating in
Africa, the tamarind tree spread all over the world and was widely known in Buddha’s time.
In the early 1600s, the tree and its delicious fruit were introduced to the Western Hemisphere,
specifically, Mexico and the Caribbean. This widespread importation and trade of the
tamarind over so many years is a testament to both its usefulness and its possibilities for
today’s chefs.
TAMRIND The tree is best known for its fruits. The brown, sticky and tangy pulp is used in a
variety of delicacies. The ripe fruit, leaves, roots and seeds are well recognized for their
medicinal properties. The fruit is said to cure fever and also been used as a mild laxative. The
seeds have been traditionally used to cure diabetes and intestinal ailments.Legend has it that
the tree was cursed by Radhrani. One day when she was walking to meet Krishna, she
stepped on the thick bark of a ripe tamarind fruit and it cut her foot. This made her late for
her meeting with Lord Krishna. She therefore cursed the tree that its fruits would never ripen.
Even today, the fruits of this tree fall down before getting fully ripened. The 15th century
saint Sri Chaitanya Mahaprabhu would also sit under the Imli-tala and meditate upon Lord
Krishna.

Legends also associate the tree with Lord Rama. It is believed that the tamarind leaf was split
by an arrow shot by Lakshmana, brother of Lord Rama.

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There are many references to the tamarind tree in Hindu mythology. Some legends connect
the tree to Usha, the daughter of Goddess Parvati. In South India, the tree is associated with
night spirits and is generally grown in the precincts of the temples dedicated to the Devi, who
is believed to battle the evil spirits during night.
The tree is associated with Lord Krishna in the northern parts of the country. ‘Imli-tala’ is a
sacred tamarind tree located in Vrindavan, Uttar Pradesh. It is believed to date back to Lord
Krishna’s time.

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The Tamrind is a common and surprisingly venerated Buddhist fruit ( legume?)
It is therefore not surprising that the Kalasan Temple is known as the Tamrind temple
by locals as well as many Indonesian visitors.

An Indonesian video referring to Kalasan as The Tamarind temple

The Tamarind Tree

One bright and cool summer day the Buddha took a walk along the forest path, simply
enjoying the beauty of the earth. At a cross road, he saw a man in grief praying
earnestly.
The man recognized the Buddha and fell on his knees. He cried, "Lord Buddha, life is
indeed bitter and painful! I was once a man with great wealth, living a life of ease
and happiness. By trikery and deceit, those I trusted and loved took everything from
me. I am now a wretched man with noone to turn to. How many more times must I
be reborn into this world of suffering before I can be librated?"
Pointing to the mango tree by the road, the Buddha said, "Do you see that mango tree?
You must be reborn as many times as the number of mangoes on that tree before you
know the bliss of liberation from the sufferings of this fleeting world."
Seeing that there are at least dozens of mangoes hanging on the tree, the man gasped,
"But Lord! I have lived a righteous life in accord with the precepts! Why am I
condemned to suffer so much longer?"
The Buddha sighed. "That is the way it must be." And he continued his walk.

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He came across another man praying by the road and this man too, fell on his knees
and cried, "Lord Buddha, life is indeed bitter and painful. I have lost all those I loved
to the king of death. I am now forlorn and lonely. Life is full of anguish. How many
more times must I be reborn into this world of suffering before I know
the bliss of liberation?"
The Buddha pointed to the field of wild flowers along the road and said, "Before you
know the bliss of liberation from the sufferings of this fleeting world, you must
be reborn as many times as the number of flowers in that field."
Seeing so many hundreds of flowers in the field, the man cried, "But Lord! I have
done many good deeds and have followed you teachings by heart. Why must I endure
so much more suffering?"
The Buddha sighed, "That is how it must be." And he continued on his way.
When he came across a tamarind tree, another man fell down on his knees and cried
before him, "Oh Lord! Life is full of suffering! During the days I toiled like a slave
under the scathing sun; at night I have nothing to sleep on except a pile of grass on the
cold, damped earth. Life is nothing but hunger, thirst and loneliness! How many more
times must I be reborn into this world of suffering before I know
the bliss of liberation?"
The Buddha looked up to the tamarind tree--each branch of it bearing many stems and
each stem has dozens of leaves. The Buddha said, "Look at that tamarind tree. Before
you know the bliss of liberation from the sufferings of this fleeting world, you must
be reborn as many times as the number of leaves on that tamarind tree."
As the man looked up at the tamarind tree and its thousands of leaves, his eyes filled
with tears of gratitude and joy. "How merciful!" he said as he prostrated to the ground
at the Buddha's feet.
To this day the tamarind's seeds are the symbol of faithfulness and forbearance.
Tamrind Tales
There is a saying in Konkani language – ” Ghova baileche ek chit zalyar chiche
panar nhid. Meaning, even a small thin leaf of the tamarind tree is enough to
accommodate a couple if they love each other (otherwise even a big bed is not
enough!)

The tamarind (Tamarindus indica or imli in Hindi and chinch in Marathi and
Konkani) is a large, evergreen tree, with dense foliage. A native plant of the
African continent, tamarind is a tropical tree that grows abundantly in India.It is
popular as an avenue tree as it provided a very cool shade. Known for its sour fruit
and acidic pulpy juice, tamarind is used in many south Indian curries and chutneys.
The tamarind tree is a sacred tree for Krishna ; Vaishnav saints Nammalvar and
Chaitanya are said to have meditated under this tree. However for a tree which is
large and grows to be 25-30 meters tall, its leaves are remarkably small and tiny.

75
There is a tribal myth that explains why this tree has such tiny leaves. Once upon a
time, the tamarind tree had large and broad leaves and would provide cool shade to
people who would rest under its shade. When Ram, Lakshaman and Sita went into
exile, they would often rest under a tamarind tree ,as it could shelter them from
rain, sun, and heat and cold. One day Ram realised that being in exile meant they
have to lead a life of struggle and inconvenience and not of comfort and pleasure.
The nurturing shade of the tamarind tree was actually providing them the comforts
of a palace. He immediately ordered Lakshmana to shoot at its large leaves and
split into tiny small leaves. Lakshman obeyed his brother’s command and since
then the tamarind tree has tiny leaves.

Bagan, Myanmar - March 2019: woman picking tamarind fruits with Buddhist temple
on background at sunrise,

According to another myth, long ago Devas and Asuras lived on the earth. One
day, Bhasmasura the chief of asura army challenged Mahadeo to a duel,
proclaiming whoever wins would be the sole ruler of earth. Mahadeo accepted the
challenge and the duel began. Soon Mahadeo wounded Bhasmasura grievously
and. Bhasmasura scooted for his life with Mahadeo chasing him. Bhasmasura ran
and entered a thick jungle and started searching for a place to hide. He noticed a
huge tamarind tree and clambered onto it hastily, shielding himself with its thick
broad leaves. Mahadeo followed Bhasmasura and entered the jungle, but he could
not see the demon Bhasmasura who was hiding behind the broad tamarind leaves.
Out of frustration Mahadeo roared and opened his third eye. The whole sky lit up
with fire from the eye and the large tamarind leaves shattered into tiny fragments
exposing Bhasmasura. The Demon was killed immediately by Mahadeo, and since
then tamarind leaves have remained small and tiny.

Pointing out to its small tiny leaves, my grandmother would tell her grandchildren,
“Look boys! be together and work together in harmony like these tiny tamarind
leaves.If small people like you and me work together, we can do a great deal to

76
transform the world. It is not the place that makes the man, but the man who makes
the place.”

Buddha in Tamrind backdrop( to RIGHT )

Kalasan

Pramban
an

77
Indonesia is an island nation in Southeast Asia, between South China Sea and the Pacific
Ocean (in north) and the Indian Ocean (in south).

78
Candi Kalasan (Kalasan Temple) is another remnant of Rakai Panangkaran’s merciful side. It
is one of the Buddhist temples built under his rule, developed explicitly for the worship
of Shyama Tara. Just like any other Buddhist temples, visitors can find the remnants of
Bodhisattvas and Gana. The carvings of the temple depict Hindu deities and celestial palace
of the gods. Unfortunately, the temple is not as well-maintained as other temples.

The temples mentioned above are only seven of many candi (temples) residing in many parts
of Yogyakarta. They are the silent witness of civilization’s rise and fall and a part of
Yogyakarta’s heritage that will never be erased no matter how long time passes.

Tara is the presiding deity of Candi Kalasan, a Central Javanese temple founded by a ruler of
the Sailendra dynasty in 778 c.E. in the provincial capital of Yogyakarta -a Buddhist temple
often regarded as one of the most beautiful temples of Central Java. This temple is one of the
few Javanese archaeological monuments that can be dated-in an inscription in stone in pre-
Nagari script, dated 700 Saka (778 C.E.), mention is made of the foundation in the village
Kalaga by a ruler of the Sailendra dynasty of a temple with an associated monastery, devoted
to the goddess Tara (BRANDES 1886).

The eight-armed goddess Mahapratisara is an emanation of Ratnasambhava, the

“jewel-born” meditation Buddha. She sits in deep meditation in a yogic posture
(sattvasana), enthroned on a lotus seat and resting on a cloth-draped lion throne.
She holds an array of attributes, mostly the weapons employed in the Buddhist
notion of “cutting away illusions”—axe, sword, club, and discus—and in her lower

79
hands holds a vajra (thunderbolt scepter) and a rosary. Another lowered hand
holds a palm-leaf manuscript (pustaka), an attribute commonly associated with
the wisdom goddess Prajnaparamita. An inscription on the backplate provides a
passage of Buddhist creed, probably a magical charm (dharani), often found on
Pala period Buddhist steles. A kneeling donor is depicted before the lion throne.

"Candi Kalasan" in central Java, Indonesia. It was named after an inscription in 778 AD.
Inaugurated, making it the oldest Buddhist temple in Java. He is dedicated to the goddess
Tara - she stands among other things for (peaceful) wisdom. In the past, the temple was
probably very handsome with various bronze Buddha keyboards, of which today only the
orphaned stands and brackets are left. Today, however, the temple is in miserable condition,
despite a costly restoration to the Dutch colonial era. Meanwhile, the inscription from the
Rakai Panangkaran era is the Kalasan inscription of 778 . This inscription is an official
charter for the construction of a Buddhist temple named Tarabhavanam (Buana Tara) to
worship Goddess Tara . This construction was requested by the teachers of King Sailendra. In
the inscription Rakai Panangkaran is praised as Sailendrawangsatilaka or "jewel of the
Sailendra House". The temple founded by Rakai Panangkaran is now known as Kalasan
Temple .

The Kalasan inscription is an inscription dated 700 Saka (778 CE)– discovered
in Kalasan village, Sleman Regency, Yogyakarta, Indonesia. The inscription was written
in Sanskrit with Pranagari script (Northern India). This is the first inscription discovered in
Indonesia that mentioned the dynastic name of Sailendra as Sailendravamça.
The inscription mentioned about Guru Sang Raja Sailendravamçatilaka (Teacher of the
King, the Jewel of Sailendra family) that succeed to persuade Maharaja Tejapurnapana
Panangkaran (in other part of the inscription also called as Kariyana Panangkaran) to
construct a holy building for (Bodhisattvadevi) Tara and also build a Vihara (monastery)
for Buddhist monks from Sailendra family's realm. Panangkaran donated the Kalaça village
to Sangha (Buddhist monastic community). The temple dedicated to Tara is identified
as Kalasan temple.
The inscription now is displayed in the National Museum of Indonesia, Jakarta, under the
inventory number No. D.147.
Transcription
Namo bhagavatyai āryātārāyai
1. yā tārayatyamitaduḥkhabhavādbhimagnaṃ lokaṃ vilokya vidhivattrividhair upayaiḥ Sā
vaḥ surendranaralokavibhūtisāraṃ tārā diśatvabhimataṃ jagadekatārā
2. āvarjya mahārājaṃ dyāḥ pañcapaṇaṃ paṇaṃkaraṇāṃ Śailendra rājagurubhis tārābhavanaṃ
hi kāritaṃ śrīmat
3. gurvājñayā kŗtajñais tārādevī kŗtāpi tad bhavanaṃ vinayamahāyānavidāṃ bhavanaṃ
cāpyāryabhikṣūṇāṃ
4. pangkuratavānatīripanāmabhir ādeśaśastribhīrājñaḥ Tārābhavanaṃ kāritamidaṃ mapi cāpy
āryabhiksūṇam
5. rājye pravarddhamāne rājñāḥ śailendravamśatilakasya śailendrarajagurubhis tārābhavanaṃ
kŗtaṃ kŗtibhiḥ

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6. śakanŗpakālātītair varṣaśataiḥ saptabhir mahārājaḥ akarod gurupūjārthaṃ tārābhavanaṃ
paṇamkaraṇaḥ
7. grāmaḥ kālasanāmā dattaḥ saṃghāyā sākṣiṇaḥ kŗtvā pankuratavānatiripa desādhyakṣān
mahāpuruṣān
8. bhuradakṣineyam atulā dattā saṃghāyā rājasiṃhena śailendrarajabhūpair
anuparipālyārsantatyā
9. sang pangkurādibhih sang tāvānakādibhiḥ sang tīripādibhiḥ pattibhiśca sādubhiḥ, api ca,
10. sarvān evāgāminaḥ pārthivendrān bhūyo bhūyo yācate rājasiṃhaḥ, sāmānyoyaṃ
dharmmasetur narānāṃ kāle kāle pālanīyo bhavadbhiḥ
11. anena puṇyena vīhārajena pratītya jāta arthavibhāgavijñāḥ bhavantu sarve
tribhavopapannā janājinānām anuśsanajñāḥ
12. kariyānapaṇaṃkaraṇaḥ śrimān abhiyācate bhāvinŗpān, bhūyo bhūyo vidhivad
vīhāraparipālan ārtham iti.
Translation
Honor for Bhagavatī Ārya Tārā
1. After seeing all the creatures in the world drowned in misery, he take across (with) three
true knowledges, she Tarā who became the only guiding star for direction in the world and
(the realm of) the gods .
2. A holy building for the Tārā that is truly beautiful was ordered by the teachers of Sailendra
king, after obtaining the approval of the Maharaja Dyah Pancapana Panamkarana
3. By order of the teacher, a sacred building (dedicated) to Tārā has been established, and
likewise a building for the noble (Buddhist) monks skilled in the Mahāyana teachings, has
been established by experts
4. Tārā's sacred building as well as the (building) belongs to the noble monks had been
established by the officials commissioned by the king, called Pangkura, Tavana, Tiripa.
5. A sacred building for Tārā has been established by the teachers of Śailendra king in a
growing kingdom the jewel (ornament) of Śailendra dynasty
6. Mahārāja Panangkarana constructed a Tārā sacred building to honor his teachers that have
run for 700 years.
7. The Kalasa village has been given to Samgha after calling the witnesses; prominent people
the village authorities which are Pangkura, Tavana, Tiripa.
8. The alms of “bhura” that is incomparable given to the Sangha by the "king like a lion"
(rājasimha-) by the kings of the Śailendra dynasty and subsequent rulers.
9. By the Pangkura and his followers, the Tavana and his followers, the Tiripa and his
followers, by the soldiers, and religious leaders, then the next,
10. "The king that is like a lion" (rājasimhah) asked repeatedly to the upcoming kings to be
bound to Dharma so that they will be protected forever.
11. Well, by granting the vihara (monastery), all sacred knowledge, the Law of Cause and
Effect, and births in the three worlds (as appropriate with) Buddhism, can be understood.
12. Kariyana Panangkarana asked repeatedly to upcoming noble kings to always protect this
important temple according to the rules.

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Kalasan inscription dated 700 Saka or 778 CE, written in Sanskrit using Pranagari script, mentioned
about the construction of a temple by the will of Guru Sang Raja Sailendravamçatilaka (the Jewel of
Sailendra family) that succeed to persuade Maharaja Tejapurnapana Panangkaran (in other part of the
inscription also called as Kariyana Panangkaran) to construct a holy building for the goddess
(boddhisattvadevi) Tara and also build a vihara (monastery) for buddhist monks from Sailendra family's
realm. Panangkaran awarded the Kalaça village to sangha (buddhist monastic community).

Rakai Panangkaran the man who commissioned the building of the Kalasan temple
was the second King of Medang who ruled around 746 - 784 with the title Srī Mahārāja
Rakai Pānangkaran Dyaḥ Pañcapana.His name is known through the Raja Sankhara
Inscription , the Kalasan Inscription , the Mantyasih Inscription , the Wanua Tengah III
Inscription , and is strengthened by the Wangsakerta Manuscript .
Maharaja Rakai Panangkaran ranks second in the list of kings of the Medang
Kingdom according to the Mantyasih inscription . His name is written after Sanjaya , who is
believed to be the founder of the kingdom. This inscription was issued by Maharaja Dyah
Balitung in 907 , or hundreds of years since the life of Rakai Panangkaran.
The period of his reign was marked by the active construction of Mahayana Buddhist temples
in the Prambanan Plain area. Apart from the Kalasan temple, several temples that are thought
to have been built on the initiative of Rakai Panangkaran include Sari Temple which is linked
as a companion monastery to Kalasan Temple, Lumbung Temple , Prasada Vajrasana
Manjusrigrha ( Sewu Temple ), and Abhayagiri Vihara ( Ratu Boko complex ). He died
however before the completion of the Kalasan temple, but he saw the completion of the
SEWU temple.
The Abhayagiri Wihara inscription dating to 792 AD mentions a character named
Tejahpurnapane Panamkarana (Rakai Panangkaran) resigned as King because he wanted
spiritual peace and focused on religious matters by establishing a monastery called
Abhayagiri Wihara, which is associated with the Ratu Boko complex . It is estimated that

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King Panangkaran died before the completion of the Sewu and Abhayagirivihara temples, so
he did not have the chance to see some of his works (Sewu temple).
Relations with Sanjaya and Dharanindra
Sanjaya was the first king of the Medang Kingdom . According to the Canggal
inscription ( 732 ), he adhered to the Shiva sect of Hinduism . Meanwhile Rakai Panangkaran
is the second king of the Medang Kingdom. According to the Kalasan inscription ( 778 ), he
founded a Mahayana Buddhist temple . In connection with this news, several theories
emerged about the relationship between the two kings.
The first theory pioneered by Van Naerssen stated that Rakai Panangkaran was the son of
Sanjaya. The Sanjaya dynasty was later defeated by the Buddhist Sailendra dynasty . The
construction of the Kalasan Temple was none other than an order from the king of Sailendra
to Rakai Panangkaran who had submitted as a subordinate. The name of the Sailendra king is
thought to be the same as Dharanindra which is found in the Kelurak inscription ( 782 ). This
theory was developed by many Western historians, including George Cœdès , or Dr. FDK
Bosch .
The second theory was put forward by Prof. Poerbatjaraka said that Rakai Panangkaran was
the son of Sanjaya, but both of them came from the Sailendra dynasty, not the Sanjaya
dynasty. In this case Poerbatjaraka did not recognize the existence of the Sanjaya
dynasty. According to his opinion (which is also supported by historians Marwati
Pusponegoro and Nugroho Notosutanto), before he died, Sanjaya had a will that Rakai
Panangkaran convert to Buddhism. This theory is based on the story in Carita
Parahyangan about the character Rahyang Panaraban, son of Sanjaya, who is said to have
changed religions. According to Poerbatjaraka, Rahyang Panaraban is identical to Rakai
Panangkaran. So, what is meant by "the teachers of the king of Sailendra" are none other than
Rakai Panangkaran's own teachers.
The third theory was put forward by Slamet Muljana that Rakai Panangkaran was not the son
of Sanjaya. In the list of kings written in the Mantyasih inscription , the name Sanjaya has the
title The Queen , while Rakai Panangkaran has the title Sri Maharaja . This change in title
proves that there has been a change in the ruling dynasty in the Medang Kingdom. So, Rakai
Panangkaran was the king of the Sailendra dynasty who succeeded in seizing the Medang
throne and defeating the Sanjaya dynasty. According to Slamet Muljana, it is impossible for
Rakai Panangkaran to have the status of a subordinate of the Sailendra dynasty because in the
Kalasan inscription he is praised as Sailendrawangsatilaka (jewel of the Sailendra dynasty).
In this case, Slamet Muljana rejects the theory that Rakai Panangkaran is Dharanindra's
subordinate. According to him, Rakai Panangkaran and Dharanindra both came from the
Sailendra dynasty. Even so, he did not regard the two as the same character. According to
him, Dharanindra is not the same as Rakai Panangkaran who has the real name Dyah
Pancapana (according to the news of the Kalasan inscription). Muljana argues, Dharanindra is
the original name of Rakai Panunggalan , namely the third king of the Medang Kingdom
whose name is named after Rakai Panangkaran in the Mantyasih inscription.

Kalasan (Indonesian: Candi Kalasan, Javanese: Candhi Kalasan), also known as Candi
Kalibening, is an 8th-century Buddhist temple in Java, Indonesia. It is located 13 kilometers
(8.1 mi) east of Yogyakarta on the way to Prambanan temple, on the south side of the main
road Jalan Solo between Yogyakarta and Surakarta. Administratively, it is located in the
Kalasan District (kapanewon) of Sleman Regency.

83
According to the Kalasan inscription dated 778 AD, written in Sanskrit using Pranagari
script, the temple was erected by the will of Guru Sang Raja Sailendravamçatilaka (the Jewel
of Sailendra family) who succeeded in persuading Maharaja Tejapurnapana Panangkaran (in
another part of the inscription also called Kariyana Panangkaran) to construct Tarabhavanam,
a holy building for the goddess (boddhisattvadevi) Tara.
In addition, a Vihara (monastery) was built for Buddhist monks from the Sailendra family's
realm. Panangkaran awarded the Kalaça village to Sangha (buddhist monastic community).
According to the date of this inscription, Kalasan temple is the oldest of the temples built in
the Prambanan Plain.
Despite being renovated and partially rebuilt during the Dutch colonial era, the temple
currently is in poor condition. Compared to other temples nearby such as Prambanan, Sewu,
and Sambisari the temple is not well maintained.
The temple stands on a square 14.20 meters sub-basement. The temple plan is cross-shaped,
and designed as a twelve-cornered polygon. Each of four cardinal points has stairs and gates
adorned with Kala-Makara and rooms measuring 3,5 square meters. No statue is to be found
in the smaller rooms facing north, west, and south; but the lotus pedestals suggest that the
rooms once contains statues of Bodhisattvas. The temple is richly decorated with buddhist
figures such as the Bodhisattva and gana. The Kala Face above the southern door has been
photographed and used by a number of foreign academics in their books to give an idea of the
artistry in stone by Central Javanese artists of a millennia ago. Niches where the statues
would have been placed are found inside and outside the temple. The niches adorned an outer
wall intricately carved with Kala, gods and divinities in scenes depicting the svargaloka, the
celestial palace of the gods, apsaras, and gandharvas.

The giant Kala's head on the southern door//One of the niches on the wall of Kalasan temple adorned
with carvings of Kala giant and scene of deities in svargaloka

The roof of the temple is designed in three sections. The lower one are still according to the
polygonal shape of the body and contains small niches with statues of boddhisattvas seated
on lotus. Each of this niches is crowned with stupas. The middle part of the roof is
in octagonal (eight-sided) shape. Each of this eight sides adorned with niches contains statue

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of a Dhyani Buddha flanked by two standing boddhisattvas. The top part of the roof is almost
circular and also have 8 niches crowned with single large dagoba. The octagonal aspect of the
structure has led to speculation of non-buddhist elements in the temple, similar to some
interpretations of the early Borobudur structure.
The temple is facing east, with the eastern room also served as access to main central room.
In the larger main room there is lotus pedestal and throne carved with makara, lion, and
elephant figure, similar to the Buddha Vairocana throne founds in Mendut temple. According
to the Kalasan inscription, the temple once houses the large (probably reaching 4 meters tall)
statue of the Boddhisattvadevi Tara. By the design of the throne, most probably the statue of
the goddess was in seated position and made from bronze. Now the statue is missing,
probably the same fate as bronze Buddha statue in Sewu temple, being looted for scrap metal
over centuries.
On the outer wall of the temple found the traces of plaster called vajralepa (lit: diamond
plaster). The same substance also founds in nearby Sari temple. The white-yellowish plaster
was applied to protect the temple wall, but now the plaster has worn off.
The temple is located on archaeologically rich Prambanan plain. Just a few hundred meters
north east from Kalasan temple is located Sari temple. Candi Sari most probably was the
monastery mentioned in Kalasan inscription. Further east lies the Prambanan complex, Sewu
temple, and Plaosan temple.

In December 2016, the fourth expansion of the popular real-time strategy PC game from
Microsoft, Age of Empires II titled Rise of the Rajas featured Candi Kalasan as the Wonder
of the Malay civilization featured in-game.

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 Candi Kalasan Overview of the remnants of the small
stupas in front of the temple during restoration [OV1929_fig03]-Kalibening_Sleman-1929

Timeline of Kalasan

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According to the Kalasan inscription dated 778 AD, written in Sanskrit using Pranagari
script, the temple was erected by the will of Guru Sang Raja Sailendravamçatilaka (the Jewel
of Sailendra family) who succeeded in persuading Maharaja Tejapurnapana Panangkaran (in
another part of the inscription also called Kariyana Panangkaran) to construct Tarabhavanam,
a holy building for the goddess (boddhisattvadevi) Tara. In addition, a Vihara (monastery)
was built for Buddhist monks from the Sailendra family's realm. Panangkaran awarded the
Kalaça village to Sangha (buddhist monastic community). According to the date of this
inscription, Kalasan temple is the oldest of the temples built in the Prambanan Plain.

S.No Name of temple Year

built(approximately)
1 Kalasan 700-778 AD
2 Borobudur Begining760- Completion 830
3 Sewu 792
4 Prambanan Inaugurated 856

 The Kalasan inscription found near the temple indicates that it was completed in the
Saka year 700 Saka or 778 AD. Written in Sanskrit using Pranagari script. One
notable feature of the temple is its octagon-shaped roof, which features carved images
of the Tathagatas/Buddha facing the four cardinal points, each of which is flanked by
a pair of bodhisattvas in bas-relief.
 Borobudur was built first by the followers of Mahayana Buddhism in the Shailendra
Dynasty.Later in the same century Prambanan was built after the rise of Hinduism
(Shaivism) in the Sanjay Dynasty

Timeline of Borobudur
4,000 BC Javanese descended from seafarers of China.
6th Birth of Gautama Buddha.
century
BC
400 AD Java becomes sea link between India and China
Javanese began carving stone statues and inscriptions.
768-814 Charlemagne rules from northeastern Spain north to the Baltic Sea and east into the Italian
peninsula. He is crowned emperor in 800 AD.
800s Mayans build large cities with tens of thousands of inhabitants under reign of King
Samaratunga.
7th and Monks and holy men make pilgrimages to Java from Asian continent.
8th
centuries
8th – 13th Sailendra dynasty rules Sumatra and Java.
centuries
750 to 850 Golden Age of the Sailendra dynasty.
760 Probable beginning of Borobudur construction.

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830 Probable completion of Borobudur construction.
700-900 People of Central Java enjoy a high level of cultural development, erecting many grand
palaces and religious monuments.
c.930 Javanese culture and political life move east, away from the lands around Borobudur.
13th – Islam religion comes to Java.
14th
centuries
1500- Borobudur is abandoned; volcanic ash fills the galleries; vegetation, including trees, takes root
1800s on the buried monument.
1709 According to the 18th century chronicle Babad Tanah Jawi, the rebel Ki Mas Dana makes a
stand at Borobudur in a revolt against the Sultan of Mataram. The monument is besieged and
the rebel defeated, brought before the king and sentenced to death.
1758 In the Babad Mataram (History of the Kingdom of Mataram), a story is told of the crown
prince of the Sultanate of Yogyakarta, who disobeyed his father and journeyed to climb "the
mountain of a thousand statues." The Sultan sent his men to bring him back, but he became ill
and died as soon as he returned to the palace.
1811-1816 Java comes under British rule.
1814 Sir Thomas Stamford Bingley Raffles, the English Lieutenant Governor of Java, is informed
of the existence of a huge monument called Chandi Borobudur. Raffles orders Dutch engineer
officer H.C. Cornelius and two hundred villagers to fell trees, burn undergrowth and dig away
the earth that covers the monument.
1815 May 18th: Raffles visits Borobudur.
1844 A bamboo teahouse is built on top of the central stupa of the monument.
1885 Panels that surround the hidden base of Borobudur are discovered by J.W. Ijzerman, Chairman
of the Archeological Society in Yogyakarta, under the processional pathway that has been
built around the monument. This discovery brings about renewed efforts to safeguard
Borobudur from vandalism and natural threats.
1890-1891 The hidden panels are excavated and photographed, then the pathway is replaced.
1896 Dutch Colonial officials give the King of Siam eight wagon loads of statues and bas-reliefs
from Borobudur, including five of the best Buddhas and two complete stone lions.
1911 A Dutch archeologist from Leiden University paints many of the reliefs with ochre to improve
his photography. The yellow ochre remains, encouraging the growth of algae, fungus, lichen
and moss on the stones themselves.
1907-1911 The first major restoration project at Borobudur is begun by Theodor van Erp, a Dutch army
engineer officer. He spends the first seven months excavating the grounds around the
monument, finding missing Buddha heads and panel stones. Van Erp then dismantles and
rebuilds the upper three circular terraces and crumbling stupas. His team cleans many of the
sculptures of moss and lichen. However, he is unable to solve the drainage problem which is
undercutting the monument. Within fifteen years, the gallery walls are sagging and the reliefs
show signs of new cracks and deterioration.
1948 The Republic of Indonesia comes into existence.
1955 The Indonesian government asks UNESCO for advice on treating the weathered stones of
Borobudur.
1968 The Indonesian government and the United Nations, working through UNESCO, launch a
"Save Borobudur" campaign. A bold plan is proposed to dismantle and rebuild the lower
terraces of Borobudur, clean and treat the story panels, and install a new drainage system to
stop further erosion.
1971 The plan is approved by the Indonesian government and restoration committee.

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 1975 Restoration work begins.
1983 Feb. 23: Completion of the project is marked by an inaugural ceremony.
1991 Borobudur is included in UNESCO's World Heritage list.

Timeline of Prambanan
The temple compounds date from the 8th to 9th century CE, linked with historic Mataram
Kingdom that ruled Central Java during that period. Shailendras, the ruling family of the
kingdom were known as the avid temple builders. Indeed, some temples in the area,
including Kalasan, Sari, and Sewu are credited to their second monarch King Panangkaran.
Prambanan however, was the latest addition in the complex, finished and inaugurated in 856
during the reign of King Pikatan according to Shivagrha inscription.

Timeline of Sewu
Among these temple compounds, Sewu is the oldest, completed in 792 according
to Manjusrigrha inscription. Lumbung and Bubrah also dated from around the same period or
slightly later.

The Tara and Durga Connect in Yogyakarta

In the Northern cella of the prambanan temple stands the statue depicting Goddess Durga
as Mahishasuramardini in the inner sanctum of the Shiva Temple located on the Prambanan
Temple complex. This inner sanctum has four chambers, each of which faces a cardinal
direction and houses a statue. The Durga statue is in the north-facing chamber.

STORY OF DURGA IN THE PRAMBANAN TEMPLE OF LORD SHIVA

A very beautiful and ancient prambanan temple of Lord Shiva was built in the 10th century.
It is famous for a story related to it. Here is a story behind the establishment of Goddess. It is
said that at one time there was a demon king name Praabu Baka of Java. She had a very
beautiful daughter, name Roro Jonggangong. Bandung Bondovosso, a person who want to
marry Roro Jonggarang, but Roro Jonggarang did not want to do that.

Roro to refuse Bandung marriage proposal Bondovoso Jonggrng laid bets ahead of him.
Condition that Bandung Bondovoso to create a thousand images in a single night. If he does
that, then Roro Jonggangang will marry her. To fulfill the conditions made 999 statues in one
night Bandung Bondovoso reported and he going to make the final image. Seeing Roro
Jonggrng have the same light of day with the installation of fire equipment to the entire city
of rice.

The beauty and texture of Prambanan temple is worth seeing. Pictures of Hindu epic
Ramayana also remain on the walls of the temple. These pictures show the story of
Ramayana. This artwork on the walls of the temple makes this temple even more beautiful
and attractive.

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This excellently modeled figure with a benign face represents the six-armed goddess Durga
subduing the demon Mahisha, hence popularly revered as Mahishasura-mardini – which in
literal translation would mean “Durga subduing the demon Mahisha”. Unlike the usual
Mahishasura-mardini icons, a painting or sculpture, that represent the demon as half buffalo
and half man this statue represents the two figures, the demon’s anthropomorphic icon and
the buffalo’s animal form, as detached, complete and independent. Here the demon, the usual
human form, appears to be riding the buffalo, though a bit awkwardly, he is seated on its hind
part. The goddess has held the demon by his head with one of her left hands while she is
striking on his breast with a spear held in one of her right hands. In an effort to contain it the
goddess has planted one of her feet on the buffalo’s neck, though taking the animal just as the
demon’s mount, not his component as the animal form is conceived in most other
representations, the goddess seems to spare its life.

Corresponding to this duality – the demon separated from the animal, his basic character as
also his essential form the legends consider him to originate in, the goddess’s apparent act –
annihilation of the demon, is completely different from her intrinsic ‘bhava’ – the essence of
her being as reflects in the demeanour of her face. Instead of wrath or anger, or an eagerness
to curve a wrong her deep contemplative face enshrines some kind of deep concern perhaps
for mankind. Not ferocious or awful, as someone killing a buffalo should naturally look like,
in her triply curving, proportionate and balanced figure, colourfully clad and gracefully
adorned the goddess is the model of sublime beauty. Whatever its central theme – killing a
demon linked with an ugly looking animal like buffalo, the statue, each detail minutely
carved and brilliantly painted, outstands in aesthetic beauty.

The statue’s aesthetics being its focal point the artist preferred keeping not only the statue’s
human form unmixed from buffalo’s but also conceived his figure as one of a normal human
being. Perhaps for emphasizing this aspect further he has carved a devotee figure on
the goddess’s right that has been modeled exactly like the demon. Rendered – carved and
painted, in characteristic South Indian idiom adhering on one hand to her mythical aspect and
on the other to South Indian cult of ornamentation and benignity of form, the six-armed
goddess is carrying in her right side hands ‘chakra’ – disc, spear with axe-head and
triply formed blade, and sword, and in those on the left side, trident and shield, the sixth
holds the demon’s head. Clad in tight fitted ‘antariya’ – lower wear, and a sensually
fashioned ‘stana-pata’ – breast-band, and appropriately ornamented – a towering crown along
a halo, beautiful frill suspending along her girdle between the parting of legs, an elaborate
girdle and ornaments on neck, ears, shoulders, arms, feet and other body-parts, the image of
the goddess has been installed on a rectangular platform consisting of a plain moulding on the
top, and conventional lotus motifs in the rising.

The goddess has her right foot planted firmly on the platform, while with the left she is
containing the animal that pressed by her divine force seems to bend. Besides the buffalo
figure, and the devotee’s, the platform is also the base of the ‘prabhavali’ – fire-arch that the
goddess enshrines

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. statue of Durga Mahisasuramardini in northern cella of Shiva temple/// Slaying the Buffalo Demon (Mahishasura
Mardini)ca. 11th century
India (Bihar)
Apart an elaborate ‘kirttimukha’ motif on the top conceived with multiple fangs, large
bulbous eyes, ferns-like whiskers and an over-all awful appearance, the circular arch rises
using uniform pattern – a beaded lace running across the entire length curving in variously
shaped loops to frame various floral and vine motifs all conceived arabesques-like on
decorative line. The statue has been brilliantly painted and minutely rendered but the
craftsman has evaded hitting the demon’s body as also any trace of blood gushing from it;
perhaps blood-shed not his choice.
Durga slays Mahisha, who emerges in his anthropomorphic form, one foot still in the neck of
the decapitated buffalo and the other in the mouth of Durga’s lion. Her army of followers is
suggested by the small sword-wielding female warriors that bracket her feet.

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The relation between India and her neighbouring Southeast Asia
n countries dates back to prehistoric times. By the fourth and fifth c e n t u r y t h e r e
was.an
I n d i a n i n uence in sociopolitics and culture of different kingdo
m s o f Southeast Asia. India has got a healthy interaction with Siam
(present Thailand) since pre-Common Era. A number of brahmanical
d i v i n i t i e s r u l e d t h e s k i e s o f c o u n t r i e s l i k e Siam since the early times. We
notice the Indian trimurti, i.e. Brahma Vishnu and Shiva, in Siam since the early era.
Comparing to other two, we find a large number of Vishnu
images in different regions of Siam. Apart from the three, we noticed theimages
of Krisna Surya, Skanda, Ganesha, Uma and Mahisasuramardini.(
https://www.scribd.com/document/379169316/A-Early-India)

oooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo

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 VI
The Love temple of Candi Plaosan

The temple complex is situated in Bugisan village, about a kilometer from Prambanan
temples. On the way, you would see Sewu temple on your left hand side. Candi Plaosan,
built by a Hindu prince for his Buddhist bride in Central Java .

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A great love story began with an interfaith union between a Buddhist princess and a Hindu
prince. The site is officially called Candi Plaosan, a complex of Buddhist temples located in
Klaten, Yogyakarta, a short distance north of the Hindu temples of Prambanan. What makes
it truly unique is that both complexes were built by the same Javanese king.

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Looking toward the female viharn (monastery) from the one for males

There were once many more of these smaller Perwara shrines

A TEMPLE FOR MEN, A TEMPLE FOR WOMEN

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Like Prambanan, the sanctuary follows a square grid system with groups of smaller ancillary
shrines laid out in orderly rows. The buildings were constructed without mortar, their stones
quarried and precisely cut. A small number have been reconstructed, standing amongst piles
of gray andesite blocks yet to undergo restoration.

The temples are quite similar —but we’re pretty sure this is the one for men

At the center of Plaosan Lor, the two nearly identical structures were viharas, meaning they
were designed as Buddhist monasteries.Above the arched gate portal leading to the temple is
a Kala head whose gaping mouth symbolically swallows our mortal impediments and permits
passage into the sacred inner courtyard.Towering stalagmite-like spires crown the multistory
vihara, rising like the jagged peaks of Mount Meru, the holy mountain abode of the gods, and
a pair of mythical serpentine makara form the railings of the staircase leading to the
monastery — a small Kewpie-doll like dwarf figure stands within the creature’s gaping
jaws.The monument sits on a high rectangular stone podium with an apron that extends
several feet outward, forming a porch where visitors can circumambulate the structure. Its
exterior walls feature false windows, an architectural element meant to maintain symmetry on
the façade. These are embellished with distinctive Kala-makara ornamentation, but unlike the
ones above the gateways, these depictions of include a lower jaw with a wide mischievous
grin.

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 Kala is a giant who was born from Shiva’s sperm

Enshrined within the central hall are a pair of headless seated Bodhisattva statues, one that is
more or less a torso, presumably plundered and decapitated by relic thieves. An empty
pedestal between the pair possibility held an enthroned bronze Buddha.

seated statues of Bodhisattva, those who have reached enlightenment but remain behind to instruct others/
Some of the statues inside the temples are now decapitated

Intricately detailed reliefs of various demigods and deities adorn the exterior walls.
According to a theory presented by Nicholas Johannes Krom, head of the early 20th century
Dutch Archeological Society, the two vihara were sponsored by influential patrons and built
for male and female monastics — not as a tribute to love, as locals prefer to believe.

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Bas-reliefs line the exterior of Plaosan

The south-facing vihara depicts male figures, while the north depicts female figures. The
south temple was probably a monastery for Bhikkhu monks, while the north housed
Bhikkhuni nuns.

You can see the construction style in action: squares of interlocking stone/Deities and demigods adorn the
outer walls, which you can circumambulate on a platform

Whether or not Plaosan was constructed as a symbol of Pikatan’s devotion to Sri Kuhulunan
or as a display of political reconciliation to placate the Buddhist Sailendra Dynasty, it
certainly makes for an interesting story.

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 https://www.thenotsoinnocentsabroad.com/blog/beyond-prambanan-the-love-temples-of-plaosan

History of the temple:

Rikai Pikatan of Sanjaya dynasty ruled Medang Kingdom of Central Java from 838 to 850
A.D. He was a Hindu and constructed the Prambanan temple.His wife, Queen Sri Kahulunan
or Pramodhawardhani was the daughter of King Samarattunga of Sailendra dynasty. Queen
Sri Kahulunan embraced Buddhism and came to be known as Pramodhawardhani.The image
of Goddess Durga in Prambanan is said to be a reflection of the queen.Queen
Pramodhawardhani built Candi Plaosan in 842 with the support of her husband Rikai Pikatan.
No wonder you see a blend of both the religions here.
Some believed that the temple was built earlier and Rikai Pikatan with his short reign could
have only built the perwara temples. But the excavation of a gold sheet in 2003 with facts
written in Sanskrit strengthens the theory that the temple indeed was built during Rikai
Pikatan's reign.The temple has two complexes:

1. Candi Plaosan Lor ( In Javanese LOR means North)

2. Candi Plaosan Kidul. (Kidul is South)

Earlier they were one complex. During 8th to 12th century, many monasteries were built. An
inscription from Candi Plaosan states that many people came from Gujarat (India) due to
whom the temple was built.The construction of North and South complex
hypothesizes ubhato sangha or dual sanghas. Today there is just a road that divides the two
complexes.

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 The main figures are seen on the outside wall of the South temple while there are female
figures on the outside wall of North temple.The style and workmanship of figures very
closely resembles the work at Ajanta caves in India. Bhikkhuni(nuns)sangha was established
around that region in the 3rd century and this probably is the reason for the twin temples here
at Plaosan.

Twin temples
Plaosan Lor temple has two main identical temples (North and South). The one in left of the
picture, (North) and the other on the right (South). As I have already mentioned above
that ubhatho sangha or dual sangha had started by that time. This means that it was a
monastery for both bhikkhus and bhikkhunis.
1. The north temple was for bhikkhunis or female monks
2. south temple for bhikkhus or male monks.

That is why the outer wall of the South temple has reliefs of male figures while that of North
has female figures. The are temple surrounded by perwara temples

Spread over an area of 2000 square meters, the temples are surrounded on all sides by small
temples which are mostly in ruins. Also surrounding the temple is an artificial moat.

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 On entrance are row of perwara or ancillary temples with very few still intact.///main temple
of south

Dwarapalas:
Dwarapalas or dvarapala are guardians who protect the temple. They are usually fierce
looking. This feature is seen mostley in temples in India and South-East Asia.

dwarapala

Two fierce looking heavily built dwarapala or guardians with long moustache sit facing each
other in front of the temple. They are the height of a human being and sit with their left leg to

101
the back, with a mace under the left hand. The right knee is up on which the right hand rests
holding a coiled snake.
Both sport a head gear, armlet and wear ear rings and a necklace. The hair must be long for
they are tied at the back.

The complex is surrounded by a wall and has two identical main temples adjacent to each
other surrounded by a cluster of temples. That is why these two temples are known as the
"twin temples".

twin temples
There are two big temples in this west facing complex. The temple which is in the south is
the southern temple and the other on the north is the northern temple.

Southern temple:
As I have already mentioned, southern temple was meant for bhikkhus or male monks

t
Southern temple/Paduraksha or the entrance gate, it enters into a complex with two temples inside

The paduraksha gate is decorated with crowns above the kaal mukh. There are 3 gates, one
for entrance to each temple and one interconnecting gate between the two temples.

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 twin main temples of Plaosan Lor/ cluster of Perwara temples which surround the twin temples

On crossing the gate, the entrance to main temple is just in front. 8 steps lead to inside of temple

Similar to Buddhist Mandala concept, this temple too is constructed in three levels. As is
believed that the universe is divided into Kamadhatu, (kama: desire) where we are bound to
world of desires, rupadhatu, (rupa: form) where we abandon our desire but are still bound to
name and form and arupadhatu, (arupa: without any form) the ultimate where there is no
form or name.This concept is seen later in the construction of Borobudur. The world of
desires or kamdhatu is the lowermost tier or base. It is from ground to the entrance of temple.
Then from this platform to the roof of temple is rupadhatu and lastly from roof to pinnacle is
arupadhatu. The roof of the temple is adorned with 41 small stupas all around, a blend of
Hinduism and Buddhism architecture.

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 foot of the temple
The temple stands 60 meters above the ground.There are two levels in each temple. The first
or the ground level is accessible but the second one is not/makar can be seen on both sides of
the stairs

relief on the outer wall

There are 40 reliefs on the outside wall of temple. Twenty on the first level and twenty in the
upper level. Since the south temple was for bhikkhus, only male figures adorn the outside
wall.

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human sized Avalokiteshwara on side in tribhanga pose, the body is bent in neck, waist and legs and gives
a "S" formation. This greatly resembles the painting of Avalokiteshwara Padmapani at Ajanta caves,
India. Another interesting feature I noticed in the walls is there are faces which are enclosed surrounded
by trailing plants.

They represent the Bodhisattavas. Another feature is the variety of makars in the temple. Each one seems
different.Kaal mukh above a window. The window had images of Bodhisattva. The niche has impressions
of bars. There are different styles of makars in temple
North temple:There is a gate which connects the other temple in the north. the other temple,
both temples are connected to each other by an entrance gate.

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Mandapa:
On the north side of this temple is the mandapa with many Buddha images.

The mandapa is a rectangular courtyard with 22 Buddha images. It has no roof or walls.
Sadly, the images are in a very bad condition and what remains are just images without any
heads.The mandapa is accessed by 7 stairs from the west side. Stone indentations (arrow
pointing) in the courtyard point to it having pillars or wooden poles. It may have been used
for meditation purposes or as a place of offering.11 Buddha sit along east direction facing
west, while 5 are sitting on north with face towards south and 5 on south face north.It is very
difficult to analyze their hand position but all are sitting in Padmasana.

Perwara temples:
Perwara or complementary or ancillary temples surround the main temple building.

a perwara temple with kaalmukh at entrance/// Others in ruins

Two types of complementary or ancillary temples surround the twin temples. There are 174
temples out of which 58 are prasadhas and 116 are stupa perwara. Almost all the temples
are in ruins now. Just a few have been renovated.

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The innermost or the first row on east has 19 temples facing outwards towards east, 7 on south facing
south, 17 on west towards west and again 7 facing outwards towards north. These perwara temples
were called Prasadhas and originally housed images of Amitabha in west, Aksobhya in
east, Ratnasambhava in South and Amoghasidhi in north.

The second or middle row has 54 stupa shaped structures and 4 prasadhas at four corners.
The outermost row has 62 stupa perwara and 4 prasadhas at the four corners.

Stupa perwara, right in front and the Candi perwara or prasadha/// Prasadhas

1. Stupa perwara has a square base and on top is shaped in the form of a stupa.

2. The prasadhas have a square base with a small chamber and 3 stairs. The entrance has a kaal
makar on top.

The grounds of temple Plaosan Lor started renovation in 1962 but the temple was restored in 1990s.
The 2006 earthquake did a lot of damage to the building, not only in bringing the ones down but also
shifted the position of temple.Apart from this the looting by miscreants has done more damage than
the natural disasters. The last theft to Buddha's head was in 2010.

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 VII

Mendut the TANTRIC “Indrajal” ?

The Creation of Indra-INDRAJAL

Indra's net (also called Indra's jewels or Indra's pearls, Sanskrit Indrajāla, Chinese: 因陀羅網)
is a metaphor used to illustrate the concepts of Śūnyatā
(emptiness), pratītyasamutpāda (dependent origination), and interpenetration in Buddhist
philosophy. Indrajala (Sanskrit: इन्द्रजाल) is a Sanskrit word common to most Indian
languages that means Indra's net, magic, deception, fraud, illusion, conjuring, jugglery,
sorcery etc. Magic and Religion sometimes go together. The most important source for the
knowledge of Vedic magic is Atharvaveda. Those mantras of the Vedas that are meant
for shanti, for allaying fears and evils, for greater welfare and for extension of life, etc., are
called pratyangiramantrah or atharvanah, but those meant for harming others,
i.e., abhichara, are called angiramantrah or angirasah.
The human magician applies the magic called Indrajala in imitation of his divine forerunners,
and thus spreads his net of maya over those he chooses as the object of his manipulations. He
creates something before the eyes of the spectators that does not really exist, or only exist in
the spectators’ minds as a result of his skill.
If one confines Indrajala to its stricter sense of illusory appearances created for the public, it
is understandable that this activity was apt to become an image for the great illusion to hold
ignorant mankind in its grasp. According to the Advaita philosophers there is no difference
between avidya (ignorance) and moha ("delusion") as factors that lead to human bondage.

WONDEROUS JAVA

Java Island is the center of the discovery of the temples of various kingdoms in the past. One
of the temples is Mendut Temple which is a ninth-century Buddhist temple, located in

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Mendut village, Mungkid sub-district, Magelang Regency, Central Java, Indonesia. It is 4
kjm from Borobudur and a 9 min drive via Jl. Balaputradewa and Jl. Mayor Kusen. |
Prambanan the Shiva Temple is 51 Km away and a drive of 1 hr 12 min via Jl. Magelang/Jl.
Magelang – Yogyakarta.
The Buddhist temples form a Buddhist Group and the Prambanan temple group with several
100 or more temples forms the Hindu Group.

In the Buddhist Group, the Mendut temple is located about three kilometres east from
Borobudur. Candi Mendut is a reflection of the sublime and stupendous “Indrajal” of
the Javanese people when they attained unprecedented heights of power, when
literary genius blossomed in their language of Javanese, when they enriched their
lovely island with monumental structures that evoke wonder after twelve centuries,
even in their ruined state. Indrajal means the Net of Indra the creator of the Universe
and is a book consisting of tantra and mantra to supernatural power. The word ios used to
refer to supernatural creations that cannot be explained except by imputing the creation to
God Indra.The Candis can be understood as cosmic symbols of sovereignty that
encode astronomical perceptions of the auspicious. Often overlooked because of its
close proximity to the world famous Borobudur, Candi Mendut was widely regarded
by the early Dutch scholars as ranking among the most shining architectural jewels
produced by the remarkable civilization that emerged in Central Java during the
eight century. In his book Candi Mendut - Womb of the Tathagata, Mark Long describes it
thus:

“The division of the walls beneath the first cornice by means of horizontal and
vertical lines and of the balustrade wall, is so masterful, the effect so starling, and
the whole so little overloads the eye – on the contrary, being almost soberly treated –
that one may classify the Mendut temple without hesitation among the most
successful monuments of the Hindu era.”

Mendut, Borobudur and Pawon, all of which are Buddhist temples, are located in one
straight line. There is a mutual religious relationship between the three temples, although the
exact ritual process is unknown. Until now, it is not clear when Mendut Temple was built. A
historian J.G. de Casparis estimates that Mendut Temple was built by the first king of the
Syailendra dynasty in 824 AD So Mendut Temple is thought to be the first temple built by
Wangsa Syailendra. J.G. de Casparis also estimates that Mendut Temple is older than the age
of Borabudhur Temple. This historian's estimate is based on the Karangtengah inscription
(824 AD) which states in the inscription that King Indra had made a sacred building called
Wenuwana.
Karangtengah inscription (also known as Kayumwungan inscription) is the inscriptions
written on five pieces of stones dated 746 Saka or 824 CE, discovered in Karangtengah
hamlet, Temanggung Regency, Central Java, Indonesia. The inscription was written in
ancient Javanese script in two languages; Old Javanese and Sanskrit. The lines 1-24 was
written in Sanskrit, the rest of the lines was written in old Javanese. The inscription is linked
with the temple Borobudur and Mendut
The parts written in Sanskrit mentioned about a king named Samaratungga. His daughter
named Pramodhawardhani has inaugurated a Jinalaya (Sanskrit meaning:Jain temple and the
realm of those have conquer worldly desire and reach enlightenment called jina which is also
a common epithet of the Buddha which is most likely the intended meaning here ), a sacred
Jina sanctuary. The inscription also mentioned a sacred buddhist building

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called Venuvana (Sankirt: bamboo forest) to place the cremated ashes of 'king of the cloud',
the name for god Indra, probably referred to King Indra of Sailendra dynasty. Jinalaya was
identified as Borobudur. Venuvana was identified as Mendut temple by Dutch archaeologist
JG de Casparis, while Soekmono identified it with Ngawen temple instead.
In the parts written in old Javanese, mentioned about an event, that in the 10th day of
Kresnapaksa in the month of Jyestha year 746 Saka (824 CE), Rakai Patapan pu Palar
inaugurated that rice fields in Kayumwungan to be the tax free land protected by royal edict.
Rakai Patapan pu Palar is identified as Rakai Garung, the king of Mataram Kingdom.
Indonesian historian Slamet Muljana suggest Rakai Garung was another name of
Samaratungga.

According to it the temple was built and completed during the reign of King Indra of
Sailendra dynasty. Casparis connected the temple mentioned in the Karangtengah inscription
with the Mendut temple and Bhiku Sri Pannyavaro Mahethera, in the documentary movie
entitled “The forgotten gems, Buddhists Temples in Java” mentioned that the original name
of the Temple was Venuvana Mandira meaning “The Palace in the Bamboo Forest”.

The Translation of Venuvana by Dr Uday Dokras

According to me, Venu Vanam is a Tamil word with Sanskrit roots. Today it is another name
for Tirunelveli, the place where Nellaiappar Temple is located, representing a sacred place
for the worship of Śiva.—The city of Tirunelveli is situated near the river Tambarabarani,
which is the source of the agricultural wealth of the southern districts of Tamilnadu.
Tirunelveli is one of the eighteen Tirupathis of the Pandya land. Some of the other names of
the sthala are Venu Vanam, Nelveli, Nellur, Saliveli, Salivadi, Salinagar, Brahmā
Vṛdhapuram and Tārukāvanam.
1. Veṇu (वेणु) refers to “bamboo” and represents one of the seven forest-products that
are fit for oblation according to verse 25.59 of the Īśvarasaṃhitā, dealing with the
classification of the places for building the fire-pits (kuṇḍa). Accordingly, “bamboo
(veṇu), śyāmāka, nīvāra (wild gram), jartila, gavīdhuka, karkaṭa and kanaka are the
seven which grow in the forest. Śāli is important among them. Others are to be taken
in its absence, or that of others”.

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2. Venu has other meanings such as a musical instrument Veena, Veṇu (वेणु) refers to
one of the ten kinds of sounds (śabda) according to the Padārthādarśā of
Rāghavabhaṭṭa, the Matsyendrasaṃhitā and the Haṃsa-upaniṣad.

3. Veṇu (वेणु) refers to one of the thirty-three alaṃkāras (embellishments), according

to the Nāṭyaśāstra chapter 29. These alaṃkāras, or, ‘embellishments of song’, depend
upon the four types of varṇas, which refers to a specific order of musical notes
(svara). They are attached to the songs of seven forms, although not generally used in
the dhruvās. According to the Nāṭyaśāstra, “veṇu is that in which the tempo (laya) is
playlike”.

4. Muraḷi or Veṇu (वेणु) is a flute made, as its name indicates, from a thin and hollow
bamboo. In a piece of bamboo, suitably chosen holes are bored in proper places. By
blowing in the hole which is near to the closed end and stopping one or more of the
other holes with the fingers as required, music of a very high standard of perfection is
often elicited from this simple instrument.

5. Veṇū (वेणू) is a name mentioned in the Mahābhārata (cf. II.48.2) and represents one
of the many proper names used for people and places.

6. Veṇu (वेणु) refers to:—(also called pāvika) one of Śrī Kṛṣṇa’s flutes that is very
small, not more than nine inches long, with six holes on its body. (cf. Glossary page
from Bhajana-Rahasya).

7. Venu, Vamsa or Kicaka is the name of a tree mentioned in the Kathasaritsagara by

Somadeva (10th century A.D).—Venu refers to the “Bamboo-tree” and its woods in
the Vindhya mountains and great and marvellous forests on the Hemakuta peak of the
Himalaya mountain are mentioned.
8. Somadeva mentions many rich forests, gardens, various trees (e.g., Venu), creepers
medicinal and flowering plants and fruit-bearing trees in the Kathasaritsagara. Travel
through the thick, high, impregnable and extensive Vindhya forest is a typical feature
of many travel-stories. Somadeva’s writing more or less reflects the life of the people
of Northern India during the 11th century. His Kathasaritsagara (‘ocean of streams of
story’), mentioning Venu, is a famous Sanskrit epic story revolving around prince
Naravahanadatta and his quest to become the emperor of the vidyadharas (celestial
beings).
In the Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English
Dictionary Venu means:
9. Veṇu (वेणु):—m. or veṇu ([probably] connected with √1. ve) a bamboo, reed, cane,
[Ṛg-veda] etc. etc.
10. a flute, fife, pipe, [Mahābhārata; Kāvya literature] etc.
11. Name of a deity of the Bodhi tree, [Lalita-vistara]
12. of a king of the Yādavas, [Mahābhārata]
13. of a son of Śata-jit, [Viṣṇu-purāṇa]
14. of a mountain, [Mārkaṇḍeya-purāṇa]
15. of a river, [cf. Lexicographers, esp. such as amarasiṃha, halāyudha, hemacandra, etc.]

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16. ([plural]) the descendants of Veṇu, [Āśvalāyana-śrauta-sūtra] (veṇor viśāle Name of
two Sāmans, [Ārṣeya-brāhmaṇa])

17. Van is the name for Forest in 27 Indic languages and is also derived from Sanskrit.
Apparently there was a bamboo forest in the vicinity of Mendhut and Venu vana
means Forest of Bamboo but also refers to the dwelling place of Shiva.

Bamboo Vana as Mendhut Temple

 Bamboo is a perennial tall grass with jointed woody stems (culm). It grows straight,
up to a height of 40m, without any branches, rising from an underground rootstock. It
needs highly fertile sandy soil and grows in downstream of rivers. It blooms once in
forty or sixty years. The wood is used for making baskets, bows, arrows, chariots, and
agricultural implements. Mats are woven from the dried leaves. Many tribes eat the
seeds (Upadhyay 1964, 15-34).
 Bamboo poles are used in villages to carry water from ponds or rivers. The flute is
made from young bamboo shoots.

Mythological and Religious Associations of Bamboo

 Bamboo grows in clusters, so it is regarded as symbolic of a large family and prolific

progeny. However, only the green bamboo is regarded as sacred. The dry one is
deprived of all sanctity.
 The bamboo is sacred to both Shiva and Vishnu. It is an emblem of Venugopala or
Krishna. It is also sacred to Buddhists and has been depicted in the bas-reliefs of
stupas and in Buddhist sculpture.
 The Ramayana calls it a common forest tree (6.12.56) found growing on the banks of
the Yamuna (2.55.8), and says that dried bamboo is used to make rafts to cross the
river (2.55.14). It is used to make pillars and rafters in cottage construction (3.1.21). It
is also used as a pillar of the straw cottage constructed by Lakshmana (3.15.21-23).
 The Mahabharata (1.63) mentions the festival of the bamboo pole, which involved
planting a bamboo pole every year in honour of Indra. After erecting the pole, people
decorated it with golden cloth, perfumes, garlands, and ornaments. Then the ruler,
Uparichara Vasu, the king of Chedi who belonged to the Puru Dynasty, prayed for the
expansion of his cities and kingdom.
 In north India, the green bamboo and its branches are used to make the canopy under
which wedding ceremonies are performed. Coffins are also made of green bamboos.
 During the sacred-thread ceremony, a twig of the bamboo is given to the boy.
 People of the Turi tribe of Gujarat place two small pieces of bamboo in the room of
confinement, so that no malicious spirit can influence the newborn.
 In Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, newly married couples place their feet in a bamboo basket
and walk slowly, so that they do not fall flat on the ground. It is very auspicious to
walk in this manner because it is symbolic of a large family. The Prabhus of Pune
place bamboo baskets on the heads of the bride and the bridegroom. The Mubasis of
Bengal ask married couples to go around a bamboo post. The Garos and Kacharis of
Assam worship the bamboo post after planting it in the ground.

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 On the other hand, it is widely believed in Uttar Pradesh that a churail (evil female
spirit) lives in bamboo groves (Upadhyay 1964, 24).
 During the aghora puja, after worshipping Shiva and Parvati, the performance of
homa, followed by feeding of Brahmanas and young girls, takes place. On this day, a
branch of the bamboo is planted on one side of the pandal, along with mango flowers
and a banana tree with flowers, and they are worshipped by all.

Another association of the bamboo pole is with the kaavadi.

The Story of Shiva and the Kaavadi. Once, Lord Shiva entrusted sage Agastya with
two hillocks, balanced across his shoulders on a bamboo pole, to be carried for
installation in south India. But the sage left them in a forest and asked his disciple
Idumban to bring them. Idumban found the two hillocks and lifted them with great
difficulty. After a while, he put them down near Palani, home to a famous shrine of
Murugan or Kartikeya, Shiva’s son. When Idumban wanted to continue his journey,
he found that the hillocks could not be moved. He sought the help of a youth but the
boy claimed that the hillocks belonged to him. In the ensuing fight, Idumban was
defeated. Idumban then realized that the youth was Lord Kartikeya. Idumban begged
for pardon and asked that anyone who carried a kaavadi-a bamboo pole suspended
with anything resembling the two hillocks-may be granted his heart’s desire.
Idumban’s wish was granted. Today, the kaavadi is carried by pilgrims crossing the
country.

1. The Kaavadi consists of two semicircular pieces of bamboo that are bent and attached
to a bamboo cross structure that can be balanced on the devotee’s shoulders. It may be
decorated with flowers or peacock feathers, or a pot of milk may be hung from either
end of the pole slung across the shoulder. Some kaavadis are very ornate and heavy.

2. The kaavadi has come to symbolize the balance between happiness and unhappiness,
wealth and poverty-all of which are inevitable. It is necessary to maintain the proper
balance between them and to avoid both extremes of joy or depression, retaining
optimum poise.

3. The Buddha was presented with a grove of mango trees, beneath which he could
relax. He told his monks a tale of his earlier life as a monkey. He lived with his clan
on a mango tree and all were very careful never to let the fruit fall to the ground
where it might be found by a human, tasted and desired.
4. But one mango fell into the river and was carried to Kashi (Varanasi) where the king,
who was bathin, found and ate it. Delighted with the taste, he and his soldiers set out
to search for the tree.

5. When they eventually located it he ordered all the monkeys to be killed. The Buddha
saved the other monkeys by making a bridge of his body over the river into a bamboo
grove, but lost his life while saving his clan. So, for the Buddhists, the bamboo is a
sacred tree (Gandhi and Singh 1989, 112-13).

6. A sanyasi’s danda and a yaati’s (ascetic’ vessels are made from bamboo (Kurma
Purana, 2.19, 29; 15, 3; 29, 9).

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 Krishna’s flute is made of bamboo

Krishna used a flute made of green bamboo to charm the cowherdesses of Vrindavan with its
sweet notes and tender melodies. Since this is the voice of the Supreme Being calling out to
his devotees, the music of the simple bamboo flute is the Sacred Song of the Lord, the Divine
Music.

Less well-known than its monumental neighbour Borobudur, Candi Mendut was likely an
important stop along the road to that temple. The square shrine stands on a high platform,
accessible by a flight of stairs. Like nearby Candi Pawon, Candi Mendut is positioned
directly to the east of Borobudur. These smaller temples therefore face west, opening towards
the main site. https://www.exoticindiaart.com/book/details/candi-mendut-womb-of-tathagata-
nam581/

Mendut temple was discovered in 1836. The entire structure was found, except the roof that
had already crumbled. Between 1897 and 1904, the Dutch government initiated restoration
works that yielded satisfactory result, although the temple was still far from perfection. This
work had managed to restore the temple’s base and body were reconstructed. In 1908, Van
Erp led reconstruction and restoration works on the temple that aimed to restore the roof,
place stupas, and repair parts of the roof top. The works had once halted due to financial
constraints, but were continued on in 1925.

Mendut Temple built during the reign of King Indra

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Mendut Temple: Spiritual Portal to the imposing Borobudur temple – The small Buddhist
Mendut Temple in Central Java forms an inseparable part of a pilgrim’s progress to the
mighty Borobudur temple. Serving as an introductory portal before ascending the Borobudur
temple, Mendut has an array of narrative reliefs and most important Buddha statues that
spiritually prepare pious pilgrims and the general visitors for their journey to the top of
Buddhism’s cosmic mountain at Borobudur. The temple itself is located in the village of
Mendut in the Magelang Regency in Central Java.

Mendut Temple : Situated 3 Km east from Borobudur Temple

The temple is on a north to south straight line with the Borobudur and Pawon Temples. Local
legend relates that long ago a brick-paved road led from Mendut to Borobudur, closed in by
walls with niches built into them. According to Dutch archaeologist JG de Casparis, the
temple forms part of a once huge temple complex together with the Pawon and Borobudur
temples and, chronologically speaking, is the oldest among the three.

Mendut temple was built and completed during the reign of King Indra of Sailendra
dynasty.

The 26.4 meters tall temple faces northwest. The stairs projecting from its northwest’ side
square elevated base is adorned with a Makara statue on either side. The side of the stair wall
is carved with bas-relief of the Jataka fable narrating the animal story of Buddhist teaching.
While the square terrace surrounding the body of the temple is meant for pradakshina or the
ritual of circumambulation, walking clockwise around the temple. The outer walls are
adorned with bas-reliefs of Bodhisatvas (Buddhist divinities), such as Avalokitesvara,
Maitreya, Cunda, Ksitigarbha, Samantabhadra, Mahakarunika Avalokitesvara, Vajrapani,
Manjusri, Akasagarbha, and Boddhisattvadevi Prajnaparamita among other Buddhist figures.
Originally the temple had two chambers, a small chamber in the front, and the large main
chamber in the center. The roof and some parts of the front chamber walls are now missing.
The inner wall of the front chamber is adorned with bas-relief of Hariti surrounds by children,
Atavaka on the other side, Kalpataru, also groups of devatas divinities flying in heaven.

The Mendut temple holds special significance

For Buddhists in Indonesia and abroad, the Mendut temple holds special significance. The
existence of the three gigantic Buddha statues holds its own fascinating beauty both as sacred
monuments and as works of art. The three statues sitting in the temple are still considered to

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radiate an aura of blessedness. Today, the temple is visited by many visitors and Buddhists
pilgrims from around the world before proceeding to Borobudur. Mendut Temple also
becomes the staging point for the annual ritual ceremony of Vesak, where the holly waters
from the pristine springs of Jumprit and the torch with the natural eternal flames at Mrapen
are kept, before the monks and congregations conduct their ritual procession from Mendut to
Borobudur.

The internal structure of this Buddhist temple is made of bricks, but the outer walls are made
of andesite stone. This building has a basement, above which there are alleys that surround
the temple. Around Mendut Temple, there are 48 small stupas.

The internal structure of this Buddhist temple is made of bricks, but the outer walls are
made of andesite stone.

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 ASTROLOGICAL DESIGN

In my paper THE STORY OF ASTROLOGY IN ANGKOR WAT & OTHER KHMER

TEMPLES=https://www.academia.edu/56273723/THE_STORY_OF_ASTROLOGY_
IN_ANGKOR_WAT I have dicussed the possibility of ASngkor having a Hindu
Astrological locational setting.

Th
ese Pics belongs to Borobudur temple. See the meru formation which resembles a shree
yantra.

The walls of the Borobudur, a magnificent Buddhist ruin on the island of Java, are decorated
with scenes from the 600 previous lives of Gautama Buddha.

According to historians, Mendut Temple has a close connection with Pawon Temple, because
Mendut Temple, Pawon Temple and Borobudur Temple are located in a straight line from
north-south. Even now it is still a mystery why the three temples are connected in a straight
line? It is very possible that this has a purpose, for example associated with astrology or
others. Another question is how to determine the location of the temples in the past? What
technology was used at that time?

The positions of Candii Borobudur, Candi Pawon and Candi Mendut are in this line
following the constellation Orion Alnitak, Alnilam, Mintaka (Orion Belt). Maybe after this of
course we will ask. How did in the past understand the relationship between the three temples
and the constellation Orion? Why do the three temples stand in the same slanted line as the
constellation Orion? Everything is still a mystery. Similar to the mystery of the various reliefs
in the Borobudur Temple. Likewise, the mystery of how the Prambanan temples were made
in the past with a high level of complexity. What kind of technology existed in the past?

The temples were built by the kings of the Syailendra Dynasty who were known as the family
of temple builders in the archipelago. Other temples that are also close to Borobudur Temple
are Canggal Temple / Mount Wukir and Losari Temple around Salam, Asu Temple,
Lumbung Temple, Selagriya Temple, Ngawen Temple and Sari Temple around Muntilan.

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 Stairs to the top floor of Mendut Temple

There is still one more temple, namely Banon Temple which has Hindu characteristics. In this
temple, there are found statues of the main Hindu gods in good condition, namely Shiva,
Vishnu, Brahma, and Ganesha. Unfortunately, the existence of Banon Temple is difficult to
reconstruct because there are very few stones found in Banon Temple. The statues of Banon
Temple during the Dutch East Indies era were moved to Batavia and stored at the National
Museum of Indonesia.

Relief of Mendut Temple

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 Mendut Temple. Guard statue on the stairs to enter Mendut
Temple.

The ruins of Mendut Temple were first discovered in 1836. The discovery at that time was
the base and building of the temple but the top and roof were not visible. Then in 1897-1904,
the Dutch East Indies Government carried out renovations in several parts including the roof
of the temple so that it displayed a shape that was almost the same as it is today, although not
yet perfect.

Reliefs on the walls of Mendut Temple

BACA JUGA
The Dutch East Indies government returned to reconstruction and restoration in 1908 led by
Van Erp with the results of refining the roof shape and replacing the stupas. This restoration
was not completed but was temporarily suspended due to lack of funds, resuming in 1925.

Physically, Mendut Temple building which stands on a rectangular foundation has a height of
26.40 m. The position of the Mendut temple land is quite high, also about 2 meters from the
surrounding height. There are many reliefs on the walls of the base of the temple with 31
panels in the form of dioramas of various stories. Relief forms in the form of carvings of
people, animals, flowers and tendrils.

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 Guard Statue on the stairs of Mendut Temple

To reach the top of the temple through the date which is on the west side which has the
entrance to the room in the temple. The roof of the viewer is the same height and blends with
the roof of the temple body. Mendut Temple does not have a gate. The walls of the stairs are
fanel reliefs depicting various Buddhist stories. At the beginning of the date there is a pair of
dragon heads whose mouths are wide open. On the underside of the dragon's head was a
panel with the image of a dwarf.

Some Stories in the Reliefs of Mendut Temple

In one part of the Mendut temple fanel, there is a relief depicting the story of Dharmabuddhi
and Dustabuddhi. This story is about two friends, children of merchants. One day
Dharmabuddhi found money and told his friend Dustabuddhi. They keep the money under a
tree.

The story of Dharmabuddhi and Dustabuddhi in Mendut

Temple

When they need money, Dharmabuddhi takes some of the money and divides it in half. The
always suspicious and dissatisfied Dustabuddhi took all the remaining money. He reversed
the facts by accusing Dharmabuddhi of taking all the money and bringing it to court.
Fortunately the judge was able to prove that Dustabuddhi was found guilty and convicted.

Another story from the relief at Mendut Temple is that two parrots are different in their
behavior because one is educated by a thief. While one bCandi Mendut is a shrine that can be
entered, as opposed to a Buddhist stupa (reliquary mound) like Borobudur, which can only be

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circumambulated. Candi Mendut’s interior walls have niches in which to place sculptures of
buddhas or lamps to illuminate the dark space. Its relief carvings on Candi Mendut suggest a
royal connection. In the vestibule leading inside, Buddhist deities and members of their
celestial supporting cast flock toward the shrine, bearing offerings fit for gods. Mendut
Temple and Pawon Temple are part of the Borobudur Temple Compounds, with the two
smaller temples located to the east on a straight axis to Borobudur. The Mendut temple is on
the processional walkway to Borobudur. Built in the early 9th century it is considered older
than Borobudur which is three kilometres away. It was buried beneath volcanic ash and
debris from Mt Merapi and was discovered in 1834. There are numerous large panels.bas-
reliefs.

Relief Of Hariti_Inner Northeast Wall of the Porch-Candi Mendut

An example of religious usurpation, in which a contact religion (Buddhism, in this case)

incorporates the gods of its competitors (Hinduism, in this case) into its own pantheon.

Twin reliefs on the inner walls of the porch illustrate the popular Buddhist legend of Hariti, a
Hindu plague goddess who was converted by the Buddha to become a protector of children1.
This relief of Hariti is located on the inner northeast wall of the porch. A relief of Atavaka,
her husband, is seen on the previous page.

The Story Of The Foolish Tortoise

Northeast Wall of the Staircase

Candi Mendut

In this Tantri tale from the northeast wall of the staircase, a foolish tortoise is chased by
hunters, suspends himself by his jaws from a stick, and convinces two geese to carry him to

121
safety. But the silly turtle can not stop himself from opening his mouth to boast of his
cleverness, which of course causes him to lose his grip on the stick, and so he falls down to
his death on the rocks below. Compare: the same story on Temple 2, Nalanda, India.

Relief Of Atavaka-Inner Southwest Wall of the Porch,Candi Mendut

Twin reliefs on the inner walls of the porch illustrate the popular Buddhist legend of Hariti,
a plague goddess who was converted by the Buddha to become a protector of children1. A
relief of Hariti is displayed on the next page. Seen here, on the inner southwest wall, is a
rare and unusual relief of her husband Atavaka (or, Panchika) surrounded by the children
whom he, like his wife, is now protecting.

The Main Sanctum

The main sanctum contains three massive seated Buddhist figures, each carved from a single
block of stone. The three statues are the Buddhist main divinities revered at Mendut which
can explain the spiritual purpose of the establishment of this temple. At the center of the
chamber is a grand 3 meter tall stone statue of Dhyani Buddha Cakyamuni or Dhyani Buddha

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Vairocana facing west, sitting in the dharma Cakra Mudra hand position (turning the wheel of
Dharma). This central statue is believed to symbolize the turning of the wheels of all life on
earth.
On the right of the central statue is the Boddhisatva Avalokitesvara in a seated position with
the left leg crossed, while the right leg touches the ground. The hand position is varamudra
which illustrates the Buddha delivering his teachings. The statue portrays Buddha in his
grand costume complete with the jewelries and wearing a crown.

The third statue is the Bodhisatva Vajrapani which sits on the left side of the Budha
Cakyamuni. Just as the Bodhisatva Avalokitesvara, this statue also portrays the Buddha in his
grand costume with reverse crossed legs to those of the Bodhisatva Avalokitesvara. Also
called the Bodhisatva Maitreya, the hand position is simhakarnamudra which is similar to
varamudra but with closed fingers, and represents the Buddha as the salvation of mankind.

The central buddha, Vairochana, holds his hands in dharmachakra mudra, a teaching gesture,
and plants his two feet firmly on a double-lotus pedestal. Flanking him are the bodhisattvas
Avalokiteshvara and Vajrapani.

Let us talk of the theory of the three Buddha statues, though trhere is another theory that
there are two and the third is of a prince. Be as it may, the central three metre high statue is
stunning and depicts Dhyani Buddha Vairocana/Dhyani Buddha Cakyamuni who is flanked
by, Boddhisatva Avalokitesvara to the left, with Boddhisatva Vajrapani on the right. Each of
the statues are cut from a single block of stone and thought to have been carved on site with
the temple walls and ceiling built after.

Temple Mendut was part of a larger temple complex, however all that remains of other
buildings are neatly stacked into piles within the temple grounds, where amongst the rubble,
carved stones can be seen. There is a very large banyan tree near the temple. Nearby is the
Mendut Buddhist Monastery. Very few people know that the grounds were originally a
Catholic Monastery until the 1950’s, when it was purchased by the Buddhist foundation and
turned into a Buddhist Monastery. Flip flop of religions. The grounds are very serene to
walk through and full of statues, pools of water and greenery.

However between the green lies a mystery.

123
 What is tantric Buddha?

Tantra is a Hindu and Buddhist philosophy which affirms all aspects of the material world as
infused with divine feminine power. It is rooted in sacred instructional texts, composed from
around the sixth century onwards, called the Tantras. Inside the temple we find an altar-
shaped throne, and on the throne sits a colossal Buddha statue, dressed in the manner of the
southern Buddhists, having uncovered his right shoulder and arm. The hands before his breast
have the posture (mudra) of the Mahayanists, that is, the followers of the "Big Carriage"
(Great Vehicle).

124
 In the above pic Buddha is
on the left with the Buddha image in the crown. The middle Buddha is the Mahāvairocana. Princve is
on the right. This prince is not a Buddha.

It is explained that this is the posture that the followers “of the northern church, generally
(not always) give to the first of their five Dhyani-Buddhas”. In the Mendut temple, to the
right of Buddha, we see a buddhistic prince seated on a throne. This statute is considered
to be Buddha statute by some as mentioned earliuer and the controversy rages on. Be at it
may, this statute is richly decorated with nagas, lions, and elephants. He wears the monk's
hood and a small Buddha image in his crown. This characterises him as a Buddhist. The
other prince that we see opposite him, to the left of the Buddha, seating on an equally rich
throne, doesn't wear a monk's hood. This characterises him as not buddhistic prince. The
two kings wear the prabha, or disk of light, on the back of their heads.

Statue of Shakyamuni Buddha-Central Shrine, Candi Mendut

This colossal (10 ft tall) statue of Shakyamuni, located in the interior cella of Candi
Mendut, is very special: it is the oldest (c. 800 AD, as mentioned on the previous
page), the largest, and the finest statue of the historical Buddha that still remains in
its original location in Java. The Buddha is seated in "Western" style, legs apart
(cf: Ajanta, Cave 26), displays dharmachakra mudra, and is flanked by two
bodhisattvas (following pages). In this temple, modern visitors can still experience
something of the awe and majesty that inspired the devotees who first worshiped
here, over a thousand years ago.

Note: some scholars identify this statue as Vairocana, instead of Shakyamuni. See,
for example, "The Transcendental Buddha Vairochana(?) Seated in Western
Fashion," by Martin Lerner, in The Lotus Transcendent: Indian and Southeast Asian
Art from the Samuel Eilenberg Collection, Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1991, p.
177.

125
Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara

Central Shrine, Candi Mendut

The nine-foot tall statue of Avalokiteshvara is located to the viewer's left of Shakyamuni (see
previous page). The Bodhisattva of Compassion is identified by a small statue of Amitabha
Buddha that is carved into the top of his crown. Seated on a lotus throne in "Royal Ease," his
extended right hand holds a missing attribute, and his raised left hand holds a missing lotus
stem. To the right is the statue of Bodhisattva Avalokiteswara or the helping Buddha. Buddha
is depicted sitting with left leg bended and right leg hanging down. His right foot steps on a
small lotus pad. To the left and facing north is the statue of Maitreya, or liberating Bodhisattva
who is sitting with hands in simhakarnamudra position, which looks like vitarkamudra
position except that the fingers are clasped. The head of each statue emanates prabha or divine
rays of light.

126
 Comparison with Ajanta Cave 26
At a distance of 750 m from Ajanta Foot Cave Bus Stop, Cave 26 is a chaityagriha situated
beside the Cave 25.Cave 26 is quite similar to Cave 19, but of a larger dimension and with
more elaborately and exquisitely carved sculpted figures. An inscription (AD 450 - 525)
found on the wall of the front verandah records the gift of this chaityagriha by a monk
Buddhabhadra, a friend of Bhavviraja, a minister of the king of Asmaka (Vidarbha). There is
a carving of Lord Buddha seated in the bhumisparsas mudra under the Bodhi tree at the
center. On the left is Mara on an elephant accompanied by his host of demon-forces attacking
Buddha and on the right is the retreat of Mara. In the foreground are the daughters of Mara
trying to tempt Buddha by dance and music; and in the bottom right corner is the figure of the
dejected Mara.The chaityagriha consists of a hall, side aisles (pradakshina) and a rock-cut
stupa with an image of Buddha. The facade, inner pillars, triforium (between pillars and
roof), and side walls are extensively carved with images and decorative designs. The cave
contains a stupa with an image of Buddha seated on a lion throne. He is flanked by riders and
flying attendants.
However, the most striking and prominent image of this cave is a large carved statue of the
reclining Buddha, representing his moment of death. Below him, his followers mourn his
passing; above, celestial beings rejoice.

Bodhisattva Vajrapani-Central Shrine, Candi Mendut ( pic Right above)

Bodhisattva Vajrapani is usually paired with Padmapani, not Avalokiteshvara (previous

page); the unusual combination of Avalokiteshvara and Vajrapani in this Shakyamuni Triad
must reflect either an iconographic confusion, or perhaps a transitional form or a regional

127
variant in the evolution of the triad from Padmapani/Vajrapani (earlier) to
Avalokiteshvara/Manjusri (later).

Interpretation of thje Buddhas of Mendut by King Chulalongkorn (Rama V) of Siam

King Chulalongkorn (Rama V) of Siam visited Borobudur in 1896 when Java was still under
Dutch rule. As a Buddhist King Rama of |Thailand (Siam) was deeply interested in the
Borobodur and also Prambanan (for the Ramayana and Mahabharata are of course Hindu
epics that are well known in Thailand). He climbed up the temple twice on that visit. The
Dutch allowed him to choose anything from the temple to bring back as souvenirs as many he
wished. He went back to Bangkok with eight containers full of Buddha statues, bas-reliefs,
door facades from Borobudur, Prambanan, and other archaeological sites nearby. Several
Buddha statues he brought from Borobudur are now used to decorate royal temples in
Bangkok including the Emerald Buddha temple in the Grand Palace; others are on display in
the National Museum in Bangkok. Many years later, King Rama VII returned some
masterpieces from Prabanan back

Bodhisattva Vajrapani-Central Shrine, Candi Mendut ( pic Right above)

Bodhisattva Vajrapani is usually paired with Padmapani, not Avalokiteshvara (previous

page); the unusual combination of Avalokiteshvara and Vajrapani in this Shakyamuni Triad
must reflect either an iconographic confusion, or perhaps a transitional form or a regional
variant in the evolution of the triad from Padmapani/Vajrapani (earlier) to
Avalokiteshvara/Manjusri (later).

Interpretation of thje Buddhas of Mendut by King Chulalongkorn (Rama V) of Siam

King Chulalongkorn (Rama V) of Siam visited Borobudur in 1896 when Java was still under
Dutch rule. As a Buddhist King Rama of |Thailand (Siam) was deeply interested in the
Borobodur and also Prambanan (for the Ramayana and Mahabharata are of course Hindu
epics that are well known in Thailand). He climbed up the temple twice on that visit. The
Dutch allowed him to choose anything from the temple to bring back as souvenirs as many he
wished. He went back to Bangkok with eight containers full of Buddha statues, bas-reliefs,
door facades from Borobudur, Prambanan, and other archaeological sites nearby. Several
Buddha statues he brought from Borobudur are now used to decorate royal temples in
Bangkok including the Emerald Buddha temple in the Grand Palace; others are on display in
the National Museum in Bangkok. Many years later, King Rama VII returned some
masterpieces from Prabanan back to its original place during his visit to Java and Bali in
1929. He interpreted the images as follow.

He took home four Buddha statues from Borobodur that now have places of honour at the
Phra Mondop in the Grand Palace complex; although the Buddha statues he admired most
were those in Candi Mendut. If those were sent to Siam a new temple would be built for
them. He knew the head of the Netherlands Indies Archaeological Society, Dr Groneman.
When he first saw Borobodur he wrote that it was not possible to describe it in words, that it
would be better to see it from pictures but even those would not be as marvelous as seeing it

128
with one’s own eyes. Dr Groneman believed that the Buddha statues there were Mahayana
because Buddhism in Java was the same as in China but the King convinced him that they
were of Indian influence. On his third trip when they visited Prambana, he commented that
Dr Groneman could have given a good presentation “but it was no fun this time because he
had become my student so there was nothing on which to disagree with each other.”

1. One of the princes, who is wearing, “like he does himself, a Buddha image in his
crown,” was “perhaps the king of the buddhistic empire, under whose reign the
Barabudur was built”.

2. Further the King surmised that the other images represented the not-buddhistic father
and predecessor. (Amelia Carolina Sparavigna. The Ruins of the Buddhist Temples in the Progo Valley, Borobudur,
Mendut and Pawon, Described by Isaac Groneman in his Book of 1912.. Philica, 2017. hal-01674399)

According to the above article there were 5 Tathgathas but today only one remains flanked
by Vairocana, Avalokiteshvara and Vajrapani. Remaining 4 are not currently presently,
destroyed probably by vagaries of time,nature or man.These once occupied the niches. A
niche is a semicircular architectural recess or platform, sometimes crowned by a semi-dome,
and either set into a building's façade or free-standing. This niche or exedra would typically
have an apsidal podium that supported the stone bench. The free-standing (open air) exedra,
often supporting bronze portrait sculpture, is a familiar Hellenistic structure, characteristically
sited along sacred ways or in open places in sanctuaries.

One of the four Buddha statues from the Borobodur given to Rama V during a trip to Java. All four statues
were placed in the Phra Mondop building in the Grand Palace complex in Bangkok where they can be see
still today. (photo: IO/Tamalia)

Vairocanābhisaṃbodhi Sūtra and the DESIGN of the Mendut

The Vairocanābhisaṃbodhi Sūtra or Vairocana’s Awakening Sutra, Mahāvairocana is an
important Vajrayana Buddhist text composed before 674 CE. The Indian tantric
master Buddhaguhya (fl. c.700 CE) classified the text as a caryātantra, and in Tibetan
Buddhism it is still considered to be a member of the carya classification. In Japan where it is
known as the Mahāvairocana Sūtra (Daibirushana jōbutsu jinpen kajikyō), it is one of two
central texts in the Shingon school, along with the Vajrasekhara Sutra. Both are also part of
the.Tendai.school. The longer title of the scripture
is Mahāvairocanābhisaṃbodhivikurvitādhiṣṭhānavaipulyasūtrendrarājanāmadharmapary
āya (Dharma Discourse Called “Mahāvairocana’s Awakening and His Empowerment of
Miracles,” King of the Best of the Extensive Scriptures). Though the text is often called a

129
tantra by later figures (including later Indian commentators), the scripture does not call itself
a tantra.

12th century painting of Mahāvairocana, Heian period, collecting in Nezu Museum/ Tibetan representation of
Buddha Vairocana, featuring several of his defining characteristics, including his white color, the teaching gesture
(dharmacakramudra), and sitting on an elaborate lion throne. Our mendut Buddha at extreme right.

The Mahāvairocana Tantra is the first true Buddhist tantra, the earliest comprehensive
manual of tantric Buddhism. It was probably composed in the middle of the 7th century, in all
probability in north-eastern India at Nālandā. Evidence to support the text's composition in
Nalanda include the fact that many of the Buddhist scholars involved in the transmission of
the text resided in Nalanda including Buddhaguhya and Śubhakarasiṃha. The description of
plants and trees in the MVT also matches those found in the region surrounding Nalanda in
North-East India.

The Mahāvairocana Tantra consists of three primary mandalas corresponding to the body,
speech and mind of Mahāvairocana, as well as preliminary practices and initiation rituals.
According to Buddhaguhya’s Piṇḍārtha (a summary of the main points of the tantra)
the Mahāvairocana Tantra system of practice is in three stages: preliminary, application, and
accomplishment. Attached here and there are doctrinal passages, and sadhana practices which
relate back to the main mandalas.

A new wave of Buddhism from Northeast India

A.J. Bernet Kempers published an important study in which he advanced his theories for a possible
Indian origin of the iconography of the five main statues of Candi Jago, namely Amoghapasa
Lokesvara with his four attendants Tara, Sudhanakumara, Hayagrrva, and Bhrkutr. Accordingly the
Candi Jago statues have been influenced by a new wave of Buddhism from Northeast India, which
reached Java in the first part of the 13th century. (Ancient Indonesian
Sculpture,Series: Verhandelingen van het Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land- en
Volkenkunde, Volume: 165 E-Book ISBN: Brill,1995)

Pala Mandala of the Amoghapāśa: One of the richest visual objects in Tibetan Buddhism is
the mandala. A mandala is a symbolic picture of the universe. It can be a painting on a wall
or scroll, created in coloured sands on a table, or a visualisation in the mind of a very skilled
adept. In the Paladynasty there are no 8 armed images of the Buddha.Therefore, how the
concept of the Amoghapāśa came to be linked with the Pala dynasty is not clear. What is

130
clear is that the

10th-11th century, India, Kurkihar hoard, bodhisattva on lion, bronze, photo on vmis, at the Patna Museum./// Circa
10th century, India, Bihar, Nalanda, Avalokiteshvara, stone, item 4473/A24143 at the Indian Museum in Kolkata (India).//
9th century, India, Bihar, Nalanda, Avalokiteshvara, stone, item 3962/A24123 at the Indian Museum in Kolkata/ 8th
century, India, Nalanda, Padmapani (Avalokiteshvara), stone, item 49-148 at the National Museum in New Delhi
(India).
Amoghapāśa had a beginning in India and the concept was carried on to Tibet, Sri Lanka and
the Indonesian kingdoms of the earlier time.

131
Avalokiteshvara is a bodhisattva, a divine being who is on the path to becoming a Buddha (“Awakened
One”) and helps others on the path toward enlightenment. This multi-armed figure is hollow-cast from an
alloy of copper and 5% tin, called bronze. Using computed tomography or CT scans, museum
conservators determined that the head, arms, and body were cast in stages and joined using sophisticated
metal casting techniques. Avalokiteshvara is covered with images of the Buddha, like the ones making up
his necklace. Each of these small figures was originally carved or stamped in wax and applied to the
model before being cast in bronze. Avalokiteshvara also wears arm and wristbands made of a different
metal alloy: brass, which initially would have glistened like gold.
RIGHT PIC- Tibet Buddhism 4 Head 8 Arm Ushnishavijaya Namgyalma Kwan-Yin Buddha statue

132
 VIII
SARI
Companion Temple to the Tamrind temple of kalasan-

Candi Sari, front view/, from the rear//inside Candi Sari

Built around the same time as the KALASAN temple. the Sari Temple (Indonesian: Candi
Sari also known as Candi Bendan) is an 8th-century Buddhist temple located at Dusun
Bendan, Tirtomartani village, Kalasan, Sleman Regency, Special Region of
Yogyakarta, Indonesia. It is located about 130 meters (430 ft) northeast of
the Kalasan temple. The temple was a two-story building with wooden beams, floors, stairs
completed with windows and doors; all from organic materials which now are decayed and
gone. It is suggested that the original function of this building was a vihara (Buddhist
monastery), a dwelling place for monks. The temple's name Sari or Saré translates as "to
sleep" in Javanese, which also confirms the habitation nature of the building.
Historians suggested that the temple was built around the same time as the Kalasan temple.
The Kalasan inscription dated 778 AD, in Pranagari script written in Sanskrit, mentions that
the temple was erected by the will of Guru Sang Raja Sailendravamçatilaka (the Jewel of

133
the Shailendra dynasty) who succeeded in persuading Maharaja Tejapurnapana
Panangkaran (in other parts of the inscription also called as Kariyana Panangkaran) to
construct a holy building for the boddhisattva Tara and also build a vihara (monastery) for
Buddhist monks from Sailendra family's realm. Panangkaran awarded the Kalara village to
the Sangha (the Buddhist monastic community). Based on this inscription, Candi Sari was
probably the monastery for monks who served the nearby Kalasan temple.
The ruins were discovered in early 1920s, and in 1929, an effort to reconstruct the temple
began and was finished in 1930. However it was incomplete because many parts are missing
including the outer base that surrounds the temple, and the extended front room and front
stairs that once projected from the east wall of the temple.
Architecture
The temple consists of three parts; the base, the body, and the roof. The temple has a
rectangular plan, measuring 17.3 m north-south, 10 m west-east, and soaring 17 m in height.
Only some parts of the base remain, the outer base stoneblocks are missing. The entrance
door is located at the eastern side with a gate adorned with a Kala and elephant carving.
Windows surround the walls and consist of lower and upper rows. There is also a horizontal
middle "belt" line around the wall, suggesting that it was a two-story-tall building.[2]
The interior consists of three rooms; north room, central room, and south room, each
measuring 3 m x 5.8 m. These three rooms are connected with doorways on the eastern side
of the room along the north-south axis. On the wall of each room are found rows of extruding
stone blocks which used to support wooden beams and a wooden ceiling separating the upper
and lower floors. In some places there are diagonal stones which is probably the place where
there used to be a wooden stairway.

Photo of Candi Sari (1901) by Christiaan Benjamin Nieuwenhuis

The upper level was probably used by monks for meditation or worship. Some suggest the
upper rooms were used as the place for monks to stay, rest, or sleep, while the lower rooms
was the place for worship. In the lower rooms there are some elevated parts where statues
were once placed, but now the statues are gone. On the side walls are found niches, probably
to place oil lamps. In the inner part of each window there are holes to install wooden window
bars.

134
 These rooms were topped with three horse-shoe arched niches adorned with Kala-makaras
and crowned with three rows of stupas. Between these arched niches are found rain-water
drainage and "jaladwara" water spouts taking the form of a giant sitting on a snake.
The outer wall is richly decorated with Buddhist deities. External decoration
include Tara with flowers and Bodhisattvas with musical instruments. These figures are
arranged in two upper and two lower rows and placed on each side of the windows. They
form a total of 36 statues: 8 on the east, north, and south sides respectively, and 12 on the
west side. These Buddhist figures are usually found in the graceful position of Tribhanga,
holding red or blue lotuses and displaying peaceful and serene facial expressions.
Images of Kinnara-Kinnari also adorn the walls. However, unlike the common depiction of
Kinnara as heavenly creature with an upper human-shaped part and a lower bird-shaped part,
the unusual image of Kinnara found on the northern wall shows a winged deity (somewhat
similar to how commonly angels are portrayed).
On the outer wall of the temple are found the traces of plaster called vajralepa (lit: diamond
plaster). The same substance is also found in the nearby Kalasan temple. The white-yellowish
plaster was applied to protect the temple wall, but now the plaster has worn off.

Timeline of Sari and Kalasan

According to the Kalasan inscription dated 778 AD, written in Sanskrit using Pranagari
script, the temple was erected by the will of Guru Sang Raja Sailendravamçatilaka (the Jewel
of Sailendra family) who succeeded in persuading Maharaja Tejapurnapana Panangkaran (in
another part of the inscription also called Kariyana Panangkaran) to construct Tarabhavanam,
a holy building for the goddess (boddhisattvadevi) Tara. In addition, a Vihara (monastery)
was built for Buddhist monks from the Sailendra family's realm. Panangkaran awarded the
Kalaça village to Sangha (buddhist monastic community). According to the date of this
inscription, Kalasan temple is the oldest of the temples built in the Prambanan Plain.

S.No Name of temple Year

built(approximately)
1 Sari 700 to 750 AD
2 Kalasan 700-778 AD
3 Borobudur Begining760- Completion 830
4 Sewu 792
5 Prambanan Inaugurated 856

 The Kalasan inscription found near the temple indicates that it was completed in the
Saka year 700 Saka or 778 AD. Written in Sanskrit using Pranagari script. One
notable feature of the temple is its octagon-shaped roof, which features carved images
of the Tathagatas/Buddha facing the four cardinal points, each of which is flanked by
a pair of bodhisattvas in bas-relief.
 Borobudur was built first by the followers of Mahayana Buddhism in the Shailendra
Dynasty.Later in the same century Prambanan was built after the rise of Hinduism
(Shaivism) in the Sanjay Dynasty

135
Timeline of Borobudur
4,000 BC Javanese descended from seafarers of China.
6th Birth of Gautama Buddha.
century
BC
400 AD Java becomes sea link between India and China
Javanese began carving stone statues and inscriptions.
768-814 Charlemagne rules from northeastern Spain north to the Baltic Sea and east into the Italian
peninsula. He is crowned emperor in 800 AD.
800s Mayans build large cities with tens of thousands of inhabitants under reign of King
Samaratunga.
7th and Monks and holy men make pilgrimages to Java from Asian continent.
8th
centuries
8th – 13th Sailendra dynasty rules Sumatra and Java.
centuries
750 to 850 Golden Age of the Sailendra dynasty.
760 Probable beginning of Borobudur construction.
830 Probable completion of Borobudur construction.
700-900 People of Central Java enjoy a high level of cultural development, erecting many grand
palaces and religious monuments.
c.930 Javanese culture and political life move east, away from the lands around Borobudur.
13th – Islam religion comes to Java.
14th
centuries
1500- Borobudur is abandoned; volcanic ash fills the galleries; vegetation, including trees, takes root
1800s on the buried monument.
1709 According to the 18th century chronicle Babad Tanah Jawi, the rebel Ki Mas Dana makes a
stand at Borobudur in a revolt against the Sultan of Mataram. The monument is besieged and
the rebel defeated, brought before the king and sentenced to death.
1758 In the Babad Mataram (History of the Kingdom of Mataram), a story is told of the crown
prince of the Sultanate of Yogyakarta, who disobeyed his father and journeyed to climb "the
mountain of a thousand statues." The Sultan sent his men to bring him back, but he became ill
and died as soon as he returned to the palace.
1811-1816 Java comes under British rule.
1814 Sir Thomas Stamford Bingley Raffles, the English Lieutenant Governor of Java, is informed
of the existence of a huge monument called Chandi Borobudur. Raffles orders Dutch engineer
officer H.C. Cornelius and two hundred villagers to fell trees, burn undergrowth and dig away
the earth that covers the monument.
1815 May 18th: Raffles visits Borobudur.
1844 A bamboo teahouse is built on top of the central stupa of the monument.

136
 1885 Panels that surround the hidden base of Borobudur are discovered by J.W. Ijzerman, Chairman
of the Archeological Society in Yogyakarta, under the processional pathway that has been
built around the monument. This discovery brings about renewed efforts to safeguard
Borobudur from vandalism and natural threats.
1890-1891 The hidden panels are excavated and photographed, then the pathway is replaced.
1896 Dutch Colonial officials give the King of Siam eight wagon loads of statues and bas-reliefs
from Borobudur, including five of the best Buddhas and two complete stone lions.
1911 A Dutch archeologist from Leiden University paints many of the reliefs with ochre to improve
his photography. The yellow ochre remains, encouraging the growth of algae, fungus, lichen
and moss on the stones themselves.
1907-1911 The first major restoration project at Borobudur is begun by Theodor van Erp, a Dutch army
engineer officer. He spends the first seven months excavating the grounds around the
monument, finding missing Buddha heads and panel stones. Van Erp then dismantles and
rebuilds the upper three circular terraces and crumbling stupas. His team cleans many of the
sculptures of moss and lichen. However, he is unable to solve the drainage problem which is
undercutting the monument. Within fifteen years, the gallery walls are sagging and the reliefs
show signs of new cracks and deterioration.
1948 The Republic of Indonesia comes into existence.
1955 The Indonesian government asks UNESCO for advice on treating the weathered stones of
Borobudur.
1968 The Indonesian government and the United Nations, working through UNESCO, launch a
"Save Borobudur" campaign. A bold plan is proposed to dismantle and rebuild the lower
terraces of Borobudur, clean and treat the story panels, and install a new drainage system to
stop further erosion.
1971 The plan is approved by the Indonesian government and restoration committee.
1975 Restoration work begins.
1983 Feb. 23: Completion of the project is marked by an inaugural ceremony.
1991 Borobudur is included in UNESCO's World Heritage list.

Timeline of Prambanan
The temple compounds date from the 8th to 9th century CE, linked with historic Mataram
Kingdom that ruled Central Java during that period. Shailendras, the ruling family of the
kingdom were known as the avid temple builders. Indeed, some temples in the area,
including Kalasan, Sari, and Sewu are credited to their second monarch King Panangkaran.
Prambanan however, was the latest addition in the complex, finished and inaugurated in 856
during the reign of King Pikatan according to Shivagrha inscription.

Timeline of Sewu
Among these temple compounds, Sewu is the oldest, completed in 792 according
to Manjusrigrha inscription. Lumbung and Bubrah also dated from around the same period or
slightly later.

137
 ABOUT DR UDAY DOKRAS

© Dr. Uday Dokras-

DEAN
INDO NORDIC AUTHORS’ COLLECTIVE
Institute of International Historiography
B.Sc., B.A. (managerial economics) LL.B. Nagpur University, INDIA
Graduate Studies, Queen’s University,Kingston, CANADA
Graduate Diploma in Law & PhD, Stockholm University, SWEDEN
Vedic Architecture, Vaastu and Astrology Consultant
7
Holder of the WORLD RECORDS
Highest number of research Papers and Books written
Hindu Temples
Buddhism
Vaastu
2 - Worldwide Book of Records

#1 7 x
2 - Unique World Record
1-INDIA Book of RECORDS
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1 Institute of International Historiography
780- BOOKS & 2500 RESEARCH PAPERS- in academia.edu.
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 3 million Readers as on 1 June, 2024.
Dr.Uday Dokras, a leading historiographer, is Ranked as #1 in the world in SIX categories
for having written the highest number of books and research papers on-Vedic Architecture,
Dhamma, (including Borobudur Buddhism), Angkor Wat (Vrah Vishnuloka), Shivagriha at
Prambanan, Design elements of the ancient Kingdoms of Dvaravati and Vandan in Indo
China.

A senior management professional in HR domain prior to his retirement, he was Group Vice -
President of MZI Group in New Delhi and has anchored Human Relations in Go Air ( Go
Airlines India Pvt Ltd-Mumbai) , Hotel Holiday Inn; Lata Mangeshkar Hospital and Medical
College- amongst other corporate entities. Resident of Sweden for 12 years, where he studied
and worked, he anchored HR in Stadbolaget RENIA, SSSB.

He has studied in Nagpur for B. Sc. B.A. (Economics) and LLB.

He has done his Graduate Studies from Canada at the Queen's University, Kingston
He has a PhD, Stockholm University, Sweden.
Apart from that he has done a Management Training Program in Singapore.
A scholar of the Swedish Institute for 5 years, he has been an Edvard Cassel Fund and
Wineroth Fund Awardee.

In 1984 he was involved with the Comparative Labor Law Project of the University of
California, Los Angeles, U.S.A. He was also visiting lecturer there.
In 1985 he was invited by the President of Seychelles to do a study of the efficacy of the
labor laws of Seychelles.

Author of thousands of research papers and almost 640 + books, his brief life sketch is part of
the English study text book of 7 th Class Students in Sweden -“Studying English-
SPOTLIGHT 7”- and 8th Class students in Iceland - SPOTLIGHT 8- and Lausnir.

His books adorn many International Libraries and the US Library of Congress has awarded
him a copyright. A prolific writer and decipherer of ancient mysteries. Is currently Consultant
in Vedic Architecture and Dean of the Indo Nordic Authors’ Collective, Stockholm,
SWEDEN and President of the International Institute of Historiography, Tampare ,
FINLAND.
Dr Dokras has his family in Gurugram, India-Australia and New Jersey, USA.

2700 Research Papers and 780 BOOKS written by DR UDAY DOKRAS

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Referred to in more than 200+ research papers and theses .Contributor to various magazines and
literary Fora.

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World#1 Honorifics by following Agencies & other titles
Largest Number of Religious Research papers written by an individual-world-
record
https://www.worldwideworldrecords.com/post/largest-number-of-religious-
research-papers-written-by-an-individual-world-record-by-uday-dokras
MOST ARTICLES ON DHAMMA
https://www.uniqueworldrecords.com/records/posts/most-articles-on-
dhamma

Maximum number of books written on Hindu Temples by an Individual

https://www.worldwideworldrecords.com/post/maximum-number-of-books-
written-on-hindu-temples-by-an-individual-world-record-by-dr-uday-
dokras#:~:text=The%20World%20Record%20For%20Maximum,The
%20Worldwide%20Book%20Of%20Records.

Highest number of articles and books written on Hindu Buddhist Temples

of Indonesia( Including Borobudur and Prambanan)

Highest number of Research Papers/ Books (Literary endeavours) published

by an Individual- UNIQUE Book of world records

Maximum sociocultural research papers uploaded by an

individual on a single website INDIA BOOK of RECORDS
recordsmanagement@indiabookofrecords.in

Award and honor Bahujan Hitai Sangh award for writing

highest number of books and Research on BOROBUDUR

https://www.academia.edu/110112500/
Bahujan_Hitai_Sangh_Fetes_dr_Uday_for_highest_number_of
_Books_and_Research_papers_written_on_BOROBUDUR
The Jain Foundation presented the Jaina Achiever Trophy to Dr Uday Dokras
for his prolific writings on historiography of Jainism and Jain religious
structures and contributing erudite articles to numerous Jain Journals such as
Nagabharana: Recent Trends in Jainism Studies and SWASTIKA: Epigraphy,
Numismatics, Religion and Philosophy
https://www.academia.edu/110112203/
Jaina_award_to_Dr_Uday_Dokras
Economic Times (20 July 2022) mentions and acknowledges contribution of
Dr. Uday to design elements of New Parliament House of India vis-a-vis
Dwarpals or door guardians.
https://www.academia.edu/109139672/
Design_components_of_the_new_Parliament_complex_of_INDIA_inspired_by
_the_author_Dr_Uday_Dokras_work

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 https://
drive.google.com/file/d/1rr86sEWr4SVN4pdIMHkS-lqmKF6jl5nR/view?usp=sharing

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 World Record Holders 2023
Maximum Number of Research Papers
Completed by an Individual Person
Dr Uday Dokras
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From the Newspaper Times of India March 24, 2018

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Iceland & Sweden- both countries use the English Text book
SPOTLIGHT-one of the lessons in which is about Dr Uday Dokras
https://mms.is/sites/mms.is/files/atoms/files/
7057_spotlight_8_nem.pdf (page 44)

Prof. S.Deshpande,Past President of the Indian Institute of

Architects, New Delhi INDIA releasing the book of Dr Dokras
HINDU TEMPLES on the web in CARONA times ( May 2020)

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