Essay on Women Empowerment

500+ Words Women Empowerment Essay

Women Empowerment is made up of two words women and empowerment.

Empowerment means to give power or authority to someone. So, Women
Empowerment means power in the hands of women. It signifies that women should
be given equal opportunity in every field, irrespective of any discrimination. In this
essay on Women Empowerment, we will discuss the need for women empowerment
and the ways through which it can be achieved.

Women Empowerment Essay

Our society comprises men and women. In earlier times, men were considered to be
the leading members of a family. They were responsible for earning the livelihood
and were the decision takers of the family. On the other hand, women were
responsible for doing household work and upbringing of the children. So, the roles
were mainly based on gender. There was no involvement of women in decision
making. If we assess our entire sector, then research says that women’s issues are
either focused on her reproductive role and her body or on her economic role as a
worker. But none of them is focused on empowering the women.

What Does Women Empowerment Mean?

Women Empowerment is the process that creates power in women to live a happy
and respectable life in a society. Women are empowered when they are able to access
opportunities in a variety of fields such as in education, profession, lifestyle, etc.,
without any limitations and restrictions. It includes raising their status through
education, awareness, literacy and training. It also includes the authority to take
decisions. When a woman makes a crucial decision, she feels empowered.

Women’s empowerment is the most crucial point for the overall development of a
country. Suppose, in a family, there is one earning person, while in another family,
both men and women are earning, then who will have a better lifestyle. The answer
is simple, the family where both men and women are earning money. Thus, the
country where men and women work together develops at a faster rate.

Need for Women Empowerment

History says that women were ill-treated. The Sati Pratha in the ancient time to the
girl child abortion in the present scenario, women continue facing such violence. Not
only this, heinous crimes against women such as rape, acid attack, dowry system,
honour killing, domestic violence, etc., are still happening in India.

Out of the total population, 50% of the population should consist of women.
However, due to female foeticide practices, girl child numbers are decreasing
sharply in India. It has also impacted the sex ratio in India. The literacy rate in girls
is very low. Most of the girls are not even provided with primary education.
Moreover, they are married early and made to raise children and shoulder only
household work. They are not allowed to go out and are dominated by their
husbands. Women are taken for granted by men as they are considered their property.
Even at the workplace, women are discriminated against. They are paid less for the
same work as compared to their male counterparts.

Steps to Empower Women

Women can be empowered in various ways. It can be done through government

schemes as well as on an individual basis. At the individual level, we should start
respecting women and start giving them opportunities equal to men. We should
promote and encourage them for jobs, higher education, business activities, etc. The
Government has come up with various schemes such as Beti Bachao Beti Padhao
Yojana, Mahila-E-Haat, Mahila Shakti Kendra, Working Women Hostel, Sukanya
Samriddhi Yojana, etc.; to empower women. Apart from these schemes, we as
individuals can also empower women by abolishing social evils like the dowry
system, child marriage. These small steps will change the situation of women in
society and make them feel empowered.

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‫تمظعاحصہبزدنہابد‬ ‫متخوبنتﷺزدنہابد‬
‫االسلممکیلعورۃمحاہللورباکت‪:‬‬
‫زعمزربممان‪:‬آپاکوسٹاپیرگوپاڈینم"اردوکب"آپےساخمبطےہ۔‬
‫آپامتمربممانےسزگارشےہہک‪:‬‬
‫کم‬
‫❖ رگوپںیمرصف‪ PDF‬بتکوپٹسیکاجیتںیہذہلابتکےکقلعتماےنپ نٹس‪ /‬رویویزرضوردںی۔رگوپںیمریغباڈینمیکااجزتےکیسک‬
‫یھبمسقیک(االسیموریغاالسیم‪،‬االخیق‪،‬رحتریی)وپٹسرکانیتخسےسعنمےہ۔‬
‫❖ رگوپ ںیم زعمز ‪ ،‬ڑپےھ ےھکل‪ ،‬ےھجلس وہےئ ربممز وموجد ںیہ االخایقت یک اپدنبی رکںی اور رگوپ روزل وک افول رکںی وصبرت درگی زعمز ربممز یک‬
‫رتہبییکاخرطرومیورکدایاجےئاگ۔‬
‫❖ وکیئیھبربممیسکیھبربمموکاابنسکںیمجیسیم‪،‬سماکل‪،‬اکلںیہنرکےاگ۔روپرٹرپوفریرومیورکےکاکروایئلمعںیمالےئاجےئیگ۔‬
‫❖ امہرےیسکیھبرگوپںیمایسیسورفہقوارتییکثحبیکًاعطقوکیئجنگشئںیہنےہ۔‬
‫❖ ارگیسکوکیھبرگوپےکقلعتمیسکمسقیکاکشتیایوجتزییکوصرتںیماڈینمےسراہطبےئجیک۔‬
‫❖ بسےسامہابت‪:‬‬
‫رگوپ ںیم یسک یھب اقدایین‪ ،‬رمزایئ ‪ ،‬ادمحی‪ ،‬اتسگخ روسل‪ ،‬اتسگخ ااہمت المؤنینم‪ ،‬اتسگخ احصہب و افلخےئ رادشنی رضحت اوبرکب‬
‫دصقی‪،‬رضحترمعافروق‪،‬رضحتامثعنینغ‪،‬رضحتیلعارملیضت‪،‬رضحتنینسحرکنیمیروضاناہللاعتٰیلایعمج‪،‬اتسگخاہلٹیت ای‬
‫اےسی ریغ ملسم وج االسم اور اپاتسکن ےک الخف رپاڈنگیپا ںیم رصموف ںیہ ای ان ےک رواحین و ذینہ وپسررٹز ےک ےئل وکیئ جنگشئںیہن‬
‫ےہذہلااےسیااخشصابلکلیھبرگوپوجانئرکےنیکزتمحہنرکںی۔ولعمموہےنرپوفراًرومیورکدایاجےئاگ۔‬
‫❖ امتمبتکارٹنٹینےسالتش‪/‬ڈاؤولنڈرکےک رفیآفاکٹس وسٹاپی رگوپںیمرئیشیکاجیتںیہ۔وجاتکبںیہنیتلماسےکےئلذعمرترک‬
‫یلاجیتےہ۔سجںیمتنحمیھب َ ر‬
‫صفوہیتےہنکیلںیمہآپےسرصفداعؤںیکدروخاتسےہ۔‬
‫❖ رمعانریسزیےکوشنیقےئلیکدحیلعہےسرمعانریسزیرگوپوموجدےہ۔‬
‫ش‬‫یفکٹ‬
‫❖ ڈیلزیےکےئلاگلرگوپ یکوہستلوموجدےہسجےکےئلوری نرضوری ےہ۔‬
‫❖ اردوبتک‪/‬رمعانریسزیایڈٹسی رگوپںیماڈیوہےنےکےئل اڈینمےسوسٹاپیرپذبرہعیجیسیم راہطبرکںیاوروجاباکااظتنررفامںیئ۔رباےئ‬
‫رہمابیناالخایقتاکایخلرےتھکوہےئومابلئرپاکلایامیاسیرکےنیکوکششرہزگہنرکںی۔ورہنرگوسپےسوترومیوایکیہاجےئاگالبکیھبایک‬
‫اجےئاگ۔‬

‫ونٹ‪:‬امہرےیسکرگوپ یکوکیئسیفںیہنےہ۔بسیفلیبساہللےہ‬

‫‪0333-8033313‬‬ ‫‪0343-7008883‬‬ ‫‪0306-7163117‬‬

‫راؤاایز‬ ‫اپاتسکنزدنہابد‬ ‫دمحماملسنیلس‬
‫اپاتسکناپدنئہابد‬ ‫اپاتسکنزدنہابد‬
‫اہللابترکاعتٰیلمہبساکاحیموانرصوہ‬
Abstract
Gender equality is, first and foremost, a human right. A woman is entitled to live in
dignity and in freedom from want and from fear. Empowering women is also an
indispensable tool for advancing development and reducing poverty. Empowered
women contribute to the health and productivity of whole families and communities
and to improved prospects for the next generation. The importance of gender
equality is underscored by its inclusion as one of the eight Millennium Development
Goals. Gender equality is acknowledged as being a key to achieving the other seven
goals. Yet discrimination against women and girls - including gender-based
violence, economic discrimination, reproductive health inequities, and harmful
traditional practices - remains the most pervasive and persistent form of inequality.
Women and girls bear enormous hardship during and after humanitarian
emergencies, especially armed conflicts. There have been several organisations and
institutions advocating for women, promoting legal and policy reforms and gender-
sensitive data collection, and supporting projects that improve women's health and
expand their choices in life. Despite many international agreements affirming their
human rights, women are still much more likely than men to be poor and illiterate.
They usually have less access than men to medical care, property ownership, credit,
training and employment. They are far less likely than men to be politically active
and far more likely to be victims of domestic violence. The ability of women to
control their own fertility is absolutely fundamental to women’s empowerment and
equality. When a woman can plan her family, she can plan the rest of her life. When
she is healthy, she can be more productive. And when her reproductive rights —
including the right to decide the number, timing and spacing of her children, and to
make decisions regarding reproduction free of discrimination, coercion and violence
— are promoted and protected, she has freedom to participate more fully and equally
in society. Gender equality implies a society in which women and men enjoy the
same opportunities, outcomes, rights and obligations in all spheres of life. Equality
between men and women exists when both sexes are able to share equally in the
distribution of power and influence; have equal opportunities for financial
independence through work or through setting up businesses; enjoy equal access to
education and the opportunity to develop personal ambitions. A critical aspect of
promoting gender equality is the empowerment of women, with a focus on
identifying and redressing power imbalances and giving women more autonomy to
manage their own lives. Women's empowerment is vital to sustainable development
and the realization of human rights for all. Where women’s status is low, family size
tends to be large, which makes it more difficult for families to thrive. Population and
development and reproductive health programmes are more effective when they
address the educational opportunities, status and empowerment of women. When
women are empowered, whole families benefit, and these benefits often have ripple
effects to future generations. The roles that men and women play in society are not
biologically determined - they are socially determined, changing and changeable.
Although they may be justified as being required by culture or religion, these roles
vary widely by locality and change over time. Key issues and linkages:
1)Reproductive health: Women, for both physiological and social reasons, are more
vulnerable than men to reproductive health problems. Reproductive health problems,
including maternal mortality and morbidity, represent a major - but preventable -
cause of death and disability for women in developing countries. Failure to provide
information, services and conditions to help women protect their reproduction health
therefore constitutes gender-based discrimination and a violation of women’s rights
to health and life. 2) Stewardship of natural resources: Women in developing nations
are usually in charge of securing water, food and fuel and of overseeing family health
and diet. Therefore, they tend to put into immediate practice whatever they learn
about nutrition and preserving the environment and natural resources. Economic
empowerment: More women than men live in poverty. Economic disparities persist
partly because much of the unpaid work within families and communities falls on
the shoulders of women and because they face discrimination in the economic
sphere. Educational empowerment: About two thirds of the illiterate adults in the
world are female. Higher levels of women's education are strongly associated with
both lower infant mortality and lower fertility, as well as with higher levels of
education and economic opportunity for their children. Political empowerment:
Social and legal institutions still do not guarantee women equality in basic legal and
human rights, in access to or control of land or other resources, in employment and
earning, and social and political participation. Laws against domestic violence are
often not enforced on behalf of women. Experience has shown that addressing
gender equality and women’s empowerment requires strategic interventions at all
levels of programming and policy-making. Women’s Work and Economic
Empowerment: In nearly every country, women work longer hours than men, but
are usually paid less and are more likely to live in poverty. In subsistence economies,
women spend much of the day performing tasks to maintain the household, such as
carrying water and collecting fuel wood. In many countries women are also
responsible for agricultural production and selling. Often they take on paid work or
entrepreneurial enterprises as well. Unpaid domestic work – from food preparation
to care giving – directly affects the health and overall well being and quality of life
of children and other household members. The need for women’s unpaid labour
often increases with economic shocks, such as those associated with the AIDS
pandemic or economic restructuring. Yet women's voices and lived experiences –
whether as workers (paid and unpaid), citizens, or consumers – are still largely
missing from debates on finance and development. Poor women do more unpaid
work, work longer hours and may accept degrading working conditions during times
of crisis, just to ensure that their families survive. Intergenerational gender gaps: The
differences in the work patterns of men and women, and the 'invisibility' of work
that is not included in national accounts, lead to lower entitlements to women than
to men. Women’s lower access to resources and the lack of attention to gender in
macroeconomic policy adds to the inequity, which, in turn, perpetuates gender gaps.
For example, when girls reach adolescence they are typically expected to spend more
time in household activities, while boys spend more time on farming or wage work.
By the time girls and boys become adults; females generally work longer hours than
males, have less experience in the labour force, earn less income and have less
leisure, recreation or rest time. This has implications for investments in the next
generation. If parents view daughters as less likely to take paid work or earn market
wages, they may be less inclined to invest in their education, women's fastest route
out of poverty. Empowering Women through Education: "Education is one of the
most important means of empowering women with the knowledge, skills and self-
confidence necessary to participate fully in the development process." (—ICPD
Programme of Action, paragraph 4.2)
Women Empowerment Essay in 500-600 words for School Students

February 7, 2020 by Prasanna

Women Empowerment Essay in India: Women empowerment indicates

addressing women powerful to create them proficient in taking decisions for
themselves. Women have undergone a lot over the years in this men-dominating
world. In more primitive centuries, they were criticized as almost non-existent
human beings. As if whole rights belonged to men even the basic right such as
voting. As time unfolded, women understood their power. Since then, the revolution
for women empowerment started in this world. Women Empowerment Essay in
Hindi will update here soon.

Essay on Women Empowerment for Students and Children

As women were not permitted to make judgments for themselves, women’s
empowerment began in like a sigh of fresh air. It got them informed of their rights
and whereby they must secure their own place in society fairly than depending on a
man. It sanctioned the reality that everything cannot solely work in someone’s
support because of their gender. We, however, have a long route to go when we
speak about the purposes why we need this change. Read on to find more about essay
on women’s empowerment for class 10 and women empowerment essay for kids.

Importance of Women Empowerment Essay

Nearly every country has a past of ill-treating women. In different words, women
from all around the world have been revolutionary to attain the state they have now.
While the westward countries are yet making development, countries like India
besides lack backward in case of Empowering the women. you can also read women
Empowerment Speech.

“Feminism isn’t about making women strong. Women are already strong. It’s
about changing the way the world perceives that strength.”

In India, it is necessary to bring the woman empowerment essay more than ever.
India is amongst the nations where women are still not safe. There are many reasons
for giving such a statement. Firstly, in this country, women are in threat of honor
killings. Their family believes it is correct to sacrifice their lives if they bring
embarrassment to the status of their legacy.

Furthermore, the literacy and democracy situation is very conservative here. Women
are not entitled to seek higher education instead they are married off soon. The men
are however controlling women in some sectors like it’s the duty of a woman to
serve him endlessly. In some places, men do not allow their wives to go out or have
the liberty of any kind.

Women Empowerment Advantages

Additionally, domestic violence has become a crucial problem in India. The

husbands abuse their wives mentally and sometimes physically considering them as
their own property. It happens commonly because women are scared to speak up. In
a similar way, the women who work genuinely get paid fewer than their male equals.
It is entirely unfair and sexist to pay someone more insufficient for the same work
just because of the different gender. Consequently, we see how women’s
empowerment is the demand of the time. We require to empower these women to
talk for themselves and never be a sufferer of injustice.

There are several ways to enable rights to women in India. The people and
government need to come collectively to make it happen. Schooling for girls must
be delivered mandatory so that women can grow literate to build a life for
themselves. Women must be provided equal opportunities in every area,
irrespective of gender. Besides, they must also be awarded equal compensation for
their work.

We can also empower women by eliminating child marriages in India, which is

commonly conducted in village areas. Many programs must be conducted where
they can be given the ability to defend themselves in case they face financial
crises. Most necessarily, the humiliation of divorce and abuse must be thrown out
of society. Many women tolerate abusive relationships under the pressure of society.
Parents must educate their daughters it is wrong to tolerate anyone’s abuse, even if
they are abused by their own family. They should take action whenever it is
necessary.

FAQ’s on Women EmpowermentEssays

Question 1.
What is Essay Women Empowerment?

Answer:
Women’s empowerment is the means in which women involved and recreate
whatever it is to be in a condition that they beforehand were rejected. Empowerment
can be described in numerous ways, however, when speaking about women’s
empowerment, empowerment indicates receiving and supporting women who are on
the outline of the decision-making rule into it.

Question 2.
How can we empower women?

Answer:

• By educating each and every girl child.

• By giving them their rights.
• By teaching them to raise their voice against any abuse.
• By stopping the child marriage customs here.
Question 3.
What is the importance of Women’s Empowerment in India?

Answer:
Empowerment of women, particularly rural women is a critical subject in the
policies of balanced growth with social equity. Economic empowerment affects
women’s capacity to control or make the right decision, develop self-confidence
sounder status and role in the family, etc.

Question 4.
What are the benefits of Women empowerment?

Answer:
The influence of women’s empowerment rests in its capacity to bring in gender
equity and improve the gap between men and women. This revolution helped to
bring steadiness in a community that is highly controlled by men. It allows women
to engage in activities in the public sphere.

Question 5.
When do we celebrate Women’s Day?

Answer:
International Women’s Day is celebrated on 8th March every year all over the world.

You can also find more Essay Writing articles on events, persons, sports,
technology and many more.

Filed Under: Essay WritingTagged With: Women Empowerment Essay

Women empowerment
BY SOBIA NASIR , (LAST UPDATED MARCH 7, 2012)

“No nation can rise to the height of glory unless your women are side by side with
you; we are victims of evil customs. It is a crime against humanity that our women
are shut up within the four walls of the houses as prisoners. There is no sanction
anywhere for the deplorable condition in which our women have to live.” –
Muhammad Ali Jinnah, 1944

Women empowerment refers broadly to the expansion of freedom of choice and

action to shape one’s life. It implies control over resources and decisions. An
empowered woman will be one who is self confident, who critically analyses her
environment and who exercises control over decisions that affect her life. The idea
of empowerment manifests itself at all levels of societal interaction. It is found in
giving a voice to the weak and marginalized. It requires having an access to the
needed tools and materials for the expansion of capacities. Women empowerment
has five components: women sense of self worth; their right to have and determine
choices; their right to have access to opportunities and resources; their right to have
the power to control their own lives, both within and outside the home; and their
ability to influence the direction of social change to create a more just social and
economic order nationally and internationally.

In general, few people have misconception that women empowerment and gender is
a foreign agenda but its only misconception women all over the world have been
facing challenges and gender inequalities since the beginnings of history. If we seek
help from our Glorious Quran and the Hadith then it would be clear they both also
emphasise on the protection of the rights of women, including the rights of
education, worship, freedom of opinion, choice of spouse, economic freedom and
social role.

National development must be balanced with the equal distribution of resources to

both males and females as in Pakistan females are approximately 51 percent of the
total population and without the active participation of females Pakistan cannot
achieve the required level of growth rate. Since the creation of Pakistan in 1947 it
inherited the menace of poverty and the burden of this poverty was put heavily on
female population because of the reason that the majority of females are involved in
agriculture work, performing tasks to maintain household , carrying water and
collecting fuel wood but their work in productive activities is unrecognised and,
therefore, the female participation represented in economic activities seems to be
low.

In a globalising world gender equality and empowerment of women are vital tools
to achieve the sustainable development therefore It’s very important to bring women
into mainstream so that they can play its due role in the development of country.

For promoting gender equality and women empowerment, the government of

Pakistan has signed many international and national commitments like Convention
On Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), National
Plan Of Action (NPA) and Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) despite all
these international and national commitments, women are still much more than man
to be poor, malnourished, illiterate and have less access to decision making, property
ownership, credit, training and employment.

It is worth recalling that enhancing the participation of women in mainstream

development would mean providing greater opportunities and accessibility for them
to make decisions, to mange their own resources and to be self reliant. Therefore,
considering the plight of women and to uplift the status of women in society, the
government of Punjab has started many initiatives. One of them is the
implementation of Gender Reform Action Plan (GRAP), Punjab. The main goal of
the GRAP is to bring about such changes in the structures and process of the
government that it brings equity among men and women. GRAP is implementing its
agenda of gender mainstreaming and women empowerment through its four key
reforms ie, women employment in public sector, political participation, policy and
fiscal reform and institutional restructuring. Main purpose of the GRAP is to initiate
proposals for bringing about institutional reforms to include gender perspective at
provincial and at district level.

To promote the gender equality and women empowerment; to highlight the

importance of women representation and participation in decision making; and to
motivate the women towards public and private sector employment, GRAP is
organising awareness raising programmes like celebration of events, seminars,
workshops and trainings at district and at provincial level that are being organised
on regular basis through its three main units ie, Gender Mainstreaming Units(GMUs)
at provincial level, Career Development Centers at University level and Gender
Support Units(GSUs) at district level.
Moreover, for the promotion and protection of women rights, to restore the personal
security and dignity of women and to give them protection at workplace, the Pakistan
government has taken deliberate and conscious steps like reservation of 10 percent
quota for females, on the political side, reservation of thirty three percent seats for
women in all local bodies (more than 36000 women councilors), seventeen percent
seats have been reserved for women in the constituent assembly, senate, provincial
assembly and in national assembly, to tackle the issues of harassment and to
eliminate the gender based violence.

No doubt Pakistan government has taken many measures to enhance the

participation of women in economic sphere but instead of all this, there is dire need
to upgrade the status of women in society and it is only possible through giving them
protection legally and mentally. She should be given access and control over
resources. An effective mechanism should be institutionalised to enable the women
in decision making at all levels. Subject of gender studies should be introduced from
secondary level in the course curriculum, provision of women friendly infrastructure
and environment at workplace, research and documentation on the achievements of
women and launching of awareness raising campaigns among citizens on gender and
development.
Women's empowerment
Women's empowerment is the process of empowering women. [1][2] Empowerment
can be defined in many ways, however, when talking about women's empowerment,
empowerment means accepting and including people (women) who are on the
outside of the decision-making process into it. Women’s empowerment is the most
crucial point to be noted for the overall development of a country. Many celebrities
are all for girl power such as Liza Koshy and Lilly Singh (who has her own late night
show and has won many awards and also raised money for #girllove and other
charities) “This puts a strong emphasis on participation in political structures and
formal decision-making and, in the economic sphere, on the ability to obtain an
income that enables participation in economic decision-making.”[3] Empowerment
is the process that creates power in individuals over their own lives, society, and in
their communities. People are empowered if they have an access to opportunities
without any limitations or restrictions such as in education, profession and in their
way of life. Feeling entitled to make your own decisions creates a sense of
empowerment. Empowerment includes the action of raising the status of women
through education, raising awareness, literacy, and training and also give training
related to self defense. Women's empowerment is all about equipping and allowing
women to make life-determining decisions through the different problems in
society.[4]
Alternatively, it is the process for women to redefine gender roles that allows them
to acquire the ability to choose between known alternatives whom have otherwise
been restricted from such an ability.[1] There are several principles defining women's
empowerment such as, for one to be empowered, they must come from a position of
disempowerment. For example: A stripper no longer has to take off her clothes to
get money and now is a receptionist for a respectable company. Empowerment stems
from self respect. Furthermore, one must acquire empowerment themselves rather
than have it given to them by an external party. Other studies have found that
empowerment definitions entail people having the capability to make important
decisions in their lives while also being able to act on them. Lastly, empowerment
and disempowerment is relative to other at a previous time; therefore, empowerment
is a process, not a product.[2]
Women empowerment has become a significant topic of discussion
in development and economics. It can also point to the approaches regarding other
trivialized genders in a particular political or social context.[5]
Women's economic empowerment refers to the ability for women to enjoy their right
to control and benefit from the resources, assets, income and their own time, as well
as the ability to manage risk and improve their economic status and well being.[6]
While often interchangeably used, the more comprehensive concept of gender
empowerment refers to people of any gender, stressing the distinction between
biological and gender as a role.
Businesswoman Ivanka Trump (right) and Japanese PM Shinzo Abe attending the
World Assembly for Women in Tokyo to speak on women's rights and
empowerment, 2017
Entire nations, businesses, communities and groups can benefit from the
implementation of programs and policies that adopt the notion of women
empowerment.[7] Empowerment of women is a necessity for the very development
of a society, since it enhances both the quality and the quantity of human resources
available for development.[8] Empowerment is one of the main procedural concerns
when addressing human rights and development.
Women's empowerment and achieving gender equality is essential for our society to
ensure the sustainable development of a country. Many world leaders and scholars
have argued that sustainable development is impossible without gender equality and
women's empowerment.[4] Sustainable development accepts environmental
protection, social and economic development, including women's empowerment. In
the context of women and development, empowerment must include more choices
for women to make on their own.[9]

Contents

• 1Methods
o 1.1Economic Empowerment
o 1.2Political empowerment
▪ 1.2.1Digital skills enhance political empowerment
• 2Measurements And Assessment
• 3Barriers
• 4Role of education
• 5The Internet use to Empower Women
• 6Ongoing projects
o 6.1U.S. involvement
• 7See also
• 8Sources
• 9References
• 10Further reading

Methods[edit]
Scholars have identified two forms of empowerment, economic empowerment and
political empowerment.[10][11]
Economic Empowerment[edit]
Economic empowerment increases women's agency, access to formal government
programs, mobility outside the home, economical independence, and purchasing
power. Policy makers are suggested to support job training to aid in entrance in the
formal markets.[10] One recommendation is to provide more formal education
opportunities for women that would allow for higher bargaining power in the home.
They would have more access to higher wages outside the home; and as a result,
make it easier for women to get a job in the market.[12]
Strengthening women's access to property inheritance and land rights is another
method used to economically empower women. This would allow them better means
of asset accumulation, capital, and bargaining power needed to address gender
inequalities. Often, women in developing and underdeveloped countries are legally
restricted from their land on the sole basis of gender.[12] Having a right to their land
gives women a sort of bargaining power that they wouldn't normally have; in turn,
they gain more opportunities for economic independence and formal financial
institutions.
Race has a huge impact on women's empowerment in areas such as employment.
Employment can help create empowerment for women. Many scholars suggest that
when we discuss women's empowerment, discussing the different barriers that
underprivileged women face, which makes it more difficult for them to obtain
empowerment in society, is important when examining the impact of race in
connection to employment. Significantly examining how opportunities are
structured by gender, race, and class can transpire social change. Work opportunities
and the work environment can create empowerment for women. Empowerment in
the workplace can positively affect job satisfaction and performance, having equality
in the work place can greatly increase the sense of empowerment.[13] However,
women of color do not have the same accessibility and privileges in work settings.
They(Women of color) are faced with more disadvantages in the work place. Patricia
Parker argues that African American women's empowerment is their resistance to
control, standing up for themselves and not conforming to societal norms and
expectations. In connection to power, feminist perspectives look at empowerment as
a form of resistance within systems of unequal power relations. Within the societal
setting of race, gender, and class politics, African American women's empowerment
in work environment “can be seen as resistance to attempts to fix meanings of
appropriate identity and behavior, where such meanings are interpreted as
controlling, exploitative, and other- wise oppressive to African American
women.”[14] When talking about women's empowerment, many scholars suggest
examining the social injustices on women in everyday organizational life that are
influenced by race, class, and gender.
Another popular methodology for women's economic empowerment also
includes microcredit.[15] Microfinance institutions aim to empower women in their
community by giving them access to loans that have low interest rates without the
requirement of collateral.[16] More specifically, they(microfinance institutions) aim
to give microcredit to women who want to be entrepreneurs.[16] The success and
efficiency of microcredit and microloans is controversial and constantly
debated.[17] Some critiques claim that microcredit alone doesn't guarantee women
have control over the way the loan is used. Microfinance institutions don't address
cultural barriers that allow men to still control household finances; as a result,
microcredit may simply be transferred to the husband. Microcredit doesn't relieve
women of household obligations, and even if women have credit, they don't have the
time to be as active in the market as men.[16][18]
Political empowerment[edit]
Political empowerment supports creating policies that would best support gender
equality and agency for women in both the public and private spheres. Methods that
have been suggested are to create affirmative action policies that have a quota for
the number of women in policy making and parliament positions.[12] As of 2017, the
global average of women who hold lower and single house parliament positions is
23.6 percent.[11] Further recommendations have been to increase women's rights
to vote, voice opinions, and the ability to run for office with a fair chance of being
elected.[7] Because women are typically associated with child care and domestic
responsibilities in the home, they have less time dedicated to entering the labour
market and running their business. Policies that increase their bargaining power in
the household would include policies that account for cases of divorce, policies for
better welfare for women, and policies that give women control over resources (such
as property rights).[12] However, participation is not limited to the realm of politics.
It can include participation in the household, in schools, and the ability to make
choices for oneself. Some theorists believe that bargaining power and agency in the
household must be achieved before one can move onto broader political
participation.[19][20]
Digital skills enhance political empowerment[edit]
Main article: Gender digital divide
Digital skills can facilitate women’s engagement with local government and
increase their decision-making power in their communities. The Women-gov project
in Brazil and India, for instance, has helped women improve their understanding of
and communication with local government via ICTs.[21] In Brazil, the project trained
female community leaders to access and utilize online data on government health
services to better respond to public health concerns in their communities. In India,
the project worked with women’s collectives to establish women-run, internet-
connected community information centres to facilitate applications for government
assistance (including welfare and entitlements), which in turn improved linkages
between the collectives, local authorities and public institutions.[22]
Women with digital skills are better able to make their voices heard on local issues
and influence the outcome of decisions that affect themselves and their communities.
Digital skills can also empower women to participate in political movements.[21] For
instance, the anonymity of ICTs may allow some women to avoid limitations
on freedom of speech in repressive societies, while collective mobilization through
online networks can enable women to campaign on gender-based issues.[22] Studies
show an Iraqi women’s group used a multimedia campaign, including an online
component, to successfully lobby the Kurdish regional government to outlaw the
practice of female genital mutilation.[23] Images taken on mobile phones and
distributed via social media have called attention to domestic violence in China and
influenced media treatment of court cases on forced abortion.[24]

Measurements And Assessment[edit]

Women empowerment can be measured through the Gender Empowerment
Measure (GEM), which shows women's participation in a given nation, both
politically and economically. GEM is calculated by tracking "the share of seats
in parliament held by women; of female legislators, senior officials and managers;
and of female profession and technical workers; and the gender disparity in earned
income, reflecting economic independence".[7] It then ranks countries given this
information. Other measures that take into account the importance of female
participation and equality include: the Gender Parity Index or the Gender-related
Development Index (GDI).[7]
Some critiques of GEM is that it is not concerned with factors regarding society,
such as gender, religion, cultural context, legal context, and violations of women's
rights.[25] Gender empowerment measure attempts to makes a consistent
standardized approach to measure women's empowerment; in doing so, it has been
critiqued that the GEM doesn't account for variation in historical factors, female
autonomy, gender segregation, and women's right to vote.[26]
The Gender-related Development Index (GDI) is a way in which the United Nations
Development Programme (UNDP) measures the inequality between genders within
a country. Some critique of this measurement is that, because GDI calculations rely
solely on the achievement distribution between males and females of a population,
GDI doesn't measure gender inequality; rather, it measures absolute levels on
income, education and health.[25]
A more qualitative form of assessing women's empowerment is to identify
constraints to action. This allows for the identification of power relations between
genders. Because this is a participatory process, it facilitates conversation on gender
discrimination.[2] Comparing constraints on women at a later time also allows for
any changes or expansion to be better identified. The evaluation of the development
of women's agency allows for an evaluation of actions taken. These assessments
must also be based on the action taken by women, and not external groups. External
groups can help facilitate women's empowerment, but cannot bestow it on them.[2]
Barriers[edit]
Many of the barriers to women's empowerment and equity lie ingrained in cultural
norms. Many women feel these pressures, while others have become accustomed to
being treated inferior to men.[27] Even if legislators, NGOs, etc. are aware of the
benefits women's empowerment and participation can have, many are scared of
disrupting the status of the women and continue to let societal norms get in the way
of development.[28]
Research shows that the increasing access to the internet can also result in an
increased exploitation of women.[29] Releasing personal information on websites has
put some women's personal safety at risk. In 2010, Working to Halt Online Abuse
stated that 73% of women were victimized through such sites. Types of victimization
include cyber stalking, harassment, online pornography, and flaming.[30] Sexual
harassment in particular is a large barrier for women in the workplace. It appears in
almost all industries, but is most notable in the following: business, trade, banking
and finance, sales and marketing, hospitality, civil service, and education, lecturing
and teaching.[31] According to the International Labour Organisation (ILO), sexual
harassment is a clear form of gender discrimination based on sex, a manifestation of
unequal power relations between men and women. Furthermore, the UN Convention
on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) is
urging for increased measures of protection for women against sexual harassment
and violence in the workplace. 54% (272) had experienced some form of workplace
sexual harassment. 79% of the victims are women; 21% were men.[31]
Recent studies also show that women face more barriers in the workplace than do
men. Gender-related barriers involve sexual harassment, unfair hiring practices,
career progression, and unequal pay where women are paid less than men are for
performing the same job.[32] When taking the median earnings of men and women
who worked full-time, year-round, government data from 2014 showed that women
made $0.79 for every dollar a man earned. The average earnings for working mothers
came out to even less—$0.71 for every dollar a father made, according to a 2014
study conducted by the National Partnership for Women and Children. While much
of the public discussion of the "wage gap" has focused around women getting equal
pay for the same work as their male peers, many women struggle with what is called
the "pregnancy penalty". The main problem is that it is difficult to measure, but some
experts say that the possibility of having a baby can be enough for employers to push
women back from their line.[33] Therefore, women are put in a position where they
need to make the decision of whether to maintain in the workforce or have children.
This problem has sparked the debate over maternity leave in the United States and
many other countries in the world.
However, despite the struggle for equal pay, in Nepal the tech industry [clarification
needed]
has made progress in helping to encourage equal pay across gender. In March
2016, tech career website Dice released a study of more than 16,000 tech
professionals that found that when you compare equivalent education, experience
and position, there is no pay gap—and hasn't been for the last six years.[33] However,
this industry also struggles to employ women in executive positions. This is partially
due to the barrier of sexual harassment and pregnancy that was aforementioned.
Such barriers make it difficult for women to advance in their workplace or receive
fair compensation for the work they provide.

Role of education[edit]
It is said that education increases "people's self-confidence and also enables them to
find better jobs and they can work shoulder to shoulder with men".[citation needed] They
engage in public debate and make demands on government for health care, social
security and other entitlements".[34] In particular, education empowers women to
make choices that improve their children's health, their well-being, and chances of
acquiring survival skills.[35][34] Education informs others of preventing and
containing the disease, and it is an essential element of efforts to reduce malnutrition.
Furthermore, it empowers women to make choices that can improve their welfare,
including marrying beyond childhood and having fewer children. Crucially,
education can increase women's awareness of their rights, boost their self-esteem,
and provide them the opportunity to assert their rights.[36]
Despite significant improvements in recent decades, education is not universally
available and gender inequalities persist. A major concern in many countries is not
only the limited numbers of girls going to school but also the limited educational
pathways for those that step into the classroom. More specifically, there should be
more efforts to address the lower participation and learning achievement of girls in
science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) education.[37]

The Internet use to Empower Women[edit]

The growing access of the web in the late 20th century has allowed women to
empower themselves by using various tools on the Internet. With the introduction of
the World Wide Web, women have begun to use social networking sites
like Facebook and Twitter for online activism.[29] Through online activism, women
are able to empower themselves by organizing campaigns and voicing their opinions
for equality rights without feeling oppressed by members of society.[38] For example,
on May 29, 2013, an online campaign started by 100 female advocates forced the
leading social networking website, Facebook, to take down various pages that spread
hatred about women.[39]
In recent years, blogging has also become a powerful tool for the educational
empowerment of women. According to a study done by the University of California,
Los Angeles, medical patients who read and write about their disease are often in a
much happier mood and more knowledgeable than those who do not.[40] By reading
others' experiences, patients can better educate themselves and apply strategies that
their fellow bloggers suggest.[40]
With the easy accessibility and affordability of e-learning (electronic learning),
women can now study from the comfort of their homes.[41] By empowering
themselves educationally through new technologies like e-learning, women are also
learning new skills that will come in handy in today's advancing globalized world.
Oftentimes, the internet is very useful as source of empowerment for women through
its creation, dispersion, and utilization of hashtags on social media. One prime
example of hashtags supporting women empowerment was in 2017 when the
#AintNoCinderella hashtag came into existence. This hashtag spread like wildfire
on social media after Varnika Kundu (a 29-year-old woman in India) was driving
home past midnight on August 4 when she was followed and harassed by two men
in a SUV.[42] Kundu was blamed for being out late at night, particularly by the BJP
government Vice-President Ramveer Bhatti. This led to women all across India and
the world to share pictures of themselves out late at night with the hashtag
"#AintNoCinderella" to show that women do not have a particular curfew to which
they have to adhere to (like Cinderella did).[43]

Ongoing projects[edit]
The UN came out with a set of goals called the Sustainable Development Goals, or
SDGs, to help make the world a better place.[44] Of the 17, the fourth goal works to
allow access to education for all people alike. A large effort has been made to include
women in schools to better their education.[45] Similarly, the fifth goal focuses on
empowering women and girls to achieve gender equality through equal access to
various types of opportunities (health care, education, work, etc.).[46]
U.S. involvement[edit]
Melania Trump with 2017 International Women of Courage Awardees
Domestically, the U.S. empowered women through passings of laws such as
allowing women to vote in 1920, banning discrimination based on gender in 1964,
banning discrimination against pregnant women in 1978, etc. Additionally, the
inclusion of women in politics allowed for more gender equality. The first female
speaker of House, the First Lady to run for president, and first women to serve on
the Supreme Court were monumental events that proved socially the acceptance of
"subservient" women.[47]
The U.S. provides foreign aid to third world countries in various forms, one of which
is by providing education programs. There are currently bills in Congress that work
to ensure education to girls, one of which is the Protecting Girls' Access to Education
Act. These are enacted with the belief that proper education will pull them out of
poverty and reduce exploitation.[48]
Another action taken on by the U.S is the PEPFAR program, initiated by the Bush
administration in 2003. The U.S. spent more than $1.4 billion in funding sub-
Saharan Africa during the duration of the program. This program was taken into
effect in response to the global HIV/AIDS crisis, and it promoted abstinence among
young girls and women.[49] There was a partnership with DREAMS, and its main
purpose with PEPFAR was to allow both girls and women to develop into
Determined, Resilient, Empowered, AIDS-free, Mentored, and Safe
women.[50] However, there are criticisms that this program did not really do much to
reduce HIV risk behavior, and critics such as John Dietrich worried that the context
of aid enforced Western beliefs of choosing abstinence before marriage.[51][52] There
was and still is controversy regarding the effectiveness of this program in reducing
HIV/AIDS through advocating abstinence and whether this would actually empower
women in Africa.
Essay on Women Empowerment for Students and Children

500+ Words Essay on Women Empowerment

Women empowerment refers to making women powerful to make them capable of

deciding for themselves. Women have suffered a lot through the years at the hands of
men. In earlier centuries, they were treated as almost non-existent. As if all the rights
belonged to men even something as basic as voting. As the times evolved, women
realized their power. There on began the revolution for women empowerment.

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As women were not allowed to make decisions for them, women empowerment came
in like a breath of fresh air. It made them aware of their rights and how they must make
their own place in society rather than depending on a man. It recognized the fact that
things cannot simply work in someone’s favor because of their gender. However, we
still have a long way to go when we talk about the reasons why we need it.

Need for Women Empowerment

Almost every country, no matter how progressive has a history of ill-treating women.
In other words, women from all over the world have been rebellious to reach the status
they have today. While the western countries are still making progress, third world
countries like India still lack behind in Women Empowerment.

In India, women empowerment is needed more than ever. India is amongst the
countries which are not safe for women. There are various reasons for this. Firstly,
women in India are in danger of honor killings. Their family thinks its right to take
their lives if they bring shame to the reputation of their legacy.

Moreover, the education and freedom scenario is very regressive here. Women are not
allowed to pursue higher education, they are married off early. The men are still
dominating women in some regions like it’s the woman’s duty to work for him
endlessly. They do not let them go out or have freedom of any kind.

In addition, domestic violence is a major problem in India. The men beat up their wife
and abuse them as they think women are their property. More so, because women are
afraid to speak up. Similarly, the women who do actually work get paid less than their
male counterparts. It is downright unfair and sexist to pay someone less for the same
work because of their gender. Thus, we see how women empowerment is the need of
the hour. We need to empower these women to speak up for themselves and never be
a victim of injustice.
Quick summarywith stories

Essay
2 mins read

How to Empower Women?

There are various ways in how one can empower women. The individuals and
government must both come together to make it happen. Education for girls must be
made compulsory so that women can become illiterate to make a life for themselves.

Women must be given equal opportunities in every field, irrespective of gender.

Moreover, they must also be given equal pay. We can empower women by abolishing
child marriage. Various programs must be held where they can be taught skills to fend
for themselves in case they face financial crisis.

Most importantly, the shame of divorce and abuse must be thrown out of the window.
Many women stay in abusive relationships because of the fear of society. Parents must
teach their daughters it is okay to come home divorced rather than in a coffin.
5 Women Empowerment Essays Everybody Should Read
What does “women’s empowerment” mean? It refers to the process of giving women
control over their choices and access to the opportunities and resources that allow
them to thrive. While there’s been progress, gender inequality remains a persistent
issue in the world. Empowering women politically, socially, economically,
educationally, and psychologically helps narrow the gap. Here are five essays about
women’s empowerment that everyone should read:

Women’s Movements and Feminist Activism (2019)

Amanda Gouws & Azille Coetzee
This editorial from the “Empowering women for gender equity” issue of the journal
Agenda explores the issue’s themes. It gives a big picture view of the topics within.
The issue is dedicated to women’s movements and activism primarily in South
Africa, but also other African countries. New women’s movements focus on
engaging with institutional policies and running campaigns for more female
representation in government. Some barriers make activism work harder, such as
resistance from men and funding, If you’re interested in the whole issue, this
editorial provides a great summary of the main points, so you can decide if you want
to read further.

Agenda is an African peer-viewed academic journal focusing on feminism. It was

established in 1987. It publishes articles and other entries, and tutors young writers.

5 Powerful Ways Women Can Empower Other Women (2020)

Pavitra Raja

Originally published during Women’s History Month, this piece explores five
initiatives spearheaded by women in the Schwab Foundation for Social
Entrepreneurship community. Created by women for women, these innovations
demonstrate what’s possible when women harness their skills and empower each
other. The initiatives featured in this article embrace technology, education, training
programs, and more.

Pavitra Raja is the Community Manager for social entrepreneurs in Europe, North
America, and Latin America. She’s consulted with the UN Economic Commission
for Europe and also has experience in legal affairs and policy in the private and
public sectors.

The Key to Improving Women’s Health in Developing Countries (2019)

Because of gender inequality, women’s health is affected around the world. Factors
like a lower income than men, more responsibilities at home, and less education
impact health. This is most clear in developing countries. How can this be addressed?
This essay states that empowerment is the key. When giving authority and control
over their own lives, women thrive and contribute more to the world. It’s important
that programs seeking to end gender inequality focus on empowerment, and not
“rescue.” Treating women like victims is not the answer.

Axa is a leading global insurer, covering more than 100 million customers in 57
countries. On their website, they say they strive for the collective good by working
on prevention issues, fighting climate change, and prioritizing protection. The
company has existed for over 200 years.

Empowering Women Is Smart Economics (2012)

Ana Revenga and Sudhir Shetty

What are the benefits of women’s empowerment? This article presents the argument
that closing gender gaps doesn’t only serve women, it’s good for countries as a
whole. Gender equality boosts economic productivity, makes institutions more
representative, and makes life better for future generations. This piece gives a good
overview of the state of the world (the data is a bit old, but things have not changed
significantly) and explores policy implications. It’s based on the World Bank’s
World Development Report in 2012 on gender equality and development.

Ana Revenga and Sudhir Shetty both worked at the World Bank at the time this
article was originally published. Revenga was the Sector Director of Human
Development, Europe and Central Asia. Shetty (who still works at the World Bank
in a different role) was the Sector Director, Poverty Reduction and Economic
Management, East Asia and Pacific.

The Side Of Female Empowerment We Aren’t Talking About Enough (2017)

Tamara Schwarting

In this era of female empowerment, women are being told they can do anything, but
can they? It isn’t because women aren’t capable. There just aren’t enough hours in
the day. As this article says, women have “more to do but no more time to do it.”
The pressure is overwhelming. Is the image of a woman who can “do it all”
unrealistic? What can a modern woman do to manage a high-stakes life? This essay
digs into some solutions, which include examining expectations and doing self-
checks.

Tamara Schwarting is the CEO of 1628 LTD, a co-working community space of

independent professionals in Ohio. She’s also an executive-level consultant in
supply chain purchasing and business processes. She describes herself as an
“urbanist” and has a passion for creative, empowering work environments.
Essay on Women Empowerment

500+ Words Women Empowerment Essay

Women Empowerment is made up of two words women and empowerment.
Empowerment means to give power or authority to someone. So, Women
Empowerment means power in the hands of women. It signifies that women should
be given equal opportunity in every field, irrespective of any discrimination. In this
essay on Women Empowerment, we will discuss the need for women empowerment
and the ways through which it can be achieved.

Women Empowerment Essay

Our society comprises men and women. In earlier times, men were considered to be
the leading members of a family. They were responsible for earning the livelihood
and were the decision takers of the family. On the other hand, women were
responsible for doing household work and upbringing of the children. So, the roles
were mainly based on gender. There was no involvement of women in decision
making. If we assess our entire sector, then research says that women’s issues are
either focused on her reproductive role and her body or on her economic role as a
worker. But none of them is focused on empowering the women.

What Does Women Empowerment Mean?

Women Empowerment is the process that creates power in women to live a happy
and respectable life in a society. Women are empowered when they are able to access
opportunities in a variety of fields such as in education, profession, lifestyle, etc.,
without any limitations and restrictions. It includes raising their status through
education, awareness, literacy and training. It also includes the authority to take
decisions. When a woman makes a crucial decision, she feels empowered.
Women’s empowerment is the most crucial point for the overall development of a
country. Suppose, in a family, there is one earning person, while in another family,
both men and women are earning, then who will have a better lifestyle. The answer
is simple, the family where both men and women are earning money. Thus, the
country where men and women work together develops at a faster rate.

Need for Women Empowerment

History says that women were ill-treated. The Sati Pratha in the ancient time to the
girl child abortion in the present scenario, women continue facing such violence. Not
only this, heinous crimes against women such as rape, acid attack, dowry system,
honour killing, domestic violence, etc., are still happening in India.
Out of the total population, 50% of the population should consist of women.
However, due to female foeticide practices, girl child numbers are decreasing
sharply in India. It has also impacted the sex ratio in India. The literacy rate in girls
is very low. Most of the girls are not even provided with primary education.
Moreover, they are married early and made to raise children and shoulder only
household work. They are not allowed to go out and are dominated by their
husbands. Women are taken for granted by men as they are considered their property.
Even at the workplace, women are discriminated against. They are paid less for the
same work as compared to their male counterparts.

Steps to Empower Women

Women can be empowered in various ways. It can be done through government
schemes as well as on an individual basis. At the individual level, we should start
respecting women and start giving them opportunities equal to men. We should
promote and encourage them for jobs, higher education, business activities, etc. The
Government has come up with various schemes such as Beti Bachao Beti Padhao
Yojana, Mahila-E-Haat, Mahila Shakti Kendra, Working Women Hostel, Sukanya
Samriddhi Yojana, etc.; to empower women. Apart from these schemes, we as
individuals can also empower women by abolishing social evils like the dowry
system, child marriage. These small steps will change the situation of women in
society and make them feel empowered.
This essay on Women Empowerment must have helped students in their studies. For
the latest updates on ICSE/CBSE/State Board/Competitive Exams, stay tuned to
BYJU’S. Also, download the BYJU’S App for watching interesting study videos.
Journal of Education and Practice www.iiste.org
ISSN 2222-1735 (Paper) ISSN 2222-288X (Online)
Vol.6, No.10, 2015

Role of Education in the Empowement of Women in India

Rouf Ahmad Bhat
Research Scholar School of Studies in Political science Vikram University ,Ujjain-M.P (India)
E.mail:roufbhat18@yahoo.con

Abstract
Women education in India has a major preoccupation of both the government and civil society as educated
women can play a very important role in the development of the country. Education is milestone of women
empowerment because it enables them to responds to the challenges, to confront their traditional role and change
their life. So that we can’t neglect the importance of education in reference to women empowerment and India
poised to becoming superpower in recent years. Education of women is the most powerful tool to change the
position in society. Women education in India has been a need of the hour, as education is a foundation stone for
the empowerment of woman. . Education also brings a reduction in inequalities and functions as a means of
improving their status within the family and develops the concept of participation.
Keywords: Education, preoccupation, milestone, empowerment, participation

Introduction
Empowerment can be viewed as means of creating a social environment in which one can make decisions and
make choices either individually or collectively for social transformation. The empowerment strengthens the
innate ability by way of acquiring knowledge, power and experience (Hashemi Schuler and Riley, 1996).
Empowerment is the process of enabling or authorizing individual to think, take action and control work in an
autonomous way. It is the process by which one can gain control over one’s destiny and the circumstances of
one’s lives. There are always a number of elements in the society which are deprived of their basic rights in
every society, state and nation, but these elements lack in the awareness of their rights. If we enlist such elements
from the society, then women would top this list. In fact, women are the most important factor of every society.
Even though everybody is aware of this fact, but nobody is ready to accept this fact. As a result, the importance
which used to be given to women is declining in today's society. As a consequence of this growing tendency of
underestimating women such as to make them occupy a secondary position in society and to deprive them of
their basic rights, the need for empowering women was felt. . Empowering women has become the focus of
considerable discussion and attention all over the world. Today we enjoy the benefits of being citizens of a free
nation, but we really need to think whether each of the citizens of our country is really free or enjoying freedom,
in the true sense of the term. The inequalities between men and women and discrimination against women are an
age-old issue all over the world. Thus women quest for equality with man is a universal phenomenon. Women
should equal with men in matters of education, employment, inheritance, marriage, and politics etc. Their quest
for equality has given birth to the formation of many women’s associations and launching of movements. The
Constitution of our nation doesn't discriminate between men and women, but our society has deprived women of
certain basic rights, which were bestowed upon them by our Constitution. Empowerment allows individuals to
reach their full potential, to improve their political and social participation, and to believe in their own
capabilities.

Importance of women education

“If you educate a man you educate an individual, however, if you educate a woman you educate a whole family.
Women empowered means mother India empowered”. PT. JAWAHARLAL NEHRU. Women education in
India plays a very important role in the overall development of the country. It not only helps in the development
of half of the human resources, but in improving the quality of life at home and outside.1 If it is said that
education is the key to all problems, then it won't be improper. Thinkers have given a number of definitions of
education but out of these definitions, the most important definition is that which was put forth by M. Phule.
According to M. Phule, "Education is that which demonstrates the difference between what is good and what is
evil". If we consider the above definition, we come to know that whatever revolutions that have taken place in
our history, education is at the base of them.2 Education means modification of behaviour in every aspect, such
as mentality, outlook, attitude etc. Educated women not only tend to promote education of their girl children, but
also can provide better guidance to all their children. Moreover educated women can also help in the reduction of
infant mortality rate and growth of the population. Obstacles: Gender discrimination still persists in India and lot
more needs to be done in the field of women's education in India. The gap in the male-female literacy rate is just
a simple indicator. While the male literary rate is more than 82.14% and the female literacy rate is just 65.46%.
(b). the women were consider only house wife and better to be live in the house.

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Vol.6, No.10, 2015

Women empowerment through education

Women empowerment is the pivotal part in any society, state or country. It is a woman who plays a dominant
role in the basic life of a child. Women are an important section of our society. Education as means of
empowerment of women can bring about a positive attitudinal change. It is therefore, crucial for the socio-
economic and political progress of India. The Constitution of India empowers the state to adopt affirmative
measures for prompting ways and means to empower women. Education significantly makes difference in the
lives of women.3 Women Empowerment is a global issue and discussion on women political right are at the fore
front of many formal and informal campaigns worldwide. The concept of women empowerment was introduced
at the international women conference at NAROIBI in 1985. Education is milestone of women empowerment
because it enables them to responds to the challenges, to confront their traditional role and change their life. So
we can’t neglect the importance of education in reference to women empowerment. To see the development in
women education India is supposed to upcoming super power of the world in recent years. The increasing
change in women education, the empowerment of women has been recognised as the central issue in determining
the status of women.4 for becoming super power we have mostly to concentrate upon the women’s education. By
which it will force on women’s empowerment. As per united national development fund for women (UNIFEM)
the term women’s empowerment means:
• Acquiring knowledge and understanding of gender relations and the ways in which these relations may
be changed.
• Developing a sense of self-worth, a belief in one’s ability to secure desired changes and the right to
control one’s life.
• Gaining the ability to generate choices exercise bargaining power.
• Developing the ability to organize and influence the direction of social change, to create a more just
social and economic order, nationally and internationally.
Thus, empowerment means a psychological sense of personal control or influence and a concern with
actual social influence, political power and legal rights. It is a multi level construct referring to individuals,
organizations and community. It is an international, ongoing process centred in the local community, involving
mutual respect, critical reflection, caring and group participation, through which people lacking an equal share of
valued resources gain greater access to the control over this resources.5
Let’s see the difference in the literacy rate between men and women in given table are as under
Literacy rate in India
Year Persons Males Females
1901 5.3 9.8 0.7
1911 5.9 10.6 1.1
1921 7.2 12.2 1.8
1931 9.5 15.6 2.9
1941 16.1 24.9 7.3
1951 16.7 24.9 7.3
1981 36.2 46.9 24.8
1991 52.1 63.9 39.2
2001 62.38 76.0 54.0
2011 74. 82.1 65.46
On observing the above table, we come to know that at no point could the literacy rate of women
match that of men. As a result, even after 65 years of independence, women occupy a secondary position in our
social hierarchy. Inspire of being aware of her position, women can't transform the situation due to lack of
education. Therefore, women's empowerment can't be effected unless we persuade the importance of women's
education.6

Importance of Women participation

Women’s participation may be used both for support by an agency and as a control device by the law-makers.
Participation may be direct or indirect, formal or informal; it may be political, social or administrative in nature.
Women’s participation in Panchayat Raj institutions may take many forms. It refers to all those activities which
show the women’s involvement in the processes and administration, that is, participation in policy formulation
and programme planning, implementation and evaluation of policies and programmes meant for development
target groups.7 Indian women have been associated with politics since the pre-independence period. They were
part of the freedom movement both as volunteers and leaders. On independence, Article 15 of the Indian
Constitution guaranteed equality to women under the law. Though the Indian Constitution guarantees equal
rights to all citizens, women are still marginally represented in the Indian political arena. The fact is that in the
hands of women are having lack of power at the centre and state level. It is sad state of affairs that about half of

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Vol.6, No.10, 2015

India’s population has only 10 per cent representation in the Lok Sabha. In the current Rajya Sabha, there are 21
women out of a total of 233 MPs, which amounts to only nine per cent which is even lower than that in the Lok
Sabha. At the societal level male dominance in Parliament, bureaucracy, judiciary, Army, police all point
towards gender inequality, notwithstanding the fact that it is often argued that women’s political leadership
would bring about a more cooperative and less conflict-prone world. Lack of political and economic powers add
to the subservient and unequal position of women.8 After Independence, in spite of having our own constitution,
India was not able to achieve morals like fairness, equality and social justice. The condition of women didn’t
improve even having a woman prime minister for few numbers of years. Women's representation in politics all
over the world began to assume importance from mid 1970s when United Nations (UN) declared 1975 as the
'International Women's Year'. This was followed by the UN's decade for Women from 1976-1985 and the theme
was “Equality, Development and Peace”. Women's participation in politics remained quite inconsequential in
India even today but some sort of improvement took place by the 73rd and 74th constitutional amendment acts
which gave boost to the status of women at the political level by giving opportunity to women in the process of
decision-making.9 The 73rd and 74th Amendments (1993) to the constitution of India have provided for
reservation of seats in the local bodies of panchayats and Municipalities for women, laying a strong foundation
for their participation in decision making at the local level.10

Educational equality
Another area in which women’s equality has shown a major improvement as a result of adult literacy programs
is the area of enrolment of boys and girls in schools. As a result of higher participation of women in literacy
campaigns, the gender gap in literacy levels is gradually getting reduced. Even more significant is the fact that
disparity in enrolment of boys and girls in neo-literate households is much lowered compared to the non-literate
householders.11The world has achieved equality in primary education between girls and boys. But few countries
have achieved that target at all levels of education. The political participation of women keeps increasing. In
January 2014, in 46 countries more than 30% of members of parliament in at least one chamber were women. In
many countries, gender in equality persists and women continue to face discrimination in access to education,
work and economic assets, and participation in government.12 Women and girls face barriers and disadvantages
in every sector in which we work. Around the world 62 million girls are not in school. Globally, 1 in 3 women
will experience gender-based violence in her lifetime. In the developing world, 1 in 7 girls is married before her
15th birthday, with some child brides as young as 8 or 9. Each year more than 287,000 women, 99 percent of
them in developing countries, die from pregnancy and childbirth-related complications. While women make up
more than 40 percent of the agriculture labour force only 3 to 20 percent are landholders. In Africa, women-
owned enterprises make up as little as 10 percent of all businesses. In South Asia, that number is only 3 percent.
And despite representing half the global population, women compromise less than 20 percent of the world's
legislators. .Putting women and girls on equal footing with men and boys have the power to transform every
sector in which we work.13The gender equality and women’s empowerment isn’t a part of development but at the
core of development. To get rid of this we have to make some educational awareness programmes on gender
equality and women empowerment for cementing our commitment to supporting women and girls.

Conclusion
Women play an imperative role in making a nation progressive and guide it towards development. They are
essential possessions of a lively humanity required for national improvement, so if we have to see a bright future
of women in our country, giving education to them must be a pre-occupation Empowerment means moving from
a weak position to execute a power. The education of women is the most powerful tool to change the position of
society. Education also brings a reduction in inequalities and functions as a means of improving their status
within the family. To encourage the education of women at all levels and for dilution of gender bias in providing
knowledge and education, established schools, colleges and universities even exclusively for women in the state.
The education develops the idea of participation in government, panchayats, public matters etc for elimination
of gender discrimination.

References
1. Suguna M. (2011). Education and Women Empowerment in India. International journal of Multidisciplinary
Research: VOL. 1. Issue 8.
2. http://www.abhinavjournal.com/images/Arts_&_Education/Nov12/1.pdf
3. http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in:8080/jspui/bitstream/10603/8562/9/09_chapter%204.pdf
4. Ibid. N1.
5. Ibid. N3.
6. Shindu J. (2012). Women’s Empowerment through Education. Abhinav journal: Vol. 1. Issue- 11. p. 3.

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ISSN 2222-1735 (Paper) ISSN 2222-288X (Online)
Vol.6, No.10, 2015

7. K. Mahalinga. (2014). Women’s Empowerment through Panchayat Raj Institutions. Indian Journal of
Research: Vol. 3. Issue 3.
8. Chibber B. (2010). Women and the Indian Political Process. Mainstream Weekly Journal: Vol. XLVIII.
Issue 18.
9. Bhat T. (2014) Women Education in India Need of the Ever. Human Rights International research journal:
Vol. 1 p.3.
10. Ibid. N3.
11. Ibid. N1.
12. www.un.org/milleniumgoals/gender.shtml
13. http://www.usaid.gov/what-we-do/gender-equality-and-womens-empowerment

191
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Gender equality and
women's empowerment:
a critical analysis of the third Millennium
Development Goal^
Naila Kabeer
This article discusses the third Millennium Development Goal (MDG), on gender equality and
women's empowerment. It explores the concept of women's empowerment and highlights ways in
which the indicators associated with this Goal - on education, employment, and political participation
- can contribute to it.
G
ender equality and women's
empowerment is the third of eight
MDGs. It is an intrinsic rather than
an instrumental goal, explicitly valued as an
end in itself rather than as an instrument for
achieving other goals. Important as
education is, the translation of this goal into
the target of eliminating gender disparities
at all levels of education within a given time
period is disappointingly narrow. However,
the indicators to monitor progress in
achieving the goal are somewhat more wide-
ranging:
• closing the gender gap in education at all
levels;
• increasing women's share of wage
employment in the non-agricultural
sector;
• and increasing the proportion of seats
held by women in national parliaments.
In this article, I interpret this as meaning that
each of the three 'resources' implied by these
indicators - education, employment, and
political participation - is considered
essential to the achievement of gender
equality and women's empowerment. Each
13
of these resources certainly has the potential
to bring about positive changes in women's
lives, but, in each case, it is the social
relationships that govern access to the
resource in question that will determine the
extent to which this potential is realised.
Thus, in each case, there is both positive and
negative evidence about the impact of
women's access to these resources on their
lives. There are lessons to be learned from
both. The article also considers some of the
other 'resources' that have been overlooked
by the MDGs, but could be considered
equally important for the goal in question.
Conceptualising
empowerment: agency,
resources, and achievement
First, however, it is important to clarify what
is implied by 'empowerment' in this article.
One way of thinking about power is in terms
of the ability to make choices. To be
disempowered means to be denied choice,
while empowerment refers to the processes
by which those who have been denied the
ability to make choices acquire such an
ability. In other words, empowerment entails
Gender anti Development Vol. 13, No. 1, March 2005
14 Gender and Development
change. People who exercise a great deal of
choice in their lives may be very powerful,
but they are not empowered, in the sense in
which I use the term, because they were
never disempowered in the first place.
However, for there to be a real choice,
certain conditions must be fulfilled:
• There must be alternatives - the ability to
have chosen differently. Poverty and
disempowerment generally go hand in
hand, because an inability to meet one's
basic needs - and the resulting depend-
ence on powerful others to do so - rules
out the capacity for meaningful choice.
This absence of choice is likely to affect
women and men differently, because
gender-related inequalities often
intensify the effects of poverty.
• Alternatives must not only exist, they
must also be seen to exist. Power relations
are most effective when they are not
perceived as such. Cender often operates
through the unquestioned acceptance of
power. Thus women who, for example,
internalise their lesser claim on
household resources, or accept violence
at the hands of their husbands, do so
because to behave otherwise is
considered outside the realm of
possibility. These forms of behaviour
could be said to reflect 'choice', but are
really based on the denial of choice.
Not all choices are equally relevant to the
definition of power. Some have greater
significance than others in terms of their
consequences for people's lives. Strategic life
choices include where to live, whether and
whom to marry, whether to have children,
how many children to have, who has
custody over children, freedom of
movement and association, and so on. These
help to frame other choices that may be
important for the quality of one's day-to-day
life, but do not constitute its defining
parameters. Finally, the capacity to exercise
strategic choices should not violate this
capacity on the part of others.
The concept of empowerment can be
explored through three closely interrelated
dimensions: agency, resources, and
achievements. Agency represents the
processes by which choices are made and put
into effect. It is hence central to the concept of
empowerment. Resources are the medium
through which agency is exercised; and
achievements refer to the outcomes of agency.
Below, each of these dimensions is considered
in turn, as is their interrelationship in the
context of empowerment.
Agency
Agency has both positive and negative
connotations:
• Its positive sense - the 'power to' - refers
to people's ability to make and act on
their own life choices, even in the face of
others' opposition.
• Its negative sense - the 'power over' -
refers to the capacity of some actors to
override the agency of others through,
for example, the exercise of authority or
the use of violence and other forms of
coercion.
However, as noted earlier, power also
operates in the absence of explicit forms of
agency. Institutional bias can constrain
people's ability to make strategic life choices.
Cultural or ideological norms may deny
either that inequalities of power exist or that
such inequalities are unjust. Subordinate
groups are likely to accept, and even collude
with, their lot in society, if challenging this
either does not appear possible or carries
heavy personal and social costs.
Agency in relation to empowerment,
therefore, implies not only actively
exercising choice, but also doing this in ways
that challenge power relations. Because of
the significance of beliefs and values in
legitimating inequality, a process of
empowerment often begins from within. It
encompasses not only 'decision making' and
other forms of observable action but also the
meaning, motivation, and purpose that

individuals bring to their actions; that is,
their sense of agency. Empowerment is
rooted in how people see themselves - their
sense of self-worth. This in turn is critically
bound up with how they are seen by those
around them and by their society.
Resources
Resources are the medium through which
agency is exercised. They are distributed
through the various institutions and
relationships in a society. In institutions,
certain actors have a privileged position over
others concerning how rules, norms, and
conventions are interpreted, as well as how
they are put into effect. Heads of households,
chiefs of tribes, directors of firms, managers
of organisations, and elites within a
community all have decision-making
authority in particular institutions by virtue
of their position. The way in which resources
are distributed thus depends on the ability to
define priorities and enforce claims. Equally
importantly, it defines the terms on which
resources are made available. If a woman's
primary form of access to resources is as a
dependent member of the family, her
capacity to make strategic choices is likely to
be limited.
Achievements
Resources and agency make up people's
capabilities: that is, their potential for living
the lives they want. The term 'achievements'
refers to the extent to which this potential is
realised or fails to be realised; that is, to the
outcomes of people's efforts. In relation to
empowerment, achievements have been
considered in terms of both the agency
exercised and its consequences. For
example, taking up waged work would be
regarded by the MDGs as evidence of
progress in women's empowerment.
However, it would be far more likely to
constitute such evidence if work was taken
up in response to a new opportunity or in
search of greater self-reliance, rather than as
a 'distress sale' of labour. It is also far more
likely to be empowering if it contributes to
Gender equality and women's empowerment 15
women's sense of independence, rather than
simply meeting survival needs.
The interrelationship between agency,
resources, and achievements
There is a distinction, therefore, between
'passive' forms of agency (action taken when
there is little choice), and 'active' agency
(purposeful behaviour). There is also a
further important distinction between
greater 'effectiveness' of agency, and agency
that is 'transformative'. The former relates to
women's greater efficiency in carrying out
their given roles and responsibilities, the
latter to their ability to act on the restrictive
aspects of these roles and responsibilities in
order to challenge them. For example, in
India, the reduction of overall child
mortality has been associated with rising
female literacy. This can be interpreted as the
product of 'effective' agency on the part of
women in their role as mothers. However,
the reduction of gender disparities in under-
five mortality rates has transformative
implications, because it shows a form of
agency that is acting against the grain of
patriarchal values, which define daughters
as having less worth than sons.
The focus in this article is on
transformative forms of agency on the part
of women and on those achievements that
suggest a greater ability on the part of poor
women to question, analyse, and act on the
structures of patriarchal constraint in their
lives. The three dimensions that make up the
concept of empowerment can be seen as
representing the pathways through which
these processes of empowerment can occur.
Changes in any one dimension can lead
to changes in others. For instance,
'achievements' in one sphere of life can form
the basis on which women seek improve-
ments in other spheres in the future. Policy
changes that provide women with access to
new 'resources' may be the result of their
collective action to achieve this change. Such
changes may occur over the life course of an
individual or group or across generations, as
mothers seek to give their daughters the
16 Gender and Development

chances that they themselves never had. The immunised; educated women were more
reverse is also true. Inequalities in one likely than uneducated ones to know about
sphere are likely to get reproduced in other family planning; but only secondary-
spheres of society if they go unchallenged. schooled women revealed an in-depth
Today's inequalities are translated into the imderstanding about disease and prevention.
inequalities of tomorrow as daughters Education increases the likelihood that
inherit the same discriminatory structures women will look after their own well-being
that oppressed their mothers. along with that of their family. A study in
We are, therefore, interested in rural Zimbabwe found that among the
transformative forms of agency that do not factors that increased the likelihood of
simply address immediate inequalities but women accessing contraception and
are used to initiate longer-term processes of antenatal care - both of which improve
change in the structures of patriarchy. While maternal survival and well-being - were
changes in the consciousness and agency of education and paid work (Becker). In rural
individual women are an important starting Nigeria, 96 per cent of women with
point for such processes, it will do little on its
secondary and higher education, 53 per cent
own to undermine the systemic of those with primary education, and 47 per
reproduction of inequality. Institutional cent of those with little or no education had
transformation requires movement along a sought post-natal care.
number of fronts: from individual to There are also other effects associated
collective agency, from private negotiations
with education that suggest a change in
to public action, and from the informal
power relationships within and outside the
sphere to the formal arenas of struggle
household. In rural Bangladesh, educated
where power is legitimately exercised. The
women in rural areas participate in a wider
question then is what the three resources
range of decisions than uneducated ones.
identified by MDG 3 contribute to these
movements. Whereas the latter participated in an average
of 1.1 decisions, the number increased to 1.6,
2.0, and 2.3 among women with primary,
Access to education middle, and secondary education
respectively. A study from Tamil Nadu
The positive effects of education found that better-educated women scored
There is considerable evidence for the claim higher than less educated women on a
that access to education can bring about composite index measuring their access to,
changes in cognitive ability, which is essential and control over, resources, as well as their
to women's capacity to question, to reflect on, role in economic decision-making.
and to act on the conditions of their lives and Educated women also appear less likely
to gain access to knowledge, information, and to suffer from domestic violence. A study by
new ideas that will help them to do so (see Sen in West Bengal noted that educated
review in Jejeebhoy 1995). This is evident in women were better able to deal with violent
everyday instances. In Kenya, it was found husbands: 'access to secondary stages of
that women with at least four years of education may have an important
schooling were able to correctly understand contributory role in enhancing women's
instructions for administering oral capacity to exercise control in their lives ...
rehydration salts; but only those with at least through a combination of literacy and
secondary education were able to explain the numeracy skills, and enhanced self-esteem'
environmental causes of diarrhoea. In (Sen 1999, 12). Similar findings were
Nigeria, less educated women were as likely recorded in rural Bangladesh (Schuler et al.
as educated ones to have their children 1996).

Education appears to increase women's
capacity to deal with the outside world,
including government officials and service
providers of various kinds. In rural Nigeria,
uneducated women preferred not to deliver
in hospitals because of the treatment they
received at the hands of nurses, a treatment
not meted out to the more educated and self-
confident women who were surveyed (cited
in Jejeebhoy 1995). Finally, the exposure to
new ideas can translate into direct collective
challenges to male prerogatives. The widely
documented anti-liquor movement
mounted by members of Mahila Samakhya,
a literacy programme for women in India,
was sparked off by images of collective
action against alcoholism in their literacy
primer (Niranjana 2002).
Limits to education as a route to
empowerment
However, there are also studies that suggest
that the changes associated with education
are likely to be conditioned by the context in
which it is provided and the social
relationships that it embodies and promotes.
In societies that are characterised by extreme
forms of gender inequality, not only is
women's access to education curtailed by
various restrictions on their mobility and
their limited role in the wider economy, but
its effects may also be more limited. Where
women's role in society is defined purely in
reproductive terms, education is seen in
terms of equipping girls to be better wives
and mothers, or increasing their chances of
getting a suitable husband. These are
legitimate aspirations, given the realities of
the society. However, they do little to equip
girls and women to question the world
around them, and the subordinate status
assigned to them.
A second set of qualifications concerns the
relationships embodied in the delivery of
education. Social inequalities are often
reproduced through interactions within the
school system. In India, for example, not only
do the children of poor and scheduled-caste
households attend different, and differently
Gender equality and women's empowerment 17
resourced, schools, but, even within the same
school, different groups of children are
treated differently. Dalit children are
sometimes made to sit separately from others,
are verbally abused, are used for running
menial errands, and are physically punished
more often than higher-caste children. There
is also evidence of widespread gender bias,
with teachers showing more attention to boys
and having a lower opinion of girls' abilities.
The absence, or minority presence, of female
teachers is a problem in many areas.
Reinforcing the male dominance of public
services, it can act as a barrier to girls' access to
and completion of schooling.
Teachers in Africa also have different
attitudes towards male and female students,
on the basis that boys need careers and girls
need husbands. They tend to be dismissive
and discouraging towards girls and to give
more classroom time to boys, who are
usually more demanding. Even when girls
are encouraged to pursue a career, they are
expected to opt for the 'caring' professions,
in other words teaching and nursing. The
'hidden curriculum' of school practice
reinforces messages about girls' inferior
status on a daily basis and provides them
with a negative learning experience, thus
creating a culture of low self-esteem and low
aspirations.
The less hidden content of the
educational curriculum also mirrors and
legitimates wider social inequalities,
denigrating physical labour (largely the
preserve of poor people) and domestic
activities (largely the preserve of women).
Cender stereotyping in the curriculum
portrays girls as passive, modest, and shy,
while boys are seen as assertive, brave, and
ambitious. This reinforces traditional gender
roles in society, and acts to limit the kinds of
futures that girls are able to imagine for
themselves. The design of educational
curricula has not yet taken account of the fact
that many more women are entering the
labour market around the world, making
critical contributions to household income
18 Gender and Development

and frequently heading their own initiate or expand women's own income-
households. Policy makers often continue to generating activities, despite the fact that
see the benefits of educating girls and these continued to be largely home-based
women in terms of improving family health (Hashemi et al 1996; Schuler et al. 1996). A
and welfare, rather than preparing women recent survey of the impact of various
for a more equal place in the economy and in microfinance organisations (MFOs) in India
society. Women's lack of skills partly and Bangladesh noted that longer-term
explains why they continue to be confined to membership of such groups also led to
the poorer paid and more casualised forms various categories of wider impact, including
of paid work. higher levels of political participation,
These limitations to education as a route improved access to government
to empowerment do not negate the earlier programmes, and practical skills, as well as
positive findings, but they suggest the need knowledge of the wider society, self-
for caution in assuming that the effects of confidence in dealing with public officials,
education can be taken for granted or that and the likelihood of participating in protests
they will be uniform across all contexts. They and campaigns (Kabeer, forthcoming).
point to the various aspects of educational However, the study notes that these impacts
provision that militate against not only its depend not only on the provision of financial
empowerment potential but even its ability services of various kinds, but also on the
to attract and retain girls in school, kinds of group that MFOs promote.
particularly those from poor backgrounds.
Positive implications of wage labour in
agriculture
Access to paid work However, the most striking feature of recent
There is also a solid body of evidence to decades has been the large-scale entry of
show that access to paid work can increase women into the labour market across the
women's agency in strategic ways. world: the 'feminisation' of the labour force.
The rise of non-traditional agricultural
Positive implications of self-employment export (NTAE) production in a number of
Even paid work carried out in the home has African and Latin American countries has
the potential to shift the balance of power led to a rise in wage employment for women
within the family. A detailed study of women in medium- and large-scale production
engaged in industrial homework in Mexico units. Studies suggest that this income has
City noted that in households where brought about a number of economic
women's economic contribution was critical improvements for women themselves and
to household survival, women had been able for their families, and show that they
to negotiate a greater degree of respect exercise a considerable say in how their
(Beneria and Roldan 1987). Studies of the money is spent (see, for instance, the review
impact of microcredit in societies where in Dolan and Sorby 2003). A study in
women have traditionally been excluded Ecuador found that more than 80 per cent of
from the cash economy have found that women in the flower industry managed their
own wages. Among female employees in the
women's access to credit led to a number of
Kenyan vegetable industry, single women
positive changes in women's own
managed and controlled their own wages,
perceptions of themselves, and their role in
while married women usually managed
household decision making (Kabeer 2001;
their incomes jointly with husbands.
Kabeer forthcoming). It also led to a long-
term reduction in domestic violence, as well There is also significant evidence from
as an increase in women's assets. Such effects the vegetable industries of Guatemala and
were stronger when these loans were used to the Dominican Republic, and the flower

industry of Mexico, that women's
participation in wage employment has led to
greater independence in household decision
making. In some cases, as among women
working in the fresh vegetable industry in
the Dominican Republic, it has allowed them
to escape abusive marriages. Women
working in theflowerindustry in Colombia
reported widening their social networks in
ways that would otherwise have proved
difficult in rural areas. Workers in the fresh
vegetable industry in Kenya not only
reported greater economic independence,
but also new opportunities for meeting with
women from other parts of the country.
Positive implications of non-agricultural
wage labour
Evidence of changes in women's life chances
as a result of entry into waged work appears
to be more marked when it occurs in the non-
agricultural sector (see the review of
literature in Kabeer, forthcoming). This is
partly because such employment is
generally associated with migration by
women out of rural areas and away from the
patriarchal controls of kinship and
community. In a country where women had
previously been denied public forms of
employment, women workers in the export
garment industry in Bangladesh expressed
their satisfaction at having a 'proper' job and
regular wages, compared with the casual,
poorly paid forms of employment that had
previously been their only options. Many
had used their new-found earning power to
renegotiate their relations within marriage,
others to leave abusive marriages. Women
who had previously not been able to help out
their ageing parents once they got married
now insisted on their right to do so. Yet
others used their earnings to postpone early
marriage and to challenge the practice of
dowry. In addition, they valued the new
social networks that they were able to build
with their co-workers, and the greater sense
of independence they now enjoyed.
Similarly positive evaluations are
reported in a number of other studies. As in
Gender equality and women's empowerment 19
Bangladesh, women in Turkey had
previously been permitted to work outside
the home only if it was necessary for family
survival. In a study of the clothing industry,
however, many of those interviewed no
longer saw their work as subordinate to their
familial roles, to be abandoned when they
got married or had children. Rather, they
saw it as a more permanent way of life. The
overwhelming majority had made their own
decision to enter factory work, giving as
their reasons their desire to make use of their
skills and to be outside the home. Forty per
cent of the workers, who were mainly young
single women, indicated their preference to
work a considerable distance from home in
order to escape the control exercised by their
family and neighbours. They wanted to
work somewhere where they could move
about freely during their lunch breaks and
take the opportunity to meet their friends,
including boyfriends.
A study of women workers in export
manufacturing jobs in the Philippines found
that most of them earned at least as much as -
and many earned more than - the legal
minimum wage, and they also enjoyed more
benefits than in alternative forms of
employment. They had the opportunity to
delay marriage and childbirth, and the scope
for personal independence and self-
determination that comes with relatively high
wages and relatively stable employment
(compared with work in the informal
economy). While factory employment may
not provide much satisfaction in itself, it was
suggested that it could gradually lead to
positive changes in women's personal and
household circumstances.
In China, young, single women migrate
from the countryside to live and work in the
export-processing zones in the south. Such
jobs are fiercely competed for in the country-
side, because they are more remunerative
than agricultural work. Moreover, many
women previously worked on family farms
where they never received an independent
wage. Young women wanted to earn money.
20 Gender and Development
not only to help their families but also to buy
things for themselves without having to
account to someone for whatever they spent.
Others used their earnings to meet the
demand for repayment of bride price or
child support by husbands whom they
wished to divorce.
In Honduras, women working in
maquiladoras (assembling manufactured
goods for export) earned higher wages than
workers elsewhere, and they reported
improvements in household relationships
and help in domestic work from male
members. They were more likely to have
voted in elections and more likely to feel that
they carried some weight with the
government. These trends became stronger
over time. This may explain why, while most
workers wanted to see improvements,
especially in their wages, 96 per cent
reported that they were very (49 per cent) or
somewhat (47 per cent) satisfied with their
jobs. Similarly, married women workers in
export-oriented manufacturing factories in a
number of Caribbean countries reported
improvements in household relations as a
result of their greater economic
contributions, with greater sharing of
decision making with male partners.
The limits to empowerment through paid
work
On the other hand, most of these studies also
highlight the exploitative conditions of work
in which women are generally found. The
greatest attention has been paid to women
who work in the agro and manufacturing
industries, which seek to compete
internationally through the promotion of
flexible labour practices. Export-oriented
manufacturing is associated with extremely
long hours of work during busy seasons,
often combined with lay-offs in the slack
season, and poor conditions. In China, most
women from the localities in which these
industries are based shunned such work if
they could find employment with higher
status or that was less tedious. There are also
health hazards. Maquila workers in
Honduras, for example, were more likely to
report a health problem in the previous
month than those who had been working
elsewhere, and they had less leisure. Studies
from Vietnam and Bangladesh both found
long hours of work in the same position to be
the major source of complaint among
women workers in the export sector,
together with various ailments associated
with this.
Moreover, not all studies report positive
findings concerning women's capacity to
have greater control over their lives. Many
women who leave rural areas to take up jobs
in towns, in order to make new friends and
build a life for themselves, do not have time
to take up such opportunities. The division
of labour in domestic chores and child care is
rarely renegotiated between the sexes.
Despite their increased labour input into
paid work, women (particularly married
women) either continue to bear the main
burden of domestic work, or share it with
other female members of the household -
often their daughters. By and large, gender
inequalities in work burdens appear to be
intensified. Despite the collective nature of
their work, women workers in these sectors
are either forbidden to unionise or find it
difficult to do so.
Moreover, despite the visibility of
export-oriented waged employment in
agriculture and industry, the vast majority of
women in low-income countries continue to
work in the informal economy in various
forms of economic activities that may or may
not be affected by global markets, but are
characterised by far worse conditions.
Within this informal economy, poorer
women are concentrated in the most
casualised forms of waged labour, and low-
value own-account enterprises. It is difficult
to see how earnings generated by sex work,
domestic service, or daily labour on
construction sites - which is where the
poorest women are likely to be found - will
do much to improve women's subordinate
status at home or at work.
 Gender equality and women's empowerment 21

Political representation selection; and identify relevant policy

concerns. Most important is the political
The last of the indicators for monitoring culture in which parties operate and the
progress on gender equality and women's extent to which it is conducive to the
empowerment relates to the number of seats promotion of women's involvement in
held by women in national parliaments. It politics: the strength or weakness of
moves the focus of empowerment into the patriarchal ideology, the existence of
arena of politics, and the struggle for pluralist forms of organisation, the degree of
participation and representation in decision- religious opposition to gender reforms.
making structures.
Electoral systems are also important. The
Positive effects of national ones more likely to bring women into
representation political oftice are those where more than one
As half of the population, women are clearly person can represent a constituency; those
entitled to at least half the seats in that have multiple parties competing for
parliament. Such an achievement could, votes; and those that practise proportional
with certain qualifications, represent the representation (PR) in party lists.
most ambitious of the three forms of change Those less likely to do so are majoritarian
singled out to measure progress on women's systems which create the incentive to field a
empowerment and could have the greatest single candidate per constituency and appeal
potential for transformation. Furthermore, to the majority, rather than accommodating
again with certain qualifications, it could diversity. A review of 53 legislatures in 1999
potentially address many of the constraints found that national assemblies in PR systems
that limit the life chances of poor women. had nearly 24 per cent of women, compared
However, because these qualifications with 11 per cent in majoritarian systems. In
relate to the same constraints that have almost every case where women exceed 15
prevented women from all social classes and per cent of elected representative bodies, this
groups from having a 'strategic presence' in has been the result of special measures that
national parliaments, it is also the form of accord positive advantage to female
social change least likely to be achieved in candidates: Mozambique has 30 per cent
the near future. A review of the relevant female parliamentarians, while South Africa
statistics suggests that, regardless of political has 29 per cent. Bangladesh, Burkina Faso,
systems, the proportion of women in India, Tanzania, and Uganda all have
national parliaments around the world is reserved seats for women in national or local
extremely low, averaging 13.8 per cent in government.
2000 (Goetz 2003). This is an extraordinary The way that quotas are applied makes a
under-representation of women in the difference to whether the presence of women
highest structures of governance in their is 'token' or a legitimate form of
countries. Various forms of bias in the representation. Where, as in Bangladesh,
institutions of civil society and the political women's seats were filled by the party in
sphere - more so than conscious power, they simply became an additional vote
discrimination - operate to exclude women, bank for the ruling regime. In South Africa, on
including women from privileged elites. the other hand, there have been attempts by
The structure of the political sphere the women's movement to encourage
makes a difference to how many women are members from within their ranks to enter
fielded as candidates and how many win. politics. A woman MP there was active in
This includes the extent to which political initiating the process of examining national
parties have taken institutional root in budgets from a gender perspective; and the
society; have clear rules about candidate Women's Budget Initiative, established in
22 Gender and Development
1995, brought together parliamentarians and
NCOs to scrutinise the allocation of public
resources (Budlender, Hicks, and Vetten
2002).
At the same time, it should be noted that,
at present, the women who enter national
parliaments are not generally drawn from
the ranks of poor people, nor is there any
guarantee that they will be more responsive
to the needs and priorities of poor women
than many men in parliament.
Positive effects of local government
There is some debate about whether greater
participation and influence in local
government structures are more relevant
goals for poor women than increasing
women's seats in national parliaments. The
former, after all, make the decisions that
most directly affect the lives of poor people.
In recognition of this, a number of states in
India, where there is now 33 per cent
reservation of seats for women in local
government, have added further induce-
ments to local communities to encourage
women's participation. Madhya Pradesh
and Kerala, for example, require that one-
third of participants in the regular open
village meetings are female before there is
considered to be a quorum. Kerala also
allocates 10 per cent of development funds
received by local councils from the state to be
used for 'women's development' and to be
managed by representatives of female
groups of the village assembly.
Clearly, all these measures, including the
reservation policy itself, are open to abuse.
There has been much discussion in India
about the possibility that women are merely
proxies for husbands or powerful men
within their family or caste. Objections are
raised on the grounds that only supporters
of parties in power attend village meetings;
or that women are being harassed to spend
funds in ways that do not benefit poorer
women. While these are valid concerns, they
may also alter over time, as women become
more experienced in the political arena.
Studies from India, for example, showed
that many of the elected women were
gaining self-confidence. They questioned the
priorities of panchayat (local government)
development programmes, emphasised
issues affecting women such as fuel and
water, and had begun to build broad
alliances among themselves. One study
showed that women representatives were
likely to allocate resources differently from
men, suggesting that their presence allowed
a different set of priorities to be expressed.
Building citizenship from
the grassroots
It is clear that each of the resources in
question had the potential to bring about the
kinds of change that could lead to
renegotiations of the boundaries between
public and private life, to collective forms of
struggle, and to women's greater represent-
ation in the structures of decision making.
Together, they could also provide the basis
on which women could organise to address
the other aspects of the patriarchal structures
on which the MDCs are silent: reproductive
rights, violence against women, unjust laws,
and so on. However, it is also clear that there
are likely to be powerful forces, some within
the policy domain itself, that will militate
against this happening. It is only through the
mobilisation of women, particularly poor
women, who are primary stakeholders in all
of the MDCs, but particularly the MDC on
women's empowerment, that policy makers
can be held accountable to ensure that the
MDCs are followed through in the spirit of
the international movements and meetings
that gave rise to them. Yet it is precisely this
that is missing from the letter and spirit of the
MDCs. The vision and values of women's
groups and organisations across the world
have been translated into a series of technical
goals, to be implemented mainly by the very
actors and institutions that have blocked
their realisation in the past.
If the vision and values that gave rise to
the demand for gender equality and

women's empowerment in the first place are
to be restored to MDG 3, then those with
most at stake in its implementation in
accordance with this spirit must be in a
position to participate in the processes by
which it is translated into objectives,
activities, and outcomes. This is most likely
to happen if the women in question, together
with their allies in government and civil
society, are mobilised to participate in these
processes. Sometimes such mobilisations
have begun to occur because of the nature of
certain activities. We have noted the way in
which microfinance can provide the basis for
building women's capacity for collective
action. We have also noted how such action
can spill over into the political sphere, not
simply in the form of voting, but also in
interactions with locally represented
officials and participation in protests. We are
also seeing evidence of greater willingness
on the part of women workers to challenge
their employers and the state through
organisations such as SEWA (Self-Employed
Women's Association) and Mahila
Samakhya in India, and Kormojibi Nari and
Nijera Kori in Bangladesh. We have seen the
innovation of Women's Budget Initiatives in
a number of countries, not simply as a
technical exercise but as a way of learning
more about how governance structures
function and how resources are raised and
allocated. It is through the mobilisation of
women as women but also as workers,
mothers, and citizens that the international
community can ensure that the MDGs speak
to the needs and interests of half of the
world's population. Building this collective
capacity of women in all spheres of life to
participate and to hold authorities
accountable is thus the only basis on which
the world's policy makers can keep the
promises that they have made on the issue of
gender equality.
Gender equality and women's empowerment 23
Conclusion
Gender relations, like all social relations, are
multi-stranded: they embody ideas, values,
and identities; they allocate labour between
different tasks, activities, and domains; they
determine the distribution of resources; and
they assign authority, agency, and decision-
making power. This means that gender
inequalities are multi-dimensional and
cannot be reduced to some single and
universally agreed set of priorities. Any
attempt to do so will run the danger of being
either too narrow (as the MDGs have been
accused of being) or a wish list that is too
long and complex to act on. However,
gender relationships are not internally
cohesive. They contain contradictions and
imbalances, particularly when there have
been changes in the wider socio-economic
environment. Consequently, a shift in one
aspect of social relations can initiate a series
of changes in other aspects, with
unpredictable consequences. To that extent,
it could be argued that each of the three
indicators embodied in MDG 3 has the
potential to make a difference. Each can
bring about immediate changes with longer-
term consequences. Indeed, the same could
be said of any set of policies that seeks to
improve women's access to resources. Some
may be more strategic than others, but all
have transformatory potential as long as the
change in question is a genuine expansion of
women's choices, rather than a token gesture
of paternalist benevolence.
However, this article has also argued that
unless provision is made to ensure that
policy changes are implemented in ways
that allow women themselves to participate,
to monitor, and to hold policy makers,
corporations, and other relevant actors
accountable for their actions, this potential is
unlikely to be realised. Women's access to
education may improve their chances of a
good marriage or their capacity to sign their
names on a document, but unless it also
provides them with the analytical capacity
and courage to question unjust practices, its
24 Gender and Development
potential for change will be limited.
Women's access to paid work may give them
a greater sense of self-reliance and greater
purchasing power, but if it is undertaken in
conditions that erode their health and exploit
their labour, its costs may outweigh its
benefits. Women's presence in the
governance structures of society clearly
carries the potential to change unjust
practices, but if the women in question are
drawn from a narrow elite, if they have been
invited rather than elected, and if they have
no grassroots constituency to represent and
answer to, their presence will be only a token
one.
The question, therefore, is to what extent
the international community is prepared to
provide support to women at the grassroots
- support which will ensure that they have
the collective capabilities necessary to play
this role.
Naila Kabeer is Professorial Fellow at the
Institute of Development Studies, University of
Sussex. She can he contacted at
n.kabeer@ids.ac.uk
Note
1 This article is an edited version of a chapter in
Gender Mainstreaming in Poverty Eradication and the
Millennium Development Goals: A Handbook for
Policy-makers and Other Stakeholders, by Naila
Kabeer, published by the Commonwealth
Secretariat, London, in 2003.
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Women Empowerment
Gender equality is, first and foremost, a human right. A woman is entitled to live in
dignity and in freedom from want and from fear. Empowering women is also an
indispensable tool for advancing development and reducing poverty.
Empowered women contribute to the health and productivity of whole families and
communities and to improved prospects for the next generation. The importance of
gender equality is underscored by its inclusion as one of the eight Millennium
Development Goals. Gender equality is acknowledged as being a key to achieving the
other seven goals.
Yet discrimination against women and girls - including gender-based violence,
economic discrimination, reproductive health inequities, and harmful traditional
practices - remains the most pervasive and persistent form of inequality. Women and
girls bear enormous hardship during and after humanitarian emergencies, especially
armed conflicts. There have been several organisations and institutions advocating for
women, promoting legal and policy reforms and gender-sensitive data collection, and
supporting projects that improve women's health and expand their choices in life.
Despite many international agreements affirming their human rights, women are still
much more likely than men to be poor and illiterate. They usually have less access
than men to medical care, property ownership, credit, training and employment. They
are far less likely than men to be politically active and far more likely to be victims of
domestic violence.
The ability of women to control their own fertility is absolutely fundamental to
women’s empowerment and equality. When a woman can plan her family, she can
plan the rest of her life. When she is healthy, she can be more productive. And when
her reproductive rights—including the right to decide the number, timing and spacing
of her children, and to make decisions regarding reproduction free of discrimination,
coercion and violence—are promoted and protected, she has freedom to participate
more fully and equally in society.
Understanding gender equality and women's empowerment
Gender equality implies a society in which women and men enjoy the same
opportunities, outcomes, rights and obligations in all spheres of life. Equality between
men and women exists when both sexes are able to share equally in the distribution of
power and influence; have equal opportunities for financial independence through
work or through setting up businesses; enjoy equal access to education and the
opportunity to develop personal ambitions.
A critical aspect of promoting gender equality is the empowerment of women, with a
focus on identifying and redressing power imbalances and giving women more
autonomy to manage their own lives.
Women's empowerment is vital to sustainable development and the realization of
human rights for all. Where women’s status is low, family size tends to be large,
which makes it more difficult for families to thrive. Population and development and
reproductive health programmes are more effective when they address the educational
opportunities, status and empowerment of women. When women are empowered,
whole families benefit, and these benefits often have ripple effects to future
generations.
The roles that men and women play in society are not biologically determined -- they
are socially determined, changing and changeable. Although they may be justified as
being required by culture or religion, these roles vary widely by locality and change
over time.
Key issues and linkages
Reproductive health: Women, for both physiological and social reasons, are more
vulnerable than men to reproductive health problems. Reproductive health problems,
including maternal mortality and morbidity, represent a major – but preventable --
cause of death and disability for women in developing countries. Failure to provide
information, services and conditions to help women protect their reproduction health
therefore constitutes gender-based discrimination and a violation of women’s rights to
health and life.
Stewardship of natural resources: Women in developing nations are usually in
charge of securing water, food and fuel and of overseeing family health and diet.
Therefore, they tend to put into immediate practice whatever they learn about
nutrition and preserving the environment and natural resources.
Economic empowerment: More women than men live in poverty. Economic
disparities persist partly because much of the unpaid work within families and
communities falls on the shoulders of women and because they face discrimination in
the economic sphere.
Educational empowerment: About two thirds of the illiterate adults in the world
are female. Higher levels of women's education are strongly associated with both
lower infant mortality and lower fertility, as well as with higher levels of education
and economic opportunity for their children.
Political empowerment: Social and legal institutions still do not guarantee women
equality in basic legal and human rights, in access to or control of land or other
resources, in employment and earning, and social and political participation. Laws
against domestic violence are often not enforced on behalf of women.
Experience has shown that addressing gender equality and women’s empowerment
requires strategic interventions at all levels of programming and policy-making.
Women’s Work and Economic Empowerment
In nearly every country, women work longer hours than men, but are usually paid less
and are more likely to live in poverty. In subsistence economies, women spend much
of the day performing tasks to maintain the household, such as carrying water and
collecting fuel wood. In many countries women are also responsible for agricultural
production and selling. Often they take on paid work or entrepreneurial enterprises as
well.
Unpaid domestic work – from food preparation to care giving – directly affects the
health and overall well being and quality of life of children and other household
members. The need for women’s unpaid labour often increases with economic shocks,
such as those associated with the AIDS pandemic or economic restructuring. Yet
women's voices and lived experiences – whether as workers (paid and unpaid),
citizens, or consumers – are still largely missing from debates on finance and
development. Poor women do more unpaid work, work longer hours and may accept
degrading working conditions during times of crisis, just to ensure that their families
survive.
Intergenerational gender gaps
The differences in the work patterns of men and women, and the 'invisibility' of work
that is not included in national accounts, lead to lower entitlements to women than to
men. Women’s lower access to resources and the lack of attention to gender in
macroeconomic policy adds to the inequity, which, in turn, perpetuates gender gaps.
For example, when girls reach adolescence they are typically expected to spend more
time in household activities, while boys spend more time on farming or wage work.
By the time girls and boys become adults; females generally work longer hours than
males, have less experience in the labour force, earn less income and have less leisure,
recreation or rest time.
This has implications for investments in the next generation. If parents view daughters
as less likely to take paid work or earn market wages, they may be less inclined to
invest in their education, women's fastest route out of poverty.
Empowering Women through Education
"Education is one of the most important means of empowering women with the
knowledge, skills and self-confidence necessary to participate fully in the
development process."
—ICPD Programme of Action, paragraph 4.2
Education is important for everyone, but it is especially significant for girls and
women. This is true not only because education is an entry point to other
opportunities, but also because the educational achievements of women can have
ripple effects within the family and across generations. Investing in girls' education is
one of the most effective ways to reduce poverty. Investments in secondary school
education for girls yield especially high dividends.
Girls who have been educated are likely to marry later and to have smaller and
healthier families. Educated women can recognize the importance of health care and
know how to seek it for themselves and their children. Education helps girls and
women to know their rights and to gain confidence to claim them. However, women’s
literacy rates are significantly lower than men’s in most developing countries.
Education has far-reaching effects
The education of parents is linked to their children's educational attainment, and the
mother's education is usually more influential than the father's. An educated mother's
greater influence in household negotiations may allow her to secure more resources
for her children.
Educated mothers are more likely to be in the labour force, allowing them to pay
some of the costs of schooling, and may be more aware of returns to schooling. And
educated mothers, averaging fewer children, can concentrate more attention on each
child.
Besides having fewer children, mothers with schooling are less likely to have
mistimed or unintended births. This has implications for schooling, because poor
parents often must choose which of their children to educate.
Closing the gender gap in education is a development priority. The 1994 Cairo
Consensus recognized education, especially for women, as a force for social and
economic development. Universal completion of primary education was set as a 20-
year goal, as was wider access to secondary and higher education among girls and
women. Closing the gender gap in education by 2015 is also one of the benchmarks
for the Millennium Development Goals.
Political Empowerment
Throughout much of the world, women’s equality is undermined by historical
imbalances in decision-making power and access to resources, rights, and entitlements
for women. Either by law or by custom, women in many countries still lack rights to:
Own land and to inherit property, obtain access to credit, attend and stay in school.
Earn income and move up in their work, free from job discrimination. Moreover,
women are still widely under-represented in decision-making at all levels, in the
household and in the public sphere.
Addressing these inequities through laws and public policy is a way of formalizing the
goal of gender equality. Legal changes, which most countries have now implemented,
are often a necessary step to institute gender equality, but not necessarily sufficient to
create lasting changes. Addressing the gaps between what the law proscribes and what
actually occurs often requires broad, integrated campaigns.
Conclusion: Gender equality and women's empowerment are human rights that lie at
the heart of development and the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals.
Despite the progress that has been made, six out of ten of world's poorest people are
still women and girls, less than 16 percent of the world's parliamentarians are women,
two thirds of all children shut outside the school gates are girls and, both in times of
armed conflict and behind closed doors at home, women are still systematically
subjected to violence. Women empowerment connotes “Economic Empowerment”
which implies a better quality of material life through sustainable livelihoods owned
and managed by women, "social empowerment" which means a more equitable social
status for women in society, "Legal Empowerment"that suggests the provision of an
effective legal structure which is supportive of women’s empowerment and "Political
Empowerment" means a political system favouring the participation in, and control by
women of the political decision making process and in governance.

Reference: http://www.unfpa.org/public/
 Women Empowerment in 21st Century

Prof Dr Shubhada Mohan Kulkarni

KCES’s Institute of Management and Research,Jalgaon

smkulkarni2006@gmail.com

Introduction

Empowerment is a multi-dimensional process which should enable individuals or a group of

individuals to realize their full identity and powers in all spheres of life. According to websters
dictionary the word empowerment indicates the situation of authority or to be authorized or to be
powerful. Empowerment is a process that gives a person freedom in decision making .
What is women empowerment?

Women empowerment means emancipation of women from the vicious grips of social,
economical, political, caste and gender-based discrimination. It means granting women the
freedom to make life choices. Women Empowerment itself elaborates that Social Rights ,
Political Rights , Economic stability , judicial strength and all other rights should be also equal to
women. There should be no discrimination between men and woman.(
https://www.iaspaper.net/women-empowerment-in-india). Empowerment is an aid to help
women to achieve equality with men or at least to reduce gender gap considerably.( P.K.B
Nayar)
Swami Vivekananda, quoted that, “There is no chance for the welfare of the world unless the
condition of women is improved” Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru said “when women move forward the
family moves, the villages move, and the nation move.” ‘There is no tool for development more
effective than the empowerment of women.” Kofi Annan. “We cannot all succeed if half of this
are held back.” Malala Yousafzai. If we understand the quotes then we find that thinkers all
across the generation and continents favor women development and empowerment.

Paolo Colella, head od Region India, Ericssons talks about how organizations with balanced
representation of men and women perform better. (Yasmin, 2015) An inclusive environment that
nurtures a diverse workforce makes the organization more productive, innovative, agile and more
responsive to the internal as well as the external environment, including customers. In order to
grow, we need to rely on a broader talent pool and this is an important reason for not excluding ,
by default, 50% of the base for gender reasons. Talent is genderless. According to a study, India
can increase its 2025 GDP estimated at $ 4.83 trillion, by 16-60% simply by enabling women to
participate in the economy on par with men, thus the ideology should be on embracing and
leveraging differences for the best possible business outcome. (Yasmin.Taj@timesgroup.com
TOI 9 Dec 2015)

1
Current Scenario on Women Empowerment

Based on the ideas championed by our founding fathers for women empowerment, many social,
economic and political provisions were incorporated in the Indian Constitution. Women in India
now participate in areas such as education, sports, politics, media, art and culture, service sector
and science and technology. But due to the deep rooted patriarchal mentality in the Indian
society, women are still victimized, humiliated, tortured and exploited. Even after almost seven
decades of Independence, women are still subjected to discrimination in the social, economic and
educational field. India is positioned at the 29th rank among 146 countries across the globe on
the basis of Gender Inequality Index.

Let us look at two important factors that can help in empowering women: Education and
Entrepreneurship

Few Women on Top in Indian Academia

India’s higher education lacks women academic leaders, according to a survey of 810 institutions
that include the premier Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs) and the Indian Institutes of
Management (IIMs).Only 54 out of 810 such places of learning, including, central, state, deemed
universities and institutes of national importance (INIs), have women at the helm. That 6.67%
compares poorly with the US (18%), Australia (21%) and the UK (17%).
(Sreeradha.Basu@timesgroup.com) Reasons for Low Numbers: Inherent bias against women,
Limited talent pool, Few women apply for job of director at IITs/IIMs (The Economic Times,
2015)

Catching them young

It’s a well known fact that not many women opt for careers in the science, technology,
engineering and math or STEM fields. As a result, gender ratios are highly skewed towards male
employees. Several companies are running programmes targeting girls-only schools with an
objective to build a future bench strength which is more diverse in nature. (Singh, 2015)

In India, MastrCard has established a tech hub. India is the first country in Asia-Pacific where
MasterCard has launched the Girls4Tech. Dell India has a programme called “IT is not just for
geeks”, specifically targeted at school girls, in an attempt to excite them about careers in this
space. Sudha K V, executive director, Dell Product Group, said:”We talk to students what they
want to pursue, and when we get the usual responses like teaching or writing, we tell them how
they can join a tech company and join learning and organizational development or tech writing,
which correlates with their aspirations. We have also covered rural schools.” HCL Technologies,
too, is associated with an after-school coaching programme to help girl students on STEM. The
focus is to enable 50,000 girl students by 2020. (Namrata Singh@timesgroup.com)

2
On an average, gender diversity in software and IT at entry level, according to a TeamLease
report, is at just about 15%

Entrepreneurship Development for women in India

When we compare ourselves with other countries, it is observed that women Entrepreneurs get a
raw deal (Times of India, 2015) Which is the best country for high-potential women
entrepreneurs to succeed? It’s not certainly India which ranks a lowly 70 among 77 countries
covered in the 2015-Female Entrepreneurship Index. The main reasons that the study identifies
for the countries poor score are lack of labor force parity and access to first tier finance. Women
entrepreneurs find even initial debt funding required for day-to-day operations , difficult to raise.
India’s neighbors have fared worse, with Bangladesh at 75 and Pakistan occupying the lowest
rank at 77. The US, Australia and UK are the top three with high potential female entrepreneurs
i.e. women who own and operate businesses that are innovative, market expanding and export
oriented. Of the 77 nations surveyed, 47 (including India)scored less than 50 points out of a top
score of 100 on various parameters. (Times of India, 2015) This indicates that significant
changes are required to reduce barriers for female entrepreneurs.
The country lacks also large-scale women-oriented venture capital funds or institutions, like
Wells Fargo in the US which provides customized offerings to women entrepreneurs such as
collateral-free loans of up to $100,000(Rs 63 lakh). Golden Seeds, a US-bases VC fund, invests
exclusively in women-led enterprises.

Financial training and mentoring programmes help women entrepreneurs get that edge when it
comes to writing business plans and seeking funds from banks and VCs but small steps have
been taken in that direction. But the country need to do much more to improve the ecosystem for
its women entrepreneurs. According to Lloyd, increasing access to bank account, financial
training programmes and improving gender diversity across sectors were key areas of
improvement.

Women Business Leaders

The best way to validate a company’s inclusion of women can be measured by the presence of
women in key leadership positions. Women at leadership levels act as role models for others,
which can accelerate and attract high potential women employees. To handle the issue of female
employees leaving the company at mid-management level due to family reasons, companies
should invest in setting up infrastructure and policies that complement their development and
ensure their holistic growth. If companies are not able to identify core issues and assist women in
juggling their family commitments and official roles, then they eventually lose out on a talented
female employee. Organizations should focus on creating an ecosystem where issues can be
discussed, negotiated and resolved in partnership between the persons working together in a
team. (Yasmin, 2015)

3
Diversity creates a huge opportunity. The strength lies in taking on board the different
perspectives that different individuals on a team bring to the table and use that to better the
performance of the organization.

Skillsoft Survey

Women are concerned that their employers are not doing enough to close the gender gap in
leadership positions, according to a new survey of women in the workforce by Skillsoft.

Nearly all (90%) of the 450 women across the globe who participated in the survey cited there
are a disproportionate number of males in leadership positions at work. More than half of the
respondents (54%) stated its important for their organizations to offer leadership training specific
to women, but nearly 70% of women believe their employers do not provide adequate resources
and support to help them drive their careers forward. The respondent’s perceptions mirror the
current state of women in corporate leadership globally. In the United States, women hold more
than half of all professional-level jobs, yet comprise only 5% of Fortune 500 CEOs. In most
European countries women comprise less than 20% of all corporate boards and women represent
just 6% of corporate boards in Asia.

To hone in on women’s leadership development, organizations must acknowledge the key

factors inhibiting women’s career progression. Skillsoft’s study demonstrates that work-life
balance is the top concern for 63% of women. Competing priorities, like domestic
responsibilities, often limit the amount of time women have to develop into leaders within their
organization, according to a recent Eudemonia study.

From a macro perspective, 71% of respondents feel that enough is not being done (fair and poor)
within their organizations to address gender imbalance. Just over half of the respondents (53%)
say it is very or extremely important to have programmes specifically aimed at developing
women leaders as a business objective. Women in today’s workplace see the potential of their
role in growing the global economy.

Only about one quarter of respondents felt their organizations had a strategy in place to develop
women leaders. Another quarter were not aware of any programmes. While these programmes
may exist, visibility may be an issue. The largest proportion of responses (66%) indicates that
organizations are primarily targeting mid-level leaders for women-specific programmes.
Organizations need to make greater strides and commit to developing women throughout their
career cycles.

USA Story

Only one among the 87 new CEO’s named to lead the largest public firms in the US and Canada
in 2015 was a woman, according to a study released this week by the strategy consulting division
of PricewaterhouseCoopers (PwC). (Raighatta, 2016) That single honour went to Andrea

4
Greenberg, who was named CEO of MSG Networks in September after it was spun off from
Madison Square Garden.

Worldwide, the PwC study found only 10 women among the 359 permanent or interim CEO’s in
the 2,500 largest global companies it examined in 2015. The study, first reported in the
Washington Post, said at 2.8% of all new CEO’s , it is the lowest rate of female elevation since
2011. Hillary Clinton’s run for the White house is attracting worldwide notice and there is surge
of attention and support for equal pay and equal opportunity for women, the study shows that the
rate of new female CEO’s declined for the third year, and dipped to its lowest point since 2004,
when PwC began tracking the number. Just 11% of the new CEO’s named to the job last year
were women in PwC’s analysis of North American Companies- down from 4% in 2014, 4.7% in
2013, and 7.3% in 2012. Overall in the US, just 4% of S&P 500 CEO’s and Fortune 500 CEO’s
are women-dropping from 24 in 2014 to 21 in 2016. But the distribution of female CEO’s is
uneven. (chidanand.Raighatta@timesgroup.com)

Conclusion

In spite of many hurdles there are bright spots. There are high-profile women achievers from
many sectors, Having the zeal to succeed and reach the top is extremely important. These role
models will prompt others to follow in their foot steps. What is considered as exceptional will
become common and one wishes for a day where the parameters of this new normal will set
women free and empower them.

References

(2015, June 27). Times of India .

(2015, Dec 1). The Economic Times .

(2015, June 27). Times of India .

Raighatta, C. (2016, April 23). Times of india .

Singh, N. (2015, Dec 9). Times of India .

Yasmin. (2015, Dec 9). Times of India .

http://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/blog/2016/09/new-heforshe-report-puts-spotlight-on-
gender-equality-in-global-universities/ 28 November 2016

http://www.rmttc.com/images/new_pdf/concept_paper.pdf about women empowerment dt 22 Nov

‘16

https://www.iaspaper.net/women-empowerment-in-india/ dt 22 Nov ‘16

http://www.indiacelebrating.com/essay/social-issues/women-empowerment/ 25 Nov ‘16

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 http://www.indiacelebrating.com/essay/social-issues/women-empowerment/women-education-in-
india/ 25 Nov ‘16

http://fortune.com/2016/03/27/keep-women-corporate-america/25 Nov ‘16

https://sheroes.in/articles/why-are-women-in-demand-at-the-workplace/MTgyNw 25 Nov ‘16

http://www.forbesindia.com/blog/business-strategy/why-do-women-fall-behind-in-the-corporate-
world-or-do-they/ 25 Nov ‘16

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 WOMEN'S EMPOWERMENT IN INDIA
An Analytical Overview

Prepared by Reecha Upadhyay

General Overview

Women’s empowerment in India is heavily dependent on many different variables that include
geographical location (urban/rural), educational status, social status (caste and class), and age.
Policies on women’s empowerment exist at the national, state, and local (Panchayat) levels in
many sectors, including health, education, economic opportunities, gender-based violence, and
political participation. However, there are significant gaps between policy advancements and
actual practice at the community level.

One key factor for the gap in implementation of laws and policies1 to address discrimination,
economic disadvantages, and violence against women at the community level is the largely
patriarchal structure that governs the community and households in much of India. As such,
women and girls have restricted mobility, access to education, access to health facilities, and
lower decision-making power, and experience higher rates of violence. Political participation is
also hindered at the Panchayat (local governing bodies) level and at the state and national levels,
despite existing reservations for women.2

The impact of the patriarchal structure can be seen in rural and urban India, although women’s
empowerment in rural India is much less visible than in urban areas. This is of particular
concern, since much of India is rural despite the high rate of urbanization and expansion of cities.
Rural women, as opposed to women in urban settings, face inequality at much higher rates, and
in all spheres of life. Urban women and, in particular, urban educated women enjoy relatively
higher access to economic opportunities, health and education, and experience less domestic
violence. Women (both urban and rural) who have some level of education have higher decision-
making power in the household and the community. Furthermore, the level of women’s
education also has a direct implication on maternal mortality rates, and nutrition and health
indicators among children.3
                                                                                                               
1  Some  key   laws   and  p olicies  include:  Articles  14,  15,  16,  3 9(a),  39  (d),  D omestic  Violence  A ct  (2005),    Sati  

Prevention  Act  (1987),  Dowry  Prohibition  Act  and  Rules  (1985),  the  establishment  o f  the  Commission  on  the  
Status  on  Women,  at  the  National  and  State  levels.      
2   Reservations   for   women   exist  at   the   Panchayat  level   a nd   there   is  a movement to reserve 33% seats for women

in all the political parties, and all levels of national and state level political structures.
3  NFHS-­‐3   Data  analysis  http://www.measuredhs.com/      

  1  
Among rural women, there are further divisions that hinder women’s empowerment. The most
notable ones are education levels and caste and class divisions. Women from lower castes (the
scheduled castes, other backward castes, and tribal communities) are particularly vulnerable to
maternal mortality and infant mortality. They are often unable to access health and educational
services, lack decision-making power, and face higher levels of violence. Among women of
lower caste and class, some level of education has shown to have a positive impact on women’s
empowerment indicators.4

Social divisions among urban women also have a similar impact on empowerment indicators.
Upper class and educated women have better access to health, education, and economic
opportunities, whereas lower class, less educated women in urban settings enjoy these rights
significantly less. Due to rapid urbanisation and lack of economic opportunities in other parts of
the country, cities also house sprawling slum areas. Slums are informal sprawls, and most times
lack basic services such as clean water, sanitation, and health facilities. Additionally, slum
dwellers mostly work in unorganized and informal sectors, making them vulnerable to raids by
the state, abuse by employers, and other forms of insecurity. Women and children in slums are
among the most vulnerable to violence and abuse, and are deprived of their basic human rights.

As a result of a vibrant women’s movement in the last 50 years, policies to advance human rights
for women in India are substantial and forward-thinking, such as the Domestic Violence Act
(2005), and the 73rd and 74th Amendments to the Constitution that provide reservations for
women to enter politics at the Panchayat level. There are multiple national and state level
governmental and non-governmental mechanisms such as the Women’s Commission to advance
these policies, and the implementation of these policies is decentralized to state and district-level
authorities and organizations that include local non-governmental organizations.

The policy/practice gap in India cuts across all sectors and initiatives as a result of rampant
corruption and lack of good governance practices. State-level governments claim a lack of
resources, and the resources they do receive are highly susceptible to corruption. Financial
corruption hinders the government’s ability to invest in social capital, including initiatives to
advance women’s empowerment. Since the 1990’s India has put in place processes and
legislative acts such as the Right to Information Act (2005) for information disclosure to increase
transparency and hold government officials accountable. Mistrust of political institutions and
leaders remains high in the society with corruption and graft allegations often covering media
headlines.5

In addition to corruption and inadequate resources for implementation of initiatives at the

community level, women’s empowerment in India is negatively impacted by the pervasive
discrimination of women in the family and the community. Discrimination against women in
most parts of India (particularly the north) emerges from the social and religious construct of
women’s role and their status. As such, in many parts of India, women are considered to be less
than men, occupying a lower status in the family and community, which consequentially restricts
equal opportunity in women and girls’ access to education, economic possibilities, and mobility.
                                                                                                               
4  http://www.measuredhs.com/pubs/pdf/FRIND3/14Chapter14.pdf    
5  http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/APCITY/UNPAN019103.pdf    

  2  
Discrimination also limits women’s choices and freedom. These choices are further dependent
on structural factors like caste and class.

Empowerment for women in India requires a crosscutting approach and one which addresses the
diversity of social structures that govern women’s lives. Identity politics in India is a very critical
political instrument, which is both used and abused throughout political and social institutions.
There are numerous social movements fighting for the rights of the marginalized, such as the
Dalit rights movement, the tribal rights movement, etc. These movements have achieved many
gains in assuring representation of the traditionally marginalized communities into mainstream
society. Women’s rights within these movements are largely unarticulated and thus reinforce
inequalities within the very structures from which they are demanding inclusion. Empowerment
approaches for women therefore is not only about providing services, but also about recognizing
their lived realities of multiple layers of discrimination that hinder their access to services.

Similarly, access to education for girls in some of the northern states like Uttar Pradesh and
Punjab does not only rely on proximity of schools. Access to education is part of a larger
structural concern, including the practice of son preference, which creates inherent
discriminatory practices. Education initiatives therefore cannot rely solely on building
educational infrastructure, but also need to address some of the root causes of discrimination
against women and girls which affect the decisions made by parents.

Women’s security, decision-making power, and mobility are three indicators for women’s
empowerment. In India, and more so for rural and less educated women, these three indicators
are significantly low. Data from the NFHS-3 survey on women’s decision-making power shows
that only about one third of the women interviewed took decisions on their own regarding
household issues and their health. Decision-making power among employed urban women was
higher than among rural and less educated women. The survey also found that older married
women had more decision-making power than the younger married women. Younger women
and girls experience an additional layer of discrimination as a result of their age.

Data on women’s mobility in India indicates the lack of choices women have, and that urban and
educated women have more mobility choices than rural women. The data shows that about half
the women interviewed had the freedom to go to the market or a health facility alone. Seventy-
nine percent of urban women from the highest education brackets and only about 40 percent of
rural women without education were allowed to go to the market alone.

Mobility restrictions for women are dependent upon how the family and community view
women’s rights. They also, however, are intrinsically dependent on the prevailing levels of
violence against women in the household and the community. Abuse and violence towards
women is predominantly perpetrated within the household, and marital violence is among the
most accepted by both men and women. Wife beating, slapping, rape, dowry related deaths,
feudal violence towards tribal and lower caste women, trafficking, sexual abuse, and street
violence permeate the Indian social fabric, and create one of the most serious obstacles in
achieving women’s empowerment.

  3  
The gap in policy and practice in women’s empowerment is most visible when it comes to the
level and kinds of violence women face in India. Despite the policies, laws6, and initiatives by
civil society institutions, violence against women in India is widespread and the consequences
for perpetrators rarely match the crime. Enforcement of laws and sentencing of perpetrators are
long and arduous processes, and the gaps in these processes are further widened by corruption.

Another gap in implementing laws and policies on violence against women is the inaccessibility
of information on victims' rights among rural and less educated women. Additionally, social
stigma and the fear of abandonment by the family play a big role in women and girls’ ability or
inability to access laws and policies to address sexual and physical violence.

                                                                                                               
6  Domestic  V iolence  Act  (2005),    Article  21   of  the  Constitution    o n  women’s   bodily  integrity,   Sections  375  a nd  

376  of  the  Indian  Penal  Code,  etc.  

  4  
 WOMEN'S RIGHTS AND SECURITY IN INDIA
Issue Brief

Prepared by Reecha Upadhyay

Women’s Rights

Policies relating to women's rights have had a positive trajectory in the past few decades with the
central government articulating many progressive measures to advance gender equality in social,
economic, and political arenas. The Government of India (GoI) has two main bodies to advance
gender equality: the Ministry of Women and Child Development and the National Commission
for Women, which is an autonomous organization under the Ministry of Women and Child
Development.7 Both bodies work on national- and state-level legal and social policies to advance
gender equality. The Ministry has widely implemented local-level micro-finance schemes to
advance economic opportunities for rural women. The National Commission for Women has
been instrumental in creating legislative changes, and has set up Complaint and Investigate Cells
at the state level. The Grievance Cells receive complaints of gender-based violence and are
mandated to investigate, provide referrals and counselling, and ultimately report on such cases.8

With a vibrant women’s rights movement in India, there are continuous demands for better laws,
provisions, and accountability for implementation. Most recent examples include the change in
India’s rape laws, where in 2006 marital rape was recognized. Currently, women’s rights
activists are demanding better provisions in Sections 375 and 376 of the Indian Penal Code.
Since then, there have been multiple challenges by the women’s movement leading to small but
significant amendments9. The 2005 Domestic Violence Act provides protection from violence in
the household from not only male perpetrators, but also female perpetrators like mothers-in-law
and other female members in extended families.

There also have been gains in women's inheritance rights, yet challenges remain in
implementation. Social biases and lack of enforcement continue to hinder the full realization of
Indian inheritance laws. Inheritance laws and property distribution fall under the Hindu and
Muslim personal laws, both of which exempt agricultural land.10 For a country with a
predominantly agro-based economy, women’s inability to inherit agricultural land exacerbates
feminization of poverty and neglects women’s welfare.11

Like all other spheres of social change in India, there is an undeniable gap between policy and
practice. More notably, the deeply entrenched social hierarchies based on class, caste, ethnic, and

                                                                                                               
7  http://wcd.nic.in/    
8  http://ncw.nic.in/frmComplaintUnit.aspx  
9  http://www.thehindu.com/fline/fl2023/stories/20031121003109700.htm    
10  Hindu,   Sikhs,  Jains  a nd  Buddhist   come  under  the  H indu   L aw,   whereas  Christians   and   Muslims  have  their  

own  interpretation  of  marriage  and  civil  codes  

11  http://www.popcouncil.org/pdfs/seeds/seeds21.pdf    

  5  
communal divisions leave many communities on the margins with little knowledge of their rights
and even less protection from local, state, and national governmental policies.

Inequality between men and women runs across the board, including in education, economic
opportunities, representation in governance, and other state and private institutions. Additionally,
women in India face high rates of violence. Some recent statistics on women include:

• India ranks 18th among the highest maternal mortality rates in the world with 540 deaths
for every 100,000 births12
• Only 48% of adult Indian women are literate13
• Among rural women, 36.1% have experienced physical violence in their adult lives14
• 66% of women who have experienced physical violence in their lifetimes are divorced,
widowed, or deserted 15
• Lower caste and tribal women are among those who experience the highest levels of
physical violence
• 85.3% of women reporting violence claimed that their current husbands were the
perpetrators16
• According to the most recent Demographic and Health Survey analysis, only 43% of
currently married women (between ages 15-49) are employed as compared to 99% of
men17

Women’s Security

The multiple forms of violence experienced in the household, at the community level, and in
some instances by the state, threaten women’s security in India. In many parts of North India son
preference is a widely practiced phenomenon. Son preference has direct linkages to sex-selective
abortion (illegal across India; however, enforcement by both police and some doctors is still
lacking), and discrimination of girl children in access to health, nutrition, and education.
Research conducted by the International Centre for Research on Women (ICRW) found that,
although not universal, particularly in households where there is more than one daughter there
are significant differences in nutrition and health levels between male and female children. 18

Additionally, at the household level, incest, rape and domestic violence continue to hinder
women’s development across India. Forty percent of all sexual abuse cases in India are incest,
and 94% of the incest cases had a known member of the household as the perpetrator.19

Dowry related deaths, domestic violence, gang rape of lower caste women by upper caste men,
and physical violence by the police towards tribal women all contribute to women’s insecurity in

                                                                                                               
12  See  http://www.nationmaster.com/graph/hea_mat_mor-­‐health-­‐maternal-­‐mortality    
13  See  http://www.unifem.org.in/PDF/Progress%20of%20Women%20in%20South%20Asia%202007.pdf    
14  See  http://www.measuredhs.com/pubs/pdf/FRIND3/15Chapter15.pdf    
15  See  http://www.measuredhs.com/pubs/pdf/FRIND3/15Chapter15.pdf  
16  See  http://www.measuredhs.com/pubs/pdf/FRIND3/15Chapter15.pdf    
17  See  http://www.measuredhs.com/pubs/pdf/FRIND3/14Chapter14.pdf    
18  http://www.icrw.org/docs/2006_son-­‐preference.pdf    
19  http://www.unifem.org.in/PDF/Key%20Gender.pdf    

  6  
India. The class and caste structure inadvertently put poor women from lower class and tribal
communities at the most risk of violence. Class and caste divisions also create grave challenges
to poor, lower caste, and tribal women in accessing justice and retribution as victims and
survivors of violence.

Women and girls in urban India are also at high risk of gender-based violence. In Delhi, the
country’s capital, a scan of daily newspapers reveals shocking numbers of cases of violence
against women. The National Crime Bureau claims that a woman is raped every 29 minutes in
Delhi. Street violence in urban centres is a growing concern for young women and girls, who are
increasingly moving away from rural areas for economic opportunities and higher education.
Particularly women and girls from the northeast region of India living in urban centres such as
Delhi have reported experiencing social discrimination and marginalization, and many times
physical violence. In 2005, according to the North East Support Centre, among the 100,000
people from the northeast living in Delhi 86% had reported racial discrimination and 41% of
cases were sexual abuse cases.20

The northeast states of India are a volatile region, with a number of active insurgencies. The GoI
has continuously deployed state troops to fight the insurgents, who predominantly follow the
Maoist ideology. This region, because of its physical and cultural proximity to Myanmar, China,
and Bhutan, has for the most part been ignored by the central government, thereby fuelling the
insurgents' demand for development and autonomy. In the northeast (as in most conflict-ridden
regions) women bear the brunt of war from both sides. There have been numerous instances of
violence perpetrated by state security forces against local and tribal women.21

Trafficking of Women and Girls

India is both a source and destination for trafficked women and girls into prostitution and bonded
labour. While exact numbers of trafficked women and girls are difficult to ascertain, there have
been figures projected by various national and international NGOs.22 Anti-trafficking measures
in India have increased with India’s commitment to international human rights protocols, and
through strict legal provisions at the national level. The Immoral Traffic Prevention Act 1956
(ITPA) is the widely used law to prosecute traffickers, but also is invoked to target prostitution.

Sex work is a debated subject in the women’s movement in India. The anti-prostitution law is
seen by many to criminalize and further marginalize women who are in the sex trade. Women’s
rights organizations, activists, and organizations such as the Durbar Mahila Samanway
Committee23 (a nationwide sex workers’ collective) have long supported legalization of the sex
trade in India. The debate over legalization of sex work continues today and sex-work supporters
are lobbying to change the ITPA for better rehabilitation measures for those who have been
rescued during brothel and street raids. The ITPA also does not give adequate measures for those
                                                                                                               
20  http://thesop.org/story/world/2010/01/06/crime-­‐against-­‐northeastern-­‐women.php    
21  Monisha   Behal  W omen   Suffer   Most:  Armed   Conflict   and   Women’s   Rights   in   North  East  India    (North  East  

Network)  
22  See  http://nhrc.nic.in/Documents/ReportonTrafficking.pdf    (pg.  21-­‐22)  for  data  on  trafficking  collated  

from  various  sources  

23  http://www.durbar.org/index.asp    

  7  
who are trafficked for purposes other than sex work24, and disproportionately targets women,
making them further vulnerable to poverty and exploitation.

                                                                                                               
24  http://www.gaatw.org/Collateral%20Damage_Final/CollateralDamage_%20INDIA.pdf  

  8  
 WOMEN'S ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITIES IN INDIA
Issue Brief

Prepared by Reecha Upadhyay

India is one of the world’s fastest growing economies, with women mainly from the middle class
increasingly entering the workforce. Urban centres like Delhi and Bangalore have seen an influx
of young women from semi-urban and rural parts of the country, living alone and redefining
themselves.25 However, the story of economic empowerment for women is not a singular
narrative; rather it is located in a complex set of caste, class, religious, and ethnic identities.

The Global Gender Gap Report by the World Economic Forum in 2009 ranked India 114th out of
134 countries for inequality between men and women in the economy, politics, health, and
education.26 On equal economic opportunities and women’s participation in the labour force,
India ranked 127th and 122nd respectively.27 The number of women in the workforce varies
greatly from state to state: 21% in Delhi; 23% in Punjab; 65% in Manipur; 71% Chhattisgarh;
76% in Arunachal Pradesh.28 The diversity of women’s economic opportunities between states is
due to the cultural, religious, and ethnic diversity of each state. Northern states like Delhi and
Punjab lag far behind on gender equality measures, including the alarming sex ratio between
men and women (due to son preference and sex-selective abortion), low female literacy levels,
and high rates of gender-based violence.

In rural India, women’s economic opportunities remain restricted by social, cultural, and
religious barriers. Most notably inheritance laws embedded in Hindu and Shariat civil codes
continue to marginalize women in the household and the larger community. Rural women,
particularly of lower caste and class, have the lowest literacy rates, and therefore do not have the
capacity to negotiate pay or contracts and most often engage in the unorganized sector, self-
employment, or in small scale industry. Self-help groups (SHGs) are a widely practiced model
for social and economic mobility by NGOs and the government. SHGs provide women with the
opportunity to manage loans and savings that can be used by members for varying needs. SHGs
also are used to promote social change among the members and the community at large.
Members of SHGs have used their experiences as leverage to enter other local institutions such
as the Panchayat Khap.29

Rural, low caste, and tribal women also make up 70% of domestic workers in India, a sector
which is largely unregulated and unorganized. India’s growing economy has allowed for many
upper and middle-class women to enter the workforce, and while poor rural women have little
access to education and training, there is a high demand for domestic workers in urban hubs.
                                                                                                               
25  See  http://www.nytimes.com/2007/11/23/world/asia/23iht-­‐india.1.8451014.html  for  a  story  o f  two  

young  women  living  in  Bangalore  and  negotiating  their  traditional  responsibilities  
26  http://www.weforum.org/pdf/gendergap2009/India.pdf    
27  IBID  
28  http://www.measuredhs.com/pubs/pdf/FRIND3/14Chapter14.pdf    
29  http://www.edarural.com/documents/SHG-­‐Study/Executive-­‐Summary.pdf    

  9  
Domestic workers are mostly illiterate, with little or no negotiating power for wage equity, and
are highly vulnerable to exploitation and sexual and physical abuse.30
There is a movement at the policy level to organize domestic workers and to create laws to
regulate minimum wage, working hours, and other measures such as life and health insurance.
Currently a national-level Taskforce on Domestic Workers has been formed that will present
recommendations to the central government on better enforcement of rights for the many
undocumented domestic workers in India.31

Women are also very visible in the construction sector in India, and like domestic workers are
largely unorganized and rely on daily wagers. Women construction workers are mostly poor and
illiterate and have little negotiating power. This sector is also unregulated and highly vulnerable
to exploitation. Women workers also earn significantly less than men, although women are the
ones who do most of the backbreaking work like carrying bricks and other heavy materials on
site.32

On the other end of the spectrum, while India has one of the highest percentages of professional
women in the world, those who occupy managerial positions are under 3%. 33 Most women work
in low administrative positions, and many of the young women migrating to urban centres
mostly work in service and retail industries, although more and more women are entering the IT
and other technical sectors.34

Women’s Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights

The movement to assure women’s economic, social, and cultural rights (ESCR) as basic human
rights is just emerging in India. The movement aims to locate women’s rights within the larger
human rights framework, and by doing so moves away from looking at women’s issues only
within the framework of violence against women and reproductive rights. ESCR attempts to look
at the broader issues facing women, namely poverty, housing, unemployment, education, water,
food security, trade, etc.

While the human rights movement on ESCR is largely contained at the international policy level,
there are emerging social movements around the world. In the Indian context, projects like the
Programme on Women’s Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights (PWESCR), for example, is
creating linkages between the international human rights movement and the local articulation of
women’s rights. PWESCR aims to build a women’s rights movement in India that creates
equality in all spheres of women’s lives. By empowering women economically and socially,
ESCR provides for a broader discourse on rights that moves women’s rights from a victim-
centered approach to one that cuts across other fundamental human rights issues.

                                                                                                               
30  http://deshkalindia.com/unorganised-­‐labour.htm#working    
31  http://www.cathnewsindia.com/2010/04/27/govt-­‐plans-­‐policy-­‐on-­‐domestic-­‐workers  

 
32  http://www.sewaresearch.org/pdf/researches/labouring_brick_by_brick.pdf  
33  http://www.articlesbase.com/careers-­‐articles/attitude-­‐of-­‐corporate-­‐india-­‐towards-­‐working-­‐women-­‐

1621984.html    
34  http://mpra.ub.uni-­‐muenchen.de/4873/1/MPRA_paper_4873.pdf    

  10  
Women’s economic opportunity in India is a rapidly changing landscape. Women are
increasingly entering the workforce—particularly women professionals—and are creating
change, but there remains a large number of invisible women workers in unorganized and
volatile sectors. However, organizing at the local level, albeit small, is widespread.
Implementation of national and state level policies lags behind in ensuring that women workers
have equal pay and are free from exploitation.

  11  
 WOMEN IN POLITICS IN INDIA
Issue Brief

by Reecha Upadhyay

Historical Context

During the independence movement, women were visible and active as nationalists, and as
symbols of “Mother India”. Gandhi, in particular, was instrumental in creating space for women
through his non-violence (and some would argue feminized) mode of protest.35 Gandhi’s
legendary salt march36 initially excluded women, but due to demands from women nationalists
he later realized the power of women organizers at the local level. His inclusion of women,
however, was not located within a gender equality framework, but was a means to achieving a
stronger and unified Indian state. The inclusion of women in the nationalist movement was also
to debunk the British colonial assertion of “needing to save the poor, vulnerable women” of pre-
independence India.

As in many nationalist movements, women in India took part in the struggle, in turn propelling a
women’s rights movement. And, as seen historically in many post-colonial countries, the
nationalist women’s movement in India was confronted by the rebuilding of a patriarchal
nationalist state. Women revolutionaries gave way to their male counterparts who (as a result of
Partition politics) created a strong, male, and Hindu "New India".

The first post-independence Lok Sabha (the People’s Council or the Parliament) had 4.4%
women.37 The period between the early 1940’s and late 1970’s saw an emergence of the Indian
women’s movement, but it was not until the 1980s that the women’s movement gained real
momentum.

Reservation at the Panchayat Level

In 1976 the Committee on the Status of Women in India was established and published a report
recommending an increase in elected women at the grassroots level, which led to the
introduction of the 33.3% reservation at the Panchayat level in 1988. It was only in 1993 that an
amendment in the constitution made the proposed reservation at the Panchayat (village level
governing councils) a reality.38

                                                                                                               
35  http://www.onlinewomeninpolitics.org/india/indian.pdf  
36    The  salt   march  w as  a   form  o f  protest,  lead   by  G andhi  through-­‐out  India  to   initiate  the   boycotting  English  

made  salt  and  to  symbolize  the  move  towards  nationalizing  India’s  commodities  and  hence  Independence  
from  the  colonial  rule.      
37  http://www.indianexpress.com/news/newloksabhawillhavemostwomenmpsever/465283/    
38  Panchayats  are  local  level  councils,  d irectly  elected  by  the  people.  The  council  governs  the  v illage’s  social,  
political  and  economic  issues.    

  12  
In the last two decades since the reservation for women in elected Panchayats was passed, many
studies have been conducted to look at the impact of this policy. A survey conducted in 2008
yielded that women made up close to 50% of all the village councils across the India.39 The
number of women representatives has certainly increased at the grassroots level; however,
questions still remain regarding their decision-making power within the councils. A study in
West Bengal and Rajasthan by the Institute of Management Studies (Calcutta) and the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) found that where women Panchayat members were
active, there were more robust programs on water, irrigation, and infrastructure. The study
conclusively states that in Panchayats where women were present policies were more beneficial
to the community than in Panchayats where women were absent. A study by The Accountability
Initiative also states that in Panchayats with female presidents, the participation of women in the
larger council rose close to 3% in one year.40 The reason for the increase in women’s
participation is correlated to two possible factors: first, women representatives exemplified new
possibilities for change; and second, women leaders took up issues that would have a positive
impact on the community as a whole.

Caste and Class Politics

The complexities of politics in India are embedded in class, caste, and religious identities. An
analysis by International Idea of women in the Indian Parliament between 1991 and1996 found
that among the small number of women Parliamentarians, a disproportionate number represented
the Brahmin caste (the higher caste in the Hindu caste system).41 Most local governments remain
largely patriarchal and caste-based institutions, hindering inclusive governance.42 Furthermore,
social mobility remains a privilege of members of higher classes and caste, although this is
dramatically changing as a result of reservations for Scheduled Castes (SC) and Scheduled
Tribes (ST) in politics and education.

For women politicians, class, age, and caste all have significant impact in their political lives.
India is one of the few countries in the world that has elected a woman leader. Indira Gandhi was
among the very few women leaders in the world during her time in office. However, her role as
the Prime Minister was not seen as a win for the women’s movement in India. She was the
granddaughter of Jawaharlal Nehru and represented the political dynasty of her family.
Additionally, her controversial political moves during the declared period of Emergency (1975-
1977) suppressed dissent, forcing many of the radical women’s rights movements to go
underground.43 In 2007 India elected its first female President, Ms. Pratibha Patil. While the
President holds a mostly ceremonial role in Indian politics, Ms. Patil’s election was deemed a
symbolic move towards a more equitable representation of women at the highest levels of
government.

Although representation of women and members of the lower castes in Indian politics is rapidly
changing, complexities of caste politics continue to govern representation. An interesting case
                                                                                                               
39  http://www.accountabilityindia.org/pdf/PanchayatBrief1.pdf  
40  http://www.accountabilityindia.org/pdf/PanchayatBrief1.pdf  
41  http://archive.idea.int/women/parl/studies4a.htm  
42  IBID  ( MIT  Study)  
43  http://www.onlinewomeninpolitics.org/india/indian.pdf  (pg.  26)  

  13  
study is that of Mayawati, the Chief Minister of Utter Pradesh. Mayawati, a woman and a
member of the Dalit caste, was the youngest Chief Minister when first elected, and the only
woman Dalit to be elected as a Chief Minister. Although Mayawati represents transcendence of
India's caste system, her political career is regrettably tainted with corruption charges,
extravagant spending, and little positive impact on the realities of caste and class barriers for men
and women in her State.

33% Reservation for Women

The Women’s Bill in April 2010, which gives 33.3% reservation for women in all levels of
Indian politics, took 14 years after its introduction to finally pass by the Rajya Sabha (the upper
house of parliament). It is yet to be passed by the Lok Sabha (the lower house of parliament).
The reservation bill will ensure 181 out of the 543 seats at the Parliament level, and 1,370 seats
out of the 4,109 seats at the State Assembly level.44 This is a historic move in the Indian political
landscape, as currently women occupy less than 10% of seats in the national Parliament.45

The Women’s Bill will also significantly change the demographics of class and caste among
women politicians in leadership positions in the Indian political structure. It will create a path for
women from lower classes and castes (who are currently confined to local-level governance) to
enter state and national level governments. In addition to the existing reservations for scheduled
castes and scheduled tribes, one third of the SC and ST candidates must be women. Other
Backward Class (OBC) members are not included in the reservation due to the wide
disagreement about who constitutes OBC and a lack of existing data on the OBC population.

The two main arguments against the bill are that it will only benefit elite women (particularly in
national level politics) and that there should be reservations for Dalit, minorities (particularly
Muslim women), and OBCs. However, supporters of the bill do not agree with creating quotas
within the existing 33% women quota in parliament, as SC and ST quotas already exist.

The bill mandates that all political parties reserve one third of their electoral ticket for women,
including in the already mandated reservations for SC and STs. This will inadvertently create
spaces for lower caste and class women to enter state and national level politics. The passage and
implementation of the Women’s Bill, and its impact on the existing gender, class, and caste
barriers, is yet to be realized, but one thing is clear: India’s politics is moving closer to equitable
inclusion than ever before.

                                                                                                               
44  http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/5663003.cms  
45  http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8554895.stm    

  14