CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Background to the Study

The preschool is the first level in the school system. It is very essential in the life of a
child; hence the recent focus on its desirability across the globe. Preschool according to Hornby
(2010) is a school for children between the ages of two and five years. The author further stated
that it is synonymous with nursery school. In their own conceptualization, Obiweluozo and
Chigbu (2015) defined preschool as a school for children between the ages of zero to five years.
According to the International Labor Organization (ILO, 2012), preschool includes all kinds of
education taking place before compulsory primary education which begins at 6 years old in most
countries provided in different settings: creches, childcare centers, nurseries, kindergartens,
infant schools and similar settings.

The preschool level is a very critical stage in child development. It corresponds to a

critical period of rapid physical, cognitive and psychosocial development of the child. The
quality and intensity of care, nutrition and stimulation a child receives during this period
determines to a large extent the level of physical and cognitive development a child can attain
(Tiwari, 2009). According to the Federal Ministry of Education (FME, 2014), the preschool
stage is globally perceived as the period of immense opportunity for growth and development
and requires a lot of well-coordinated efforts of various stakeholders to bring out the best
outcomes of the child. The preschool period is the building block for the child’s primary
education and provides opportunity for laying a good foundation for all round development of a
child (Obiweluozo, 2015).

Preschool programs are described by Deanna and Corbeil (2021) as early childhood
programs in which children combine learning with play in a program run by professionally
trained adults. They further stated that the preschool programs vary widely in their setting,
format, and educational philosophy as they may be sponsored by charity, operate as an
independent non-profit, or run for profit. They may be part of the public-school system or part of
the Federal Head Start program. From the definitions of preschool by different authorities, the
researcher views preschool as an educational program organized to develop a child and gradually
bring him or her into the school system before primary school days begin. In such program,
activities termed recreative, intellectual, affective and cognitive are introduced and the child is
kept involved through school hours.

Screen is a term used to describe the viewing portion of a display (computer Hope, 2015).
Hornby (2015) defined screen as the flat surface at the front of a television, computer or
electronic device on which you see pictures or information. Screen is synonymous to viewing
portion of a display or monitor. Computer Hope (2017) describes screen as the portion of the
monitor or flat panel used in viewing the webpage. Basically, a screen is that portion of an
electronic gadget where information in text, graphics or pictures are displayed. In other words,
screen is any portion of display of flat surface on which information in words, text, picture, or
graphics are viewed by its user.

The concept of screen can now enable the description and definition of time spent using
screens known as screen time. Screen time, according to Paudel, Leavy, and Jaucey (2016), is the
total amount of time spent in front of portable screens, for example; mobile phones, handheld
computers, electronic tablets, personal digital assistants (PDAs), and any other form of mobile
electronic media. Garcia, 2015, describes screen time as the time spent using a device such as a
computer, television, cellphone or games console. There are so many perceptions to screen time.
So many believe that it is only time spent in front of the television but De Weese does not
support this view. According to De Weese (2014), screen time no longer means just the amount
of time one spends in front of the television; now, it is an aggregate amount of time spent on
smartphones, computers as well as multitasking with different devices.

From the above definitions of screens and screen time, the researcher deduces that screen
time is the total time one spends in front of a portion of display while viewing characters on it.
These portions of display may range from televisions to screens of mobile phones, computers,
games consoles, and all other portions of display in electronic media gadgets that are obtainable
in our dispensation. Screen time varies in types, kinds and categories of use. Alzein pediatrics
(2020) posits that there are two different kinds of screen time; recreational screen time and non-
recreational screen time. While recreational screen time encourages leisure and relaxation, non-
recreational screen time is for educational and academic purposes.

Screen time can be engaged in by children as recreational activity as it encourages leisure,

pleasure and some sort of enjoyment. Recreation according to Elendu (2005), is defined as the
physical or mental activities which an individual voluntarily participates in during leisure time
because of the enjoyment or satisfaction he or she gains from it. The pleasure of being able to get
relieved of stress accumulated is one of the reasons people engage in recreation whether
individually or collectively. Recreation was conceptualized by Khasnabis, Heinieke, Achu
(2010) as all those activities that people choose to do to refresh their bodies and minds and make
their leisure time more interesting and enjoyable. The concept of recreation as it concerns the
population of children involved is seen as any activity engaged in during leisure or free hours. A
preschool child’s leisure time can be after school, after meal or after working on a school’s take
home assignment for the day. Preschool children engage in recreational activities such as playing
with siblings and neighborhood mates, watching television, playing games with other children or
with video game console.

Recreational screen time is defined by Alzein pediatrics (2020), as an engagement that

does not promote activity or real education. American Academy of Pediatrics (2016) defines
Recreational screen time as time spent using a device such as a computer, television or gaming
console that does not promote activity.

Parents play huge roles in upbringing of children and shaping their engagements as
children. Wikipedia, 2015, defines a parent as caretakers of the offspring in their own species. It
further stated that a biological parent consists of the offspring in their own species. It further
stated that a biological parent consists of a person whose gamete resulted in a child, a male
through the sperm and a female through the ovum. Some parents may be adoptive, that is, one
who nurtures and raises the offspring but is not biologically related to the child. Hornby (2010)
simply defined a parent as a person’s father or mother. Jalongo (2004) stated that there are two
types of parents; the biological parents and the social parents. A child’s biological parents are the
man and woman who physically produced the child. They contribute to the mental and physical
characteristics that the child inherits (Obiweluozor & Chigbu, 2015). In this context, parents are
guardians and caretakers of either biological or adoptive children.

Parental influence on activities of children cannot be overemphasized neither can their

influence be taken out of the equation. Agreeing with this, Gratz (2006) stated that parents have
an enormous influence on their children’s activities for several reasons, but most importantly
because they are their children’s first teachers. According to Gratz, children’s brains are like
sponges the first couple years of their lives and they absorb everything surrounding them.
Therefore, what they learn from their parents in the first couple years of their lives will have
great impact for the rest of their lives. Considering the influence of parents in children’s
activities, it suffices to say the screen time engagement of parents can influence that of the
children whether it is recreational or non-recreational depending on the perception of parents to
recreational screen time engagement.

Perception is defined in variety of ways. Hornby (2010) views perception as the way one
notices things, especially with the senses, the ability to understand the true nature of something,
an idea, a belief, or an image one has as a result of how one sees or understands something.
Mcburney and Collins (1998) explained that perception could either be positive or negative.
Perception is said to be positive when an individual view or responds to features in the
environment that is in line with the actual norms, opinions and values of the person’s present
environment; then negative when the person’s views are not in line with the environmental
norms. In the context, the researcher sees perception as an individual view and sense of judgment
of and in a situation. It compasses the individual’s opinion about a matter. It is the understanding
one has about an issue, as a result of judgements reached after interpretation of information about
the issue which in this case is the recreational screen time engagement of preschool children.
Taking the above into consideration, it has been observed that the issue of recreational screen
time engagement of preschool children has been left to the side and ignored over time.

From the observation of the researcher, screen time engagement of preschool children has
been ignored overtime by parents and guardians of these preschool children found in daycare and
nursery schools in the University of Nigeria, Nsukka, hence the need to know their opinion and
sense of judgment as regards this issue. It is therefore important and necessary that a study on the
perception of recreational screen time engagement of preschool children by parents be carried
out in this area. Therefore, this study is set to investigate the perception of parents of recreational
screen time engagement of preschool children in the University of Nigeria, Nsukka.

Statement of the Problem

Screen time is generally known as the period of time spent in front of any portion of
display that outputs words or text, pictures or graphics. It’s emergence, availability and
accessibility has become a major part of our culture so much so that low income families are able
to get at least essential screen gadgets such as televisions and mobile phones. Since these gadgets
come with instructions, their users do not find it hard to operate. Preschool children are part of
the population of screen media users and they mostly engage in screen time as a recreational
activity or a favorite past time. In an environment like the University of Nigeria, Nsukka where
the research is carried out has within its environs parents and guardians who are knowledgeable
and are probably certified educators in diverse fields of learning. This does not overrule the fact
that a lot are still ignorant of the determining factors that cause engagement of their preschool
children in recreational screen time activities. Preschoolers already spend significant proportions
of their waking hours being sedentary. Unhealthy screen time habits which determine
engagement are negatively associated with several health outcomes but interventions to these
determinants are scarce.

Results have shown that children tend to like watching television (TV) and most parents
do not express worries about their children's TV viewing time. Education is considered to be the
main benefit of watching TV and in general, parents only have informal rules about TV viewing
which is another subtle element that greatly influences the development of excessive screen time
habit, especially recreational screen time habit. It has been established through research that the
early childhood or preschool period are formative ages for children as they tend to quickly pick
on habits and diverse lifestyles. It has been stated that at these ages they have sponge-like brains
and parents who are known as first teachers of children are often given the responsibility of
helping them develop healthy habits and lifestyles at this age. Now when parents do not hold
solid opinions over issues as this, anything goes.
 Parents of preschool children within the University of Nigeria, Nsukka are not exempted
from these findings as most of them see recreational screen time engagement of their preschool
children as a period to “get some work done” whilst exposing them to more screen time than is
needed for a preschool child per day. Children have limited amount of time to spend in front of
any portion of display according to the American academy of pediatrics. The lack of response to
this, lack of knowledge of the screen time rule poses as a problem. Hence, the problem of this
research is what is the perception of parents regarding recreational screen time engagement of
preschool children in the University of Nigeria, Nsukka.

Purpose of the Study

The study seeks to determine the perception of parents regarding recreational screen time
engagement if preschool children in the University of Nigeria, Nsukka. Specifically, the study
seeks to determine:

1. proportion of preschool children that engage in recreational screen time activity in the
University of Nigeria, Nsukka;
2. types of screen media used by preschool children for recreational screen time in
University of Nigeria, Nsukka;
3. perception of screen time engagement of preschool children by parents in University of
Nigeria, Nsukka;
4. perception of screen time engagement of preschool children by parents in University of
Nigeria, Nsukka, based on age;
5. perception of screen time engagement of preschool children by parents in University of
Nigeria, Nsukka, based on gender; and
6. perception of screen time engagement of preschool children by parents in University of
Nigeria, Nsukka, based on income.

Research Questions

The following research questions were posed to guide the study:

1. What is the proportion of preschool children engage in recreational screen time in

University of Nigeria?
 2. What are the types of screen media used by preschool children for recreational screen
time in University of Nigeria?
3. What is the perception of screen time engagement of preschool children by parents in
University of Nigeria?
4. What is the perception of screen time engagement of preschool children by parents in
University of Nigeria, based on age?
5. What is the perception of screen time engagement of preschool children by parents in
University of Nigeria, based on gender?
6. What is the perception of screen time engagement of preschool children by parents in
University of Nigeria, based on income?

Hypotheses

The following null hypotheses were postulated and tested at 0.05 level of significance

1. There is no significant difference in the perception of screen time engagement of

preschool children by parents in University of Nigeria, based on age.
2. There is no significant difference in the perception of screen time engagement of
preschool children by parents in University of Nigeria, based on gender.
3. There is no significant difference in the perception of screen time engagement of
preschool children by parents in University of Nigeria, based on level of income.

Significance of the Study

The findings of this study will have theoretical and practical significance. The
theoretical significance hinges on the social cognitive theory. This theory explains that learning
and behavior occur by observation. It further posits that learning occurs in a social context with
dynamic and reciprocal interaction of the person, environment, and behavior. The theory
explains human behavior in terms of a three-way dynamic, reciprocal model in which personal
factors, environmental influences and behavior continue to interact. Since, learning occurs by
modelling and observation of behavior, the perception of these influencers in the home such as
parents, siblings, and other members of the family and how these opinions and views are put in
action play a central role in shaping children’s attitude toward recreational screen time
engagement.

Practically, this study will be beneficial to the parents and guardians of preschool
children, preschool teachers, educators, recreation and leisure professionals, guidance
counsellors and school administrators.

This research will benefit parents and guardians of preschool children in the sense that
they will be enlightened on either the positive or negative influence their perception of screen
time has on their preschool children.

Findings from this study will be of immense benefit to school administrators and
preschool teachers. Depending on the preschool child’s engagement and model the parent sets
for him or her, the school officers can readily point out any issue regarding the child’s attention
in class and behavior towards school work.

Scope of the Study

The study will cover the University of Nigeria, Nsukka located within South East
Nigeria. It will be delimited to the preschool children found within the university community.
This is because the university community has a provision for preschool children within it
environs and by so doing, getting necessary data and information from teachers, guardians,
educators and parents of these preschool children will be made possible.

This study will be delimited to the perception of parents as regards recreational screen
time engagement of preschool children in the University of Nigeria. It is also delimited to the
amount of time preschool children spend in front of screen media and the habits developed as a
result of the habits, influence and opinion of their parents as regards screen time.

The study will be delimited to demographic variables such as age of parents, gender,
level of education of parents, the level of income of parent, type of screen media available to the
preschool children and permission granted by parents for the preschool child to have access to
the screen media.
CHAPTER TWO

Review of Related Literature

This chapter presents the review of related literature related to this study. There is
abundance of literature on screen time use and its effect on children and youth but not so much
on perception of recreational screen time engagement of preschool children by parents. The
literature will be reviewed under the following subheadings:

Conceptual Framework

Preschool

Screen time

Recreational screen time

Perception

Parents

Theoretical Framework

Social Cognitive Theory

Empirical Studies

Summary of Literature Review

Conceptual Framework

Preschool
 The preschool is the first stage in the school system. It is very essential in the life of a
child; hence the recent focus on its desirability across the globe. Preschool according to Hornby
(2010) is a school for children between the ages of two and five years. The author further stated
that it is synonymous with nursery school. In their own conceptualization, Abidogun and
Adebule (2013) stated that preschool provides for children whose age bracket is from 0 to 8
years. The National Policy on Education (NPE, 2013) stated that preschool is the care,
protection, stimulation and learning promoted in children from age 0 to 4 years in a creche or
nursery. According to International Labour Organization (ILO, 2012), preschool includes all
kinds of education taking place before the compulsory primary education (which begins at 6
years old in most countries) provided in different settings. It further stated that pre-primary
education programs are primarily designed for children aged 3 to 6 years as an introduction to a
school type environment, to provide a bridge between home and school and are variously
referred to as infant or nursery education. In about 85 per cent of countries, participation in
preprimary education is not compulsory (UNESCO, 2007). However, there is a trend towards
countries making preprimary education compulsory (ILO, 2012).

The Federal Ministry of Education posits that preschool covers the age of 0 to 5 yearsa or
6 years in Nigeria (FME, 2014), and a national curriculum has been developed to serve this age
cohort. According to Maduewesi (2005), it is the education given to children between 0 to 6
years, just before the start of the formal primary schooling or before the age at which children are
generally expected to attend schools.

Preschool is an early childhood program for children between two and five because
according to Landers (1990), the term preschool children pertains to children older than 2 years
of age. It is a period of learning where young children are made to learning using “play”.
According to the Encyclopedia of Children’s Health (2021), a good preschool program is
designed to help preschool children develop their gross and fine motor skills, improve their
language and communication abilities, and exercise their creativity. These programs are
developed for them to enable them learn suitable and necessary life skills needed for their age.
During this period, they develop basic life skills and knowledge they will grow into their school
years with. In this study, the researcher views preschool children as children between the ages of
2 and 5. Preschool children learn and adapt to what they are taught as this age with little or no
difficulty provided the concepts and skills are easy to learn.

The preschool level is a very crucial level in the development of children. It corresponds
to a critical period of rapid physical, cognitive and psychosocial development of the child. A
substantial body of research establishes that preschool education can improve the learning and
development of young children (Barnett, 2008). The preschool is a period described by Osanyin
(2002) as extremely crucial to an individual’s intellectual, emotional, social and physical
development. It is a delicate period which may make or mar the child’s opportunity to live, thrive
and develop to its full potential depending on the adequacy of support and care available to the
child. The quality and intensity of care, nutrition and stimulation a child receives during this
period determines to a large extent the level of physical and cognitive development a child can
attain (Tiwari, 2009). These are the most impressionable years as they lay the foundation for the
development of the human personality. One of the objectives of preschool according to National
Policy on Education (2013), are to stimulate in the child good habits, including health habits.

Screen Time

The subject of screen time and its effect on children has been making headlines over the
last few years. Technology is developing so quickly that the role it plays in the lives of children
today is dramatically different to how it was just 20 years ago. The huge advancements in mobile
technology has also increased the integration of technology into our lives; mobile devices are
now carried everywhere all the time, and this has also started to impact the lives of children in
the same way as that of adults. The use of mobile devices in children aged 0-8 years has risen
from 5 minutes of use a day in 2011, to 48 minutes a day in 2017, an increase of over 10 folds in
just 6 years. According to Computer Hope (2017), A screen is a term used to describe the
viewing portion of a display. Screen is synonymous with computer display or monitor. For
example, the portion of the monitor or flat panel used to view a webpage is considered
the screen. Screen according to Hornby (2015) is the flat surface at the front of a television (TV),
computer, or other electronic device, on which you see pictures or information. Basically, a
screen is that portion of an electronic gadget where information in text, graphics or pictures are
displayed. In other words, screen is any portion of display or flat surface on which information in
words, text, picture, or graphics are viewed by its user.
 The concept of screens can now enable the description of the time spent on screen which
is known as screen time. Screen time has been defined as time spent watching TV or videos,
playing computer games, or using a computer outside of school. The theory of screen time was
estimated from responses to 2 separate questions which were: (1) “Over the past 30 days, on
average how many hours per day did a child sit and watch TV or videos?” (2) “Over the past 30
days, on average about how many hours per day did a child use a computer or play computer
games outside of school?” For both questions, response options were as follows: none, less than
1 hour, 1 hour, 2 hours, 3 hours, 4 hours, and 5 or more hours. The options “none” and “less than
1 hour” were combined for this analysis and treated as less than 1 hour. Screen time was
calculated by adding the time contributed from both questions. Children were categorized as
meeting screen-time recommendations if the combined screen time was 2 hours or less per day.
Screen time according to Paudel, Leavy, and Jaucey (2016) is the total amount of time spent in
front of portable screens, for example, mobile phones, handheld computers, electronic tablets,
personal digital assistants (PDAs), and any other form of mobile electronic media. Screen time
was defined by Garcia (2015) as the time spent using a device such as a computer, television,
cellphone or games console.

Screen time, which is understood as the total time for which the child remains exposed to
all screens, has increased (Goh, Teh, Tay, Anantharaman, Van Dam, Tan, 2016). Screen time has
been variously conceptualized by different authorities. According to De Weese (2014), Screen
time no longer means just the amount of time one spends in front of the television. Now, it has
an aggregate amount of time spent on smart phones, computers as well as multitasking with
different devices. From the above definitions, the researcher deduces that screen time has to do
with the totality of time or measurement of time one spends in viewing an electronic screen.
These screens range from televisions and screens of mobile phones and computers that are
obtainable today. Studies indicate that the mean exposure is longer than the recommended time
since the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) recommends that the children screen exposure
time should not exceed 2 hours daily, with educational content suitable for the age group. Living
in a multi-screen environment, such as television, tablets, computers, smartphones, can
encourage early screen use. The effects these engagements have on preschool children can be
detrimental to their health and development.
 Screen time is separable in five types according to Technology Usage Guidelines (2017)
and they are: television, video games, social media, music and reading. Children currently spend
upwards of two hours a day watching television. Most parents see television viewing as way of
distracting their preschoolers so they can achieve some tasks. Television viewing involves
watching a broadcast or movie in a television. They may include live broadcast, watching videos
by using DVD players or online videos on YouTube. Video games are engaged in using games
consoles or the video game device itself. Social media platforms include networking sites and
mobile applications such as Facebook, WhatsApp, Twitter, Instagram and the likes. Music can
be listened to on the site or downloaded to a computer, smartphone, tablets or other mp3 players.
Reading as a type of screen time involves reading eBooks or online articles, stories, news and
blogs. Rideout (2015) identified four major categories of screen time which includes passive
consumption, interactive consumption, communication, and content creation. According to him,
passive consumption includes watching television, listening to music and reading while passive
consumption involves playing games and browsing the internet. The communication category
entails use of screens for video chatting and using it for social media while content creation
involves use of devices to make digital art, videos and music.

Other authors categorized screen time as more than just the way it is consumed. Sanders,
Parker, Pozo-Cruz, Noetel and Lonsdale (2019) divided screen time into five categories: social
screen time, an example is social media, passive screen time example is television, interactive
screen time an example is video games, educational screen time examples are computer use for
homework and educative videos, and other screen time where the activity did not fit into any of
the categories.

Recreational Screen time

The pleasure of being able to get relived of stress accumulated is one of the
reason people engage in recreation whether individually or collectively. Recreation was
conceptualized by Khasnabis, Heinicke, Achu (2010) as all those activities that people choose to
do to refresh their bodies and minds and make their leisure time more interesting and enjoyable.
Examples of recreation activities are walking, swimming, meditation, reading, playing games
and dancing. Umeakuka (2002), views recreation as a wide range of activities acceptable to the
society in which people voluntarily engage in during their leisure time because of the enjoyment
and satisfaction they find in those activities. According to Orunaboka and Ihekwem (2012),
recreation is any activity pursued during leisure either individually or collectively that is free and
pleasurable. The concept of recreation as it concerns the children involved is seen as any activity
engaged in during leisure or free hours. A preschool child’s leisure or free time can be after
school, after meal or after working on a school’s take home assignment for the day. Preschoolers
engage in recreational activities such as playing with neighborhood mates, watching television,
playing games either with game consoles or with their mates.

Screen time has been categorized by various authors from the beginning of the concept.
According to Alzein paediatrics (2020), there are two different kinds of screen time, non-
recreational and recreational. Non-recreational screen time is time spent on a computer, tablet,
phone or television that has an educational or activity-based component. Non-recreational screen
time promotes learning, creativity, curiosity, exercise and movement. School and homework
screen time helps children solve math problems, compose essays, research science facts, create
art, and learn about different countries and cultures. Children’s after-school and after-homework
screen time can be non-recreational. Likewise, playing learning games, looking for art and music
apps to help children draw, paint, compose and perform can be categorized as non-recreational
screen time. Recreational screen time does not promote activity or real education and this is the
“screen time” that the American Academy of Paediatrics and other experts are concerned about.
This is the screen time that is re-wiring children’s brains and causing impaired cognitive
development, obesity, behavioral problems, academic problems, sleep deprivation, depression
and mood swings. Recreational screen time is what parents need to monitor and limit. This type
of screen time includes any social media usage, most movies and TV shows, most video or
computer games – anything that is not beneficial to their education or physical activity.
Typically, the child involved will be sitting or lying down during recreational usage (Alzein
paediatrics, 2020).

Recreational screen time of preschool-aged children, school aged children, adolescents,

youths and adults has been discovered to have increased in the last two years and topped a few
hours more in 2020, that is, during the Covid-19 pandemic. In a research carried out by
McArthur, Racine, Browne, McDonald, Tough, Madigan (2021), it was found that families with
limited resources had increased screen time. Also, there were changes in family screen time and
they depended on variables such as age of the children in the family and sex.

According to Pediatrics and Child Health (2017), research recognizes important

developmental differences between preschool and later childhood, and TV-based data have
established that a child’s earliest screen encounters can be formative. During this period,
preschool children may be habit-forming, and early overexposure increases the likelihood of
overuse in later life. Health routines, including family media use, are established more easily in
early childhood than later on. Screen use tends to increase over time to include more
entertainment for the preschool children. Common sense media (2017) revealed that the rate of
mobile media use among 2- to 4-year-olds increased from 39% to 80% between 2011 and 2013.
Recreational screen time among preschoolers have increased greatly in that screen media are
readily accessible and a number of preschoolers are owners of some screen gadgets. In the most
families where preschool children are allowed to have television in their rooms and no strict
screen time rules, it is an undeniable fact that screen time of these preschool children will
increase tremendously.

Perception

Perception, like most concepts within the social science discipline has been defined in a
variety of ways since its first usage (Tichener, 2007). Perception is defined as the understanding
or view that one has about an issue, as a result of judgments reached after the interpretation of
information about the issue, which in this case is the use of mother tongue in teaching preschool
children. From the layman’s perspective, it is defined as an act of being aware of one’s
environment through physical sensation, which denotes an individual’s ability to understand
(Chambers Dictionary, 2010). However, many social psychologists have tended to develop the
concept around one of its most essential characteristics that the world around us is not
psychologically uniform to all individuals. This is the fact in all probability that accounts for the
difference in the opinions and actions of individuals or groups that are exposed to the social
phenomenon. At this point, it is important for you to take a look at some of these definitions in
order to better appreciate the point being made here.

The word, Perception, comes from the Latin words, “percipio” meaning “receiving,
collecting, and action of taking possession, apprehension with the mind or senses”. It is the
organization, identification, and interpretation of sensory information in order to represent and
understand the environment. All perceptions involve signals in the nervous system, which in turn
result from physical stimulation of the sense organs (Titchener, 2007). For example, vision
involves the striking of the retinas of the eyes, smell is mediated by odor molecules and hearing
involves pressure waves. Perception is not the passive receipt of those signals, but can be shaped
by learning, memory and expectation. Perception involves these “top-down” effects as well as
the “bottom-up” process of processing sensory input. The bottom-up processing is basically low-
level information that is used to build higher level information, that is, shapes for object
recognition. The top-down processing refers to a person’s concept and expectations (knowledge)
that influence perception. Perception depends on complex functions of the nervous system but
subjectively seems mostly effortless because this processing happens outside conscious
awareness (More & Burger, 1999).

Perception according to Stephen P. Robbins () is a process by which individuals organize

and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment. In his own
conceptualization, Fred Luthans () viewed perception as an important meditative cognitive
process through which persons make interpretations of the stimuli’s or situation they are faced
with. Hornby (2010) views perception as the way one notices things, especially with the senses,
the ability to understand the true nature of something, an idea, a belief, or an image one has as a
result of how one sees or understands something. Mcburney and Collins (1998) explained that
perception could either be positive or negative. Perception is said to be positive when an
individual view or responds to features in the environment that is in line with the actual norms,
opinions and values of the person’s present environment; then negative when the person’s views
are not in line with the environmental norms. In the context, the researcher sees perception as an
individual view and sense of judgment of and in a situation. It compasses the individual’s
opinion about a matter. It is the understanding one has about an issue, as a result of judgements
reached after interpretation of information about the issue which in this case is the recreational
screen time engagement of preschool children.

Parents

Parents play huge roles in upbringing of children and shaping their engagements as
children. As defined by Wikipedia (2015), a parent is a caretaker of the offspring in his or her
own species. It further stated that a biological parent consists of the offspring in their own
species. It further stated that a biological parent consists of a person whose gamete resulted in a
child, a male through the sperm and a female through the ovum. Some parents may be adoptive,
that is, one who nurtures and raises the offspring but is not biologically related to the child.
Hornby (2010) simply defined a parent as a person’s father or mother. Jalongo (2004) stated that
there are two types of parents; the biological parents and the social parents. A child’s biological
parents are the man and woman who physically produced the child. They contribute to the
mental and physical characteristics that the child inherits (Obiweluozor & Chigbu, 2015). In this
context, parents are guardians and caretakers of either biological or adoptive children.

Parental influence on activities of children cannot be overemphasized neither can their

influence be taken out of the equation. Agreeing with this, Gratz (2006) stated that parents have
an enormous influence on their children’s activities for several reasons, but most importantly
because they are their children’s first teachers. According to Gratz, children’s brains are like
sponges the first couple years of their lives and they absorb everything surrounding them.
Therefore, what they learn from their parents in the first couple years of their lives will have
great impact for the rest of their lives. Considering the influence of parents in children’s
activities, it suffices to say the screen time engagement of parents can influence that of the
children whether it is recreational or non-recreational depending on the perception of parents to
recreational screen time engagement.

Theoretical framework

Social Cognitive Theory

Social cognitive theory, according to Bandura (1989), advocates that learning and
behavior occur by observation. The theory was propounded by Albert Bandura in 1986. It was
first known as Social Learning Theory before it was later developed into the Social Cognitive
Theory in 1986 and posits that learning occurs in a social context with a dynamic and reciprocal
interaction of the person, environment, and behavior. The theory explains human behavior in
terms of a three-way, dynamic, reciprocal model in which personal factors, environmental
influences and behavior continue to interact. A basic premise of the social cognitive theory is
people do not learn through their own experience alone, but also observing the actions of others
and results of those actions. In this theory, it is stated that the media may be a tool for observing
the appropriate and unfavorable behaviors of the child, considering that the child has entered the
behavior development process by means of model-taking through observations. On the other
hand, the theorist argues that if the media is providing new information and enhancing
motivation to learn, then it can be included in the developmental process of the child. Thus, the
influencers in the home such as parents, siblings, and other members of the family play a central
role in shaping children’s attitude toward sedentary behavior such as screen time.

In relation to the study, the theory explains that the engagement of preschool children
in recreational screen time activities can be enforced by the actions of others and results of those
actions as well as the environment the preschool child dwells. Since, learning occurs by
modelling and observation of behavior, the perception of these influencers in the home such as
parents, siblings, and other members of the family and how these opinions and views are put in
action play a central role in shaping children’s attitude toward recreational screen time
engagement. The opinions, views, and sense of judgement of the parents of preschool children
lead to the actions they take, partake and engage in which further leads to observation and
imitation of those actions from the child.

Review of empirical studies

Studies on Parents’ Perception of Recreational Screen Time Engagement of Children

The study implemented a mixed method approach of online questionnaire and face-to-
face interviews. A total of 140 questionnaires, 10 semi-structured interviews, and responses from
parents were used to evaluate children’s behavior toward screen use and parents’ perception. The
analysis of the article has shown that parents are concerned about their children’s screen time
during weekends and holidays with a significant correlation between the number of hours their
children spend on on-screen activities and their level of concern (P < .01). Also, for the
same P value (P < .01), it has been found that there is a statistically significant positive
relationship between children’s screen time and their food and beverages consumption.
Children’s use of screen technology is becoming a challenge for parents as they present barriers
to healthy physical activities. From the parents’ viewpoint, there is a need to change the screen
use habit and this requires an appropriate intervention that promotes gratifying measures to
induce more active behaviors to displace screen viewing.

This study is similar to the present one since they are also interested in determining the
perception of parents as regards screen time of their children. While this present study focuses on
just the perception of parents, the study cited went a little further to find out the relation between
the engagement of children in screen time and their food or beverage consumption.

A cross sectional study was conducted at a teaching hospital in Karachi, Pakistan by

Ishtiaq, Ashraf, Iftikhar, and Baig-Ansari (2021) to find out parental perception on screen time
and psychological distress among young children. A total of 230 employees from medical and
non-medical departments were included. Participants were employees with child/children ages 4-
12 year who consented to participate in the study, we included 135 fathers and 91 mothers. The
questionnaire included (i) demographic data (ii) Media history exam form and (iii) parent
reported strength and difficult questionnaire (SDQ). The average daily screen time reported was
2.5 (1.5-5) hour for boys and 2 (1-4) hour for girls. Preschoolers had greater screen time as
compared to school-aged children (Median (IQR): 3 (1.5-5.6) vs 2 (1-4), P = 0.46). The children
owned devices with approximately equal distribution of preschoolers and school-aged children
(19 (27.1%) and 48 (30%), P = 0.661 respectively). Emotional score was found higher in school-
aged group in comparison to preschoolers (p = 0.036). Moreover, mother screen time and
number of devices owned by a child were found to be positively associated with child's screen
time.

This study is related to the present study because they both focus on parental perceptions
and screen time engagement of children, especially preschool children. The study by Ishtiaq et
al, seeks to discover perception of parents and goes further to check out its association with
psychological distress in young children. Secondly, parents were respondents of the
questionnaire, most having passed the secondary school education level.

Ishtiaq, A., Ashraf, H., Iftikhar, S., & Baig-Ansari, N. (2021). Parental perception on screen time
and psychological distress among young children. Journal of family medicine and primary
care, 10(2), 765–772. https://doi.org/10.4103/jfmpc.jfmpc_1720_20
Findings of this study showed that parents believed that screen use can have both positive and
negative effects on children in preschool level.

A qualitative study conducted by Hinkley and McCann on mothers’ and father’s

perceptions of the risks and benefits of screen time and physical activity during early childhood.
The study sought to explore mothers’ and fathers’ perceptions of the risks and benefits of screen
time and active play during early childhood. In-depth semi structured telephone interviews were
conducted with mothers and fathers (n = 28) of children aged 3–5 years who had earlier taken
part in a larger quantitative study in Australia and identified willingness to be re-contacted were
recruited. Interviews were audio recorded, transcribed verbatim, and analyzed using NviVo.
Coding was performed to produce themes. Quotes were extracted from the transcripts to
illustrate common responses. COREQ guidelines for qualitative papers were followed. Parents
reported active play was beneficial for many health and developmental outcomes such as
imagination, enjoyment and socialization, while reporting risks such as safety and stranger
danger. There were mixed perceptions of screen time, with benefits such as learning, education
and relaxation, and risks including habit formation, inappropriate content, negative cognitive and
social outcome, and detriments to health being reported. A few differences between mothers’ and
fathers’ perceptions were evident. This study identified that some parental perceptions of
benefits and risks of screen time and active play were consistent with published evidence, while
others were contradicted by current evidence.

Hinkley and McCann’s study on mothers’ and fathers’ perception of the risks and benefits
of screen time is similar in that both studies seeks to address the perception of parents as regards
screen time of their young children. Both studies also differ as Hinkley and McCann’s study
made use of interviews as a means the instrument for data collection while this present study
made use of a researcher-designed questionnaire. Also the study was more focused on the risks
of screen time and benefits of active and the views and opinions of parents.

Mothers’ and father’s perceptions of the risks and benefits of screen time and physical activity
during early childhood: a qualitative study Trina Hinkley and Jennifer R. McCann. Hinkley and
McCann BMC Public Health (2018) 18:1271 https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-018-6199-6
Received: 13 August 2018 Accepted: 6 November 2018
 Ikefuna, Uwaezuoke, Eze, Eke and Eke (2022) conducted a research on Screen viewing
practices and caregivers' knowledge of the health-related effects in children and adolescents in a
Nigerian Urban City. The study aimed to determine the screen media viewing practices and
caregivers' level of knowledge about the health-related effects of prolonged screen viewing time
on their children. This was a descriptive cross-sectional study among caregiver/child and
adolescent dyads on outpatient clinic visits. Respondents (caregivers/children's pairs) were
consecutively recruited, and data was obtained using an unambiguous pre-tested semi-structured
questionnaire comprising four domains: socio demographic characteristics; screen media
viewing characteristics, perception of the health related effects of prolonged viewing time, and
measures to limit prolonged screen viewing time in children. Descriptive and inferential statistics
were done using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 22.0 at a level of
statistical significance P < 0.05. Of the 205 respondents studied, the majority (67.8%, fathers and
76.1%, mothers) had tertiary education. The daily mean time spent by children watching
television/screen media was 2 (± 1.58) hours. Up to 89.3% of the caregivers established good
standards for healthy screen-viewing in their homes. However, 52.7% of them had poor
knowledge of the health-related problems of increased viewing time. Socio-economic class (P =
0.002) and knowledge level of the parents (P = 0.000) were significant predictors limiting
children's screen-viewing time. Increasing screen media viewing is common among the children
studied. The majority of the caregivers had poor knowledge of health-related effects of
prolonged viewing time despite high educational attainment.

In the conceptual framework of this stuydy, parents were refered to as caregivers or

caretakers of their offspring. So it suffices to say that the caregivers referred to in the study
conducted by Ikefuna, Uwaezuoke, Eze, Eke and Eke can be parents as well as other guardians
of children.

Ikefuna A N, Uwaezuoke N A, Eze J N, Eke A L, Eke C B. Screen viewing practices and

caregivers' knowledge of the health-related effects in children and adolescents in a Nigerian
Urban City. Niger J Clin Pract 2022;25:1115-25

A study was carried out by Pons, Monserrat & Bennasar-Veny, Miquel & Yañez, Aina. (2020) to
discover the influence of maternal education level and excessive recreational screen time in
children. The aim of this study was to determine the relationship of parental education level with
RST in children and early adolescents and to identify mediators of these relationships. This
cross-sectional study examined a sample of children (2–14 year-old) who attended routine
childcare visits in primary health care centers in Spain (n = 402; 53.7% males; mean age: 7 ± 4
year-old). A self-reported questionnaire was given to the parents to assess socio-demographic
data, parental education, the home media environment, and RST in children. Separate analysis
was performed for two age groups (2–6 year-old and 6–14 year-old). Path analysis, an
application of structural equation modeling, was used to analyze the data. Fifty three percent of
the children had excessive RST (≥2 h/day). The maternal education level, eating lunch/dinner in
front of a TV, presence of a background TV, and the amount of parental TV viewing had
significant associations with excessive RST in both age groups. For the younger group, the
maternal education level had direct and indirect effects on RST (total effect: β = −0.29, p < 0.01).
For the older group, maternal education level only had a significant indirect effect on RST, and
this was mediated by the presence of a background TV and the time of parental TV viewing
(total indirect effect: β = −0.11, p < 0.01). A higher maternal education level appears to be
associated with certain environmental factors or habits that prevent excessive RST.

Pons, Monserrat & Bennasar-Veny, Miquel & Yañez, Aina. (2020). Maternal Education Level
and Excessive Recreational Screen Time in Children: A Mediation Analysis. International
Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 17. 8930. 10.3390/ijerph17238930.

This study aims to assess parental perceptions, attitudes and knowledge of their preschool children's
sedentary behaviours and the association with children's television (TV)/video/DVDs viewing and
total screen time. Methods: Data were obtained from a sample of 4836 children (3.5-5.5 years),
participating in the multi-centre ToyBox-study at baseline (T0) and at 1-year follow-up (T1) periods.
Data on children's sedentary behaviours were collected via a standardized proxy-administered
primary caregiver's questionnaire. Results: Regarding total screen time, 66.6% of the children at T0
and 71.8% at T1 in the control group exceeded the recommendations, whereas the proportion in the
intervention group varied from 69.7% at T0 to 72.5% at T1. The odds of exceeding total screen time
recommendations were significantly higher when parental perceptions towards limiting the total
screen time were negative [(both T0 and T1 and in the intervention and control groups (P < 0.05)].
Similarly, the odds of exceeding TV/video/DVDs viewing recommendations were significantly higher
(both T0 and T1 is observed in both groups) when parental knowledge of recommendation were
absent. Conclusions: Preschool children whose caregivers stated rules limiting their sedentary
screen time were less likely to spend a high amount of time watching TV/video/DVDs.

Berges, Maria L & Santaliestra Pasías, Alba & Mouratidou, Theodora & Flores-Barrantes,
Paloma & Androutsos, Odysseas & De Craemer, Marieke & Galcheva, Sonya & Koletzko,
Berthold & Kułaga, Zbigniew & Manios, Yannis & Moreno, Luis. (2019). Parental perceptions,
attitudes and knowledge on European preschool children's total screen time: the ToyBox-study.
European journal of public health. 30. 10.1093/eurpub/ckz151.

To identify child and parental factors associated with screen time in 3-year-old children.
Observational study. Participants were recruited from a large primary-care paediatric group practice
in Toronto, Canada. Healthy 3-year-old children were included. A questionnaire was completed by
their parents on screen time. Descriptive statistics and linear regression models were used to assess
associations between child screen time and selected factors. Multivariable models included factors
from the univariate analysis with P < 0·1. Estimated effects and 95 % CI are reported. A total of 157
children were enrolled (91 % recruitment). The mean screen time per weekday was 104 min (similar
for weekend day). In all, 10 % of children had a television (TV) in their bedroom; 59 % consumed at
least one meal while watching TV; and 81 % of parents had household rules about screen time.
Controlling for maternal education and age, eating lunch and dinner in front of the screen and
mother being employed were associated with an increase in child weekday screen time of 96 (95 %
CI 30, 192), 42 (95 % CI 12, 90) and 36 (95 % CI 6, 72) min/d, respectively. Eating lunch in front of
the screen and an increase of 1 h of parental screen time were associated with an increase of 78 (95
% CI 36, 132) and 12 (95 % CI 6, 18) min/d in child weekend screen time. Family rules decreased
child weekend screen time by 30 (95 % CI 6, 54) min/d. Interventions that include these important
parental factors should be evaluated for their effectiveness in reducing screen time.

Maguire, Jonathon & Mekky, Magda & Manlhiot, Cedric & Beck, Carolyn & Jacobson, Sheila
& Peer, Michael & Taylor, Carolyn & McCrindle, Brian & Parkin, Patricia. (2011). Parental
factors associated with screen time in pre-school children in primary-care practice: A TARGet
Kids! study. Public health nutrition. 14. 2134-8. 10.1017/S1368980011000516.

The aims of this study were to assess parental attitudes toward

childhood television (TV) viewing in a low-income population and
examine the extent to which child BMI, child/parent demographics, and
household media environment are associated with adherence to
American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) guidelines for screen time.
Methods: This was a cross-sectional survey study of 314 parents of
children ages 0–5 years surveyed in English or Spanish by self-
administered questionnaire at a Special Supplemental Nutrition Program
for Women, Infants and Children (WIC) clinic in Oregon. Results: In this
majority Latino sample (73%), half (53%) of the children met AAP
guidelines on screen time limits, 56% met AAP guidelines for no TV in
the child's bedroom, and 29% met both. Children were more likely to
meet AAP guidelines when there were <2 TVs in the home, there was no
TV during dinner, or their parents spent less time viewing electronic
media. Parents who spent less time viewing electronic media were more
likely to report believing that TV provides little value or usefulness. In
conclusion, in this low-income, predominantly Latino population
attending WIC, parent media-viewing and household media environment
are strongly associated with child screen time.

Asplund, K. M., Kair, L. R., Arain, Y. H., Cervantes, M., Oreskovic, N. M., &
Zuckerman, K. E. (2015). Early Childhood Screen Time and Parental Attitudes
Toward Child Television Viewing in a Low-Income Latino Population Attending
the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and
Children. Childhood obesity (Print), 11(5), 590–599.
https://doi.org/10.1089/chi.2015.0001
To describe child use and parents' beliefs and comfort with young children's
use of mobile devices in low-income, rural communities.

Methods

This was a descriptive, cross-sectional study. The survey, which consisted of 18

multiple-part questions, was distributed to families at 5 Head Start/preschool
centers in Colorado.

Results

In total, 192 surveys were returned (28.5% response rate). Most children
(92%) used a smartphone or tablet at some frequency and most parents (90%)
had downloaded apps specifically for their child. Education and ethnicity were
related to parents' technology beliefs. Parent comfort with technology was
positively associated with greater child use of technology (P < .001).
Morgan McCloskey, Susan L. Johnson, Cristen Benz, Darcy A. Thompson, Barbara Chamberlin,
Lauren Clark, Laura L. Bellows, Parent Perceptions of Mobile Device Use Among Preschool-
Aged Children in Rural Head Start Centers, Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior,
Volume 50, Issue 1, 2018, Pages 83-89.e1, ISSN 1499-4046,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jneb.2017.03.006.

This study employed a survey design () to examine how parents access information related to mobile
media and document their perspectives about the impact of mobile media on their child’s behavior and
executive functioning. Correlational analyses and cooccurrence graphs showed that parents implement
several mediation strategies but rarely access guidelines on mobile media use. A confirmatory factor
analysis examined the model fit for four latent constructs of the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive
Function (BRIEF®), which included the Inhibit, Emotional Control, Initiate, and Working Memory
scales. Structural equation modelling substantiated the association between parental perception of
negative impacts of mobile media related to their child’s behavior, academics, and/or attention and a
lower observed executive functioning. Overall, these findings suggest that parents recognize the negative
impacts of mobile media on their child’s behavior, and this is associated with how they see the
development of their child’s executive functioning. The results emphasize the importance of educating
parents as to the role of mobile media in shaping their child’s behavior and associated executive
functions.

Stephanie C. Milford, Lynette Vernon, Joseph J. Scott, Nicola F. Johnson, "An Initial Investigation
into Parental Perceptions Surrounding the Impact of Mobile Media Use on Child Behavior and
Executive Functioning", Human Behavior and Emerging Technologies, vol. 2022, Article ID 1691382,
11 pages, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/1691382
 CHAPTER THREE

Methods

This chapter presents detailed description of the research design, population for the study,
sample, sampling technique, instrument for data collection, validity of the instrument, reliability
of the instrument, method of data collection, and analysis used for the study.

Research Design

The descriptive survey design was adopted for the study. Cohen, manion, and morrison
(2010), defined the descriptive survey research design as the discovery of the meaning of
something and not just the description of what it is. The design has been successfully adopted
Birken (2011) to investigate parental factors associate with screen time in preschool children in
primary care practice in Toronto, Canada. The design is therefore considered appropriate for use
in the present study because it will give detailed descriptive information about the perception of
recreational screen time engagement of parents in the University of Nigeria, Nsukka.

Area of the Study

This study will be conducted in the University of Nigeria, Nsukka, commonly referred to
as UNN. The University of Nigeria, Nsukka is a federal government owned university located in
Nsukka, Enugu state, Nigeria. It is the first autonomous university in Nigeria, as well as the full-
fledged indigenous university in Nigeria. It is the first land grant university in Africa and it is
ranked among the top five reputable universities in Nigeria. The university was founded in the
year 1955 and became formally opened on October, 1960, a few days after Nigeria gained her
independence from her colonial masters

The university community has in its population- students, lecturers and nonacademic
staffs. The parents of these preschool children found within the university community can be
married students, academicians, while some others, nonacademic staff. It is believed that most
parents, especially those found within the university community can have their hands full with
office duties they take home and school works and as such may be of the opinion that their
preschool child or children should be kept busy to avoid disturbance by granting them
permission to engage in screen time activities. From another perspective, most parents view
screen time as their “down time” or relaxation period and their children unfortunately go along
with them to “relax” so to say. Depending on perceptions, recreational screen time engagement
of preschool children keeps increasing

Population for the Study

The population for the study consisted of 166 parents of preschool children of three
preschools. These preschools are distributed within the University of Nigeria, Nsukka.

Sample and Sampling Technique

The sample for this study consists of all the parents of the preschool children within the
university community. They will all be included as respondents in the study. This implies that
there will be no sampling for the study because the population is manageable and will all be
used. This is in line with the assertion by Nwanna (1990) that where the number of the target
population is small, it is preferable to utilize all subjects in order to ensure representativeness and
generalizability of findings.

Instrument for Data Collection

The instrument for data collection is a researcher-designed questionnaire titled Parental

Perception of Recreational Screen Time Engagement Questionnaire (PPRSTEQ). The
questionnaire consists of three sections namely, section A, B, and C. Section A consists of 4
items designed to collect information on parent’s personal data such as; age, level of education;
income level, and gender. The respondents were required to tick the boxes that applied to them.
Section B comprised of 2 questions. The first question collected information on whether the
parents allowed screen time engagement of their preschool children. The second question
addressed the types of screen media used by preschool children and usage periods. Section C
addressed the perception of parents by collecting information on their screen time habits and
opinions towards themselves and their preschool children of which the parents were to
respondents by ticking either yes or no.

Validity of Instrument
 To ensure face validity of the instrument, draft copies of the questionnaire were given to
three experts in the Department of Human Kinetics and Health Education, University of Nigeria,
Nsukka. They checked the appropriateness of each item and made corrections. Their criticisms
and suggestions were incorporated in the final draft of the questionnaire. (see appendix A)

Reliability of Instrument

Method of data collection

In order to gain access into the school to inform the school administration of the
researcher program, a letter of introduction rom the Head, Department of Human Kinetics and
Health Education seeking permission to carry out research on perception of recreational screen
time engagement of preschool children by parents in the University of Nigeria, Nsukka, was
obtained. This letter was presented to the headmaster and headmistresses of the preschools
visited within the university community who granted the researcher permission to administer the
questionnaire to parents as they dropped off their children in school or as they picked up their
wards after school hours. After the respondents completed the questionnaire, some were returned
on the spot while some others who could not return them on the spot delivered them to the class
teachers of their preschool children.

Method of Data Analysis

The returned copies of the questionnaire were properly crossed checked for completeness
of information. The statistical package for social sciences (SPSS) was used to analyze generated
data. Data were analyzed using frequencies and percentages, mean and standard deviation.

The t-test was used to test hypotheses at the 0.05 alpha levels.