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The New Oxford Handbook of Economic Geography

Edited by Gordon L. Clark, Maryann P. Feldman, Meric S. Gertler, and Dariusz Wójcik
Print Publication Date: Jan 2018 Subject: Economics and Finance

Online Publication Date: Feb 2018
(p. iv)
Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, ox2 6dp,

United Kingdom
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It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship,
and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of
Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries
© Oxford University Press 2018
The moral rights of the authors have been asserted
First Edition published in 2018
Impression: 1
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in

a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the
prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted
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rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the
above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the
address above
You must not circulate this work in any other form

and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer
Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press

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Page 1 of 2
Data available
Library of Congress Control Number: 2017958294
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Links to third party websites are provided by Oxford in good faith and
for information only. Oxford disclaims any responsibility for the materials
contained in any third party website referenced in this work.
Page 2 of 2
Dedication
Dedication

Dedication
(p. v) For Peter and Shirley, Gordon, Joanna, Isabel and Miles, and Ana (p. vi)
Page 1 of 1
Preface
Preface

(p. vii) Preface

THE New Oxford Handbook of Economic Geography (NOHEG) brings to the fore a vibrant
field of research and teaching at the interface between a host of disciplines, including ge
ography, economics, the management sciences, and urban and regional planning. In com
missioning essays we sought to engage leading scholars who have made profound and
long-lasting contributions to economic geography along with new voices, new approach
es, and new topics of significance to the first half of the twenty-first century. This sounds
ambitious. And it is. But we have framed NOHEG as a compendium of essays which reach
back to key concepts and ideas and forward to emerging issues and theoretical perspec
tives that together underwrite the field of economic geography.
Quite obviously, NOHEG builds upon the success of the original Oxford Handbook of Eco
nomic Geography (OHEG; 2002). In many respects, that was a very different project than
NOHEG. When we were developing the logic and building blocks of OHEG, the field of
economic geography was less a shared project across social science disciplines and more
a separate thread in the various disciplines that played host to ‘economic geographers’.
In this respect, OHEG sought to bring together scholars who were engaged with related
issues, even if their theories and analytical approaches were quite different. As such, the
compilation was deliberately framed as a dialogue between economists, geographers, and
urban and regional planners comparing and contrasting their approaches to common is
sues. By contrast, NOHEG takes this dialogue as given and seeks to represent the re
markable development of the field within and across disciplines.
Once again, our intention has been to give life to this dialogue without advocating one
specific way of being an economic geographer or, for that matter, restricting the focus of
the Handbook to a set of issues that are the core of economic geography. Throughout this
volume, pluralism reigns supreme. We leave it to the readers to make their own judge
ments about the salience of issues, the virtues of competing theoretical approaches, and
the claims and counterclaims made by contributors about how to conceptualize twenty-
first-century globalization. In part, our pluralism reflects the editorial team, of whom
Page 1 of 2
Preface
three were editors of the original volume. The newly added fourth editor brings his own
programme of financial geography and valuable experience to the project. All benefit the
NOHEG through their expertise in a variety of ways: our first editor has had a longstand
ing career in the economics discipline, the second has successfully transitioned between
economics and geography and public policy and business schools, and our third editor
(before becoming university president) is engaged in issues of innovation at the interface
between economics, geography, and political science. Inevitably, our separate and com
mon experience frames the project.
The OHEG began with a manifesto. Simply and directly, the volume opened with a state
ment regarding the core principles or foundations upon which the volume was based. We
term these principles ‘significant points of departure’, emphasizing difference, (p. viii) dif
ferentiation, and the heterogeneity of the economic landscape. These principles have
stood the test of time. And, as you would expect, they underwrite NOHEG. These princi
ples challenge commonplace expectations of convergence in economic prospects and de
velopment across regions, nations, and the globe. At the same time in this volume these
principles deserve and receive deeper analysis than in the first volume. So much has
changed in the twenty years between conceiving OHEG and realizing NOHEG. And yet, as
many readers of the first volume have observed, these principles remain contested and
contestable. We are pleased that this is the case and hope that NOHEG carries through on
the challenge represented by difference, differentiation, and heterogeneity.
Our Handbook is dedicated to the memory of Susan Christopherson, who died on 14 De
cember 2016. She was a valued colleague and dear friend whose work was motivated by
a desire to understand people, places, politics, institutions, and economic processes. Her
contribution to this book has all this and much more. On behalf of the community whose
work is embodied by this Handbook, we salute her contribution to academic life and her
commitment to friendship.
The Editors, December 2016
Page 2 of 2
Acknowledgements
Acknowledgements

(p. ix) Acknowledgements

THIS book was made possible by the support of numerous organizations. In particular, we
would like to acknowledge the support of our home institutions, notably (for Gordon Clark
and Dariusz Wójick) the Smith School of Enterprise and the Environment, the School of
Geography and the Environment, and the Saïd Business School at Oxford University, and,
further afield, the Department of Banking and Finance in the Monash Business School at
Monash University, the University of Toronto (Meric Gertler), and the University of North
Carolina (Maryann Feldman). Without the administrative and organizational support of
our home institutions, and without the support and encouragement of our colleagues in
those institutions, this book would not have been possible.
At Oxford, we were fortunate to have a team that has carried the Handbook through its
various stages. We would especially like to thank Alice Chautard, Seth Collins, Angelika
Kaiser, Irem Kok, and Sarah McGill for their reading of submissions, their attention to the
form and structure of the book and its various sections, and their help in meeting the var
ious deadlines that a book of this size must meet. Also important in this regard has been
the enthusiasm and encouragement found in our OUP editors, notably Dominic Byatt and
David Musson, Olivia Wells, and the New York-based Handbook staff led by Sarah Kain.
We are very grateful for their engagement with this project, and its previous incarnation.
Along the way, we had an opportunity to present both the book and the role of our con
tributors to the wider academic community through the Fourth Global Conference on
Economic Geography (2015) in Oxford. This event was led by Dariusz Wójcik, along with
the staff of the Smith School of Enterprise and the Environment and the School of Geog
raphy and the Environment. Most importantly, Patrizia Ferrari’s conference management
made this possible. At the conference we held a number of meetings with contributors, al
lowing for a dialogue about their contributions and the significance of the book. We are
very grateful to those contributors who participated for their enthusiasm and engage
ment in this initiative.
Page 1 of 2
Acknowledgements
Finally, any long-running project such as this incurs many debts—specifically, the pa
tience of our families and friends. Peter and Shirley, Gordon M. Allen, Joanna, Isabel and
Miles, and Ana have, in their different ways, sustained our academic careers and demon
strated their continued support throughout this particular project. (p. x)
Page 2 of 2
List of Figures
List of Figures

(p. xvii) List of Figures

0.1Frequency of Geographical Bigrams Occurring in Books Included in the English-
language Corpus of Google Books 10
4.1De Facto Urban Population and Urban Hukou Population, 1955–2013 85
5.1India’s Long-term Growth, 1950–2009 100
5.2Headcount Index of Poverty Using the National Poverty Line (Percentage) 103
5.3India: Real Patterns of Consumption Growth 105
6.1Employment (15–64 years) Rates (%) EU27, 2008, 2010, and 2012 117
6.2Unemployment (15–64 years) Rates (%) EU27, 2008, 2010, and 2013 118
6.3Long-term Unemployment Rates, 2008 and 2014 118
6.4Youth Unemployment (15–24 years) Rates (Percentage Labour Force) EU27,
2008, 2012, and 2013 119
6.5At Risk of Poverty or Social Exclusion (Percentage of Total Population) 121
6.6Gross Domestic Product and Employment Rates in Greece, 1996–2011 122
6.7Greek and European Union Small- and Medium-sized Enterprise performance,
2008–14 (estimates for 2011 onwards) 128
10.1Interaction Between the Environment (Resources) and the Nature of the Deci
sion Problem 206
13.1Sewall Wright’s Fitness Landscapes 249
13.2Ecosystem Boundaries—US/Mexico Border 254
13.3Succession and Reorganization of Ecosystems 257
13.4Phase Characteristics of the Entrepreneurial Ecosystem 258
17.1Portfolio of Fifty-one Traded Clusters and their Connections 327
17.2Strong IT and Analytical Instruments Clusters in the U.S., 2011 329
18.1Agglomeration and City Formation 350
18.2Internal Structure of Clusters 355
18.3Tech Sourcing in Silicon Valley Core 357
18.4Tech Sourcing Around Silicon Valley 358
20.1Strategic Coupling and Global–Local Economic Integration Through Production
Networks 388
Page 1 of 2
List of Figures
21.1Ambivalent Effect of Service Commoditization on Geographical Cluster Growth

414
(p. xviii) 21.2Global Delivery Model 416
22.1Levels of Cross-border Online Purchases 442

26.1The Growth of the Creative Economy Share 502
26.2Creative Class Shares in US Metropolitan Regions 504
26.3Social, Analytical; and Physical Skills in US Metropolitan Regions 507
29.1The Structure of Finance 559
29.2The Map of Finance 560
29.3Finance in the Global Economy 562
29.4Fordism and Flexible Accumulation 568
29.5The Share of Financial and Business Services in Total Employment 569
30.1Bitcoin to US Dollar Exchange Rates, 2013–15 583
31.1Existing Opaque, Overly Packaged Form of Investment Management 600
31.2Organic Finance: Greater Investor Responsibility on Fees and Efficiency of In
vestment Access Points 600
34.1Notional Amount of Outstanding Over-the-Counter Commodity Derivatives, De
cember 1998–June 2010 (US$ trillion) 651
34.2Financial Investment in Commodities, Assets Under Management, by Product,
2005–11 (US$ billion) 652
36.1Marshall’s Supply-and-Demand Curve 688
36.2Typology of the Spatial and Temporal Dynamics of Value 691
36.3Economies of Production and Internalization Through the Circulation of Value
693
37.1US Field Production of Crude Oil (1000 Barrels per Day), 1920–2014 706
40.1Commodity Prices Over the Last 100 Years 752
40.2Forecast Exhaustion Dates of Minerals Extend into the Future 753
40.3Selected Planetary Boundaries Already Breached 755
40.4Progress in Solar versus Coal and Nuclear 763
41.1Gini Coefficients Among Selected Developing Countries 773
41.2Differences in Interpersonal and Territorial Income Inequalities Among Selected
Countries (Second Theil Index) 774
45.1Differing City Responses to the Great Recession in the USA, 2007–09: New York,
Chicago, Atlanta, and Phoenix Compared 842
45.2Stylized Reactions of a Regional Economy to a Shock 847
45.3Regional Economic Resilience as Process 849
45.4Some Potential Policy Foci for ‘Building’ Regional Adaptive Resilience 856
Page 2 of 2
List of Tables
List of Tables

(p. xix) List of Tables

1.1Comparative Growth Rates in Real Gross Domestic Product, Selected Countries
21
1.2Comparative Change in Per Capita Gross Domestic Product at Purchasing Power
Parity (Current International Dollars), Selected Countries: 2000–12 22
1.3Value Added by Sector 23
2.1Summary of Income Inequalities in the Five Most Populous European Union
Countries (2012) 44
2.2Summary of UK Household Income Distribution 2012 45
2.3Summary of Income Inequalities in Germany, France, Italy, Spain, and the UK in
2012 48
2.4Share of Income Received by Best-off 1 Per Cent Taxpayers in Rich Countries 49
2.5The Radio of Incomes of the Best-off 10 Per Cent of Households Versus the Worst-
off 10 Per Cent Among the World’s Richest Countries 50
2.6Share in Top Incomes of the 1 Per Cent and Gini Measure of Inequality, Fifteen
Affluent Countries Ranked by the Take of the 1 Per Cent 51
2.7Projections for Rich Countries’ Income Inequality, Percentage Take of Top 1 Per
Cent 52
2.8The Numbers of Bankers Paid Over €1,000,000 in 2012 (Highest Numbers in the
European Union) 53
2.9Income Inequality in the USA, 2008 and 1970–2008 (at Real 2008 Rates) 54
2.10Income Received from the State by Households in 2012 56
4.1Urban Hukou Population, Urban Population, and Gross Domestic Product Shares,
1949−2014 (Percentage of National Total) 84
4.2Distribution of Cities, 1982–2010 87
4.3Spatial Gini, 1957–2010 88
4.4Number of Megacities and Urban Population of Large Countries, 2014 89
5.1Ranking of India’s Poorest States by Gross State Domestic Product Per Capita
and Human Development Indicators 106
6.1Top Employment Sectors in Greece, Percentage 2000 and 2008 123
Page 1 of 2
List of Tables
6.2Top Employment Sectors in the Regions of Greece, 2008 124

6.3Top Employment Sectors in Greece, 2009 and 2013 125
6.4Top-six Employment-loss Sectors (NACE rev2.0) Greece and EU27, 2008Q1–
2011Q1 125
(p. xx) 6.5Top-six Employment-gain Sectors (NACE rev2.0) Greece and EU27,
2008Q1–2011Q1 126
6.6Occupational Structure of Employment (000s) in Trade, Greece, 2008–13 130
6.7Greece’s Path-dependent Growth Patterns from the 1980s to 2008–09 Crisis 132
15.1Situating Co-creation 289
15.2A Typology of Co-creation Formats and Practices 290
20.1Strategic Coupling, Global Production Networks, and Local Development Trajec
tories 390
22.1Leading Transnational Retailers, Ranked by International Revenue in 2013 430
22.2Differences in Level of Globalization by Retail Sector, 2010–13 432
22.3Level of Globalization of Top 250 Global Retailers by Region/Country, 2013 433
22.4Top Fifteen e-Retailers, Ranked by Online Sales, 2013 441
25.1Full-time, part-time, and temporary employment in the European Union (per
centages), 2003, 2007, and 2014 489
25.2Survey Results (Selected), UK Employees, 2013 494
Page 2 of 2
List of Editors
List of Editors

(p. xxi) List of Editors

Gordon L. Clark (gordon.clark@smithschool.ox.ac.uk) is the Director of the Smith School
of Enterprise and the Environment with cross-appointments in the Saïd Business School
and the School of Geography and the Environment at Oxford University. He holds a Pro
fessorial Fellowship at St Edmund Hall, Oxford. He is also Sir Louis Matheson Distin
guished Visiting Professor at Monash University’s Faculty of Business and Economics
(Melbourne) and a Visiting Professor at Stanford University. Previous academic appoint
ments have been at Harvard’s Kennedy School of Government, Harvard Law School (Se
nior Research Associate), the University of Chicago, Carnegie Mellon’s Heinz School, and
Monash University. Other honours include being Andrew Mellon Fellow at the US Nation
al Academy of Sciences and Visiting Scholar Deutscher Akademischer Austausch Dienst
at the University of Marburg.
Maryann P. Feldman (maryann.feldman@gmail.com) is the S.K. Heninger Distinguished

Professor of Public Policy and Finance at the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill
and the Kenan Flagler Business School. In 2013, she was awarded with the prestigious
Global Entrepreneurship Research Award from the Swedish Entrepreneurship Forum and
Research Institute of Industrial Economics. She is a member of the Innovation Forum at
the National Academies of Science. Her research interests focus on the areas of innova
tion, the commercialization of academic research, and the factors that promote techno
logical change and economic growth.
Meric S. Gertler (meric.gertler@utoronto.ca) is President of the University of Toronto,

Professor of Geography and Planning and the Goldring Chair in Canadian Studies. He was
the founding co-director of the Program on Globalization and Regional Innovation Sys
tems (PROGRIS) at the Munk School of Global Affairs. His research focuses on the geog
raphy of innovative activity, the economies of city regions, and economic restructuring in
North America and Europe. He is the author, co-author, and co-editor of more than ninety
scholarly articles and chapters, and nine books, including Manufacturing Culture: The In
stitutional Geography of Industrial Practice. He has served as an advisor to local, region
Page 1 of 2
List of Editors
al, and national governments in Canada, the USA, and Europe, and international agencies
such as the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. He is the founding
associate editor of the Journal of Economic Geography.
Dariusz Wójcik (dariusz.wojcik@spc.ox.ac.uk) is a Professor of Economic Geography in

the School of Geography and the Environment at Oxford University, a Fellow of St Peter’s
College, and a Visiting Professor at Beijing Normal University. His research focuses on fi
nance, corporate governance, and economic globalization. His current project, funded by
the European Research Council, investigates how financial and business services have
been (p. xxii) affected by the global financial crisis, and how they change in response to
new financial regulation, the rise of the Global South, and the digital revolution. The
project also focuses on the impacts of finance on regional development. Dariusz is a mem
ber of the editorial board of Economic Geography, the Journal of Economic Geography,
Environment and Planning A: Economy and Space and GeoJournal and leads the Global
Network on Financial Geography (FinGeo).
Page 2 of 2
List of Abbreviations

(p. xxiii) List of Abbreviations

Prelims
NOHEG New Oxford Handbook of Economic Geography
OHEG Oxford Handbook of Economic Geography
Introduction
GDP gross domestic product
IMF International Monetary Fund
Chapter 1
FDI foreign direct investment
GFC global financial crisis
SOEs state-owned enterprises
Page 1 of 10
Chapter 2
EU European Union
EU-SILC European Union Statistics on Income and Living Conditions
(p. xxiv) Chapter 3
CMSA Consolidated Metropolitan Statistical Area
OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
SBTC skill-biased technological change
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
Chapter 4
Chapter 5
AJR Acemoglu, Johnson, and Robinson
BJP Bharatiya Janata Party
PPP purchasing power parity
TFP total factor productivity
Page 2 of 10
Chapter 6
EC European Commission
ECB European Central Bank
EEC European Economic Community
EMU European Monetary Union
EU European Union
GVA gross value added
HRADF Hellenic Republic Asset Development Fund
SME small- and medium-sized enterprise
(p. xxv) Chapter 7
EU European Union
Chapter 11
EEG evolutionary economic geography
RIS regional innovation system
Chapter 12
CME coordinated market economy
Page 3 of 10
EEG evolutionary economic geography
LEP local enterprise partnership
LME liberal market economy
Chapter 13
MSA metropolitan statistical area
Chapter 14
ISP Internet service provider
IT information technology
Chapter 15
DCA dichloroacetic acid
GPS Global Positioning System
(p. xxvi) Chapter 16
IP intellectual property
MNE multinational enterprise
Chapter 17
B2C business-to-consumer
BCD Benchmark Cluster Definitions
DSC Dual Specialization Correlation
Page 4 of 10
STEM Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics
USCMP U.S. Cluster Mapping Project
Chapter 19
GCN global city network
HFDI horizontal FDI
IDP investment development pathway
KCM Knowledge Capital Model
MNE multinational enterprise
NEG new economic geography
OLI Ownership–Location–Internalization
PLC product life cycle
VFDI vertical FDI
Chapter 20
GPN global production network
GVC global value chain
UNCTAD United Nations Conference on Trade and Development
WTO World Trade Organization
Page 5 of 10
(p. xxvii) Chapter 21
BPO business process outsourcing
CMMI Capability Maturity Model Integration
GDM global delivery model
GE General Electric
ICT information and communication technology
IS impact sourcing
KSC knowledge services cluster
Chapter 22
TNC transnational corporation
Chapter 23
CSR corporate social responsibility
GPN global production network
GVC global value chain
ILO International Labour Organization
NGO non-governmental organization
UN United Nations
Page 6 of 10
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The New Oxford Handbook of

Economic Geography Gordon L. Clark

The New Oxford Handbook of Economic Geography, 2nd

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The New Oxford Handbook of Economic Geography

Print Publication Date: Jan 2018 Subject: Economics and Finance

Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, ox2 6dp,

Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford.

© Oxford University Press 2018

The moral rights of the authors have been asserted

First Edition published in 2018

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in

You must not circulate this work in any other form

Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

Library of Congress Control Number: 2017958294

Print Publication Date: Jan 2018 Subject: Economics and Finance

Print Publication Date: Jan 2018 Subject: Economics and Finance

(p. vii) Preface

The Editors, December 2016

Print Publication Date: Jan 2018 Subject: Economics and Finance

(p. ix) Acknowledgements

Print Publication Date: Jan 2018 Subject: Economics and Finance

(p. xvii) List of Figures

21.1Ambivalent Effect of Service Commoditization on Geographical Cluster Growth

22.1Levels of Cross-border Online Purchases 442

Print Publication Date: Jan 2018 Subject: Economics and Finance

(p. xix) List of Tables

6.2Top Employment Sectors in the Regions of Greece, 2008 124

Print Publication Date: Jan 2018 Subject: Economics and Finance

(p. xxi) List of Editors

Maryann P. Feldman (maryann.feldman@gmail.com) is the S.K. Heninger Distinguished

Meric S. Gertler (meric.gertler@utoronto.ca) is President of the University of Toronto,

Dariusz Wójcik (dariusz.wojcik@spc.ox.ac.uk) is a Professor of Economic Geography in

Print Publication Date: Jan 2018 Subject: Economics and Finance

(p. xxiii) List of Abbreviations

NOHEG New Oxford Handbook of Economic Geography

OHEG Oxford Handbook of Economic Geography

GDP gross domestic product

IMF International Monetary Fund

FDI foreign direct investment

GDP gross domestic product

GFC global financial crisis

IMF International Monetary Fund

SOEs state-owned enterprises

EU-SILC European Union Statistics on Income and Living Conditions

IMF International Monetary Fund

(p. xxiv) Chapter 3

CMSA Consolidated Metropolitan Statistical Area

IMF International Monetary Fund

OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development

SBTC skill-biased technological change

UNDP United Nations Development Programme

FDI foreign direct investment

GDP gross domestic product

AJR Acemoglu, Johnson, and Robinson

BJP Bharatiya Janata Party

GDP gross domestic product