173

Assessment of engineering properties of Bangkok

clay
Suksun Horpibulsuk, Satoru Shibuya, Kittitep Fuenkajorn, and Wanchai Katkan

Abstract: Due to the effect of structure, Bangkok clay is stable in a metastable state. Its void ratio, e, is the summation
of the void ratio sustained by the intrinsic fabric, eR, and the additional void ratio due to the structure, es. The intrinsic
state line (eR versus log σv′, where σv′ is the effective vertical stress) is developed in terms of the void ratio at the liquid
limit, eL. At the post-yield state, es is inversely proportional to σv′. The residual additional void ratio, esr, which cannot
be eliminated by the increase in effective vertical stress, is constant at about 0.20 for soft Bangkok clay and 0.12 for
medium stiff Bangkok clay. From these findings and the ideal condition of zero compression at the pre-yield state, the
field yield stress and field compression curve can be assessed. The undrained shear strength is directly related to the
field yield stress, since both reflect the structure. The soil structure does not significantly influence the permeability. The
permeability of the clay in structured and destructured states is identical under the same void ratio and can be determined
from the generalized state parameter, e/eL. These observations result in a simple and practical method for assessment of
the engineering properties of natural Bangkok clay.
Key words: Bangkok clay, destructured state, compression, intrinsic state line, permeability, structured state, vane shear
strength.
Résumé : À cause de l’effet de structure, l’argile de Bangkok est stable dans l’état méta-stable. Son rapport des vides,
e, est la sommation du rapport des vides maintenu par la fabrique intrinsèque, eR, et du rapport des vides additionnel
dû à la structure, es. La ligne d’état intrinsèque (eR vs log σv′) est développée en fonction du rapport des vides à la limite
de liquiidité, eL. À l’état post-pic, le es est inversement proportionnel à la contrainte effective verticale. Le rapport des
vides additionnel, esr, qui ne peut être éliminé par l’accroissement de la contrainte effective verticale est constante à
0,20 pour l’argile molle de Bangkok et à 0,12 pour l’argile moyennement raide de Bangkok. Partant de ces observa-
tions et de la condition idéale de compression à zéro dans l’état pré-pic, on peut estimer la contrainte de fluage et la
courbe de compression sur le terrain. La résistance au cisaillement non drainé est directement reliée à la limite élastique
sur le terrain puisque les deux reflètent la structure. La structure du sol n’influence pas appréciablement la perméabilité.
La perméabilité de l’argile dans les états structuré et déstructuré est identique sous le même rapport des vides et peut
être déterminée en partant des paramètres d’état généralisés, e/eL. Ces observations résultent en une méthode simple et
pratique pour évaluer les propriétés mécaniques de l’argile naturelle de Bangkok.
Mots-clés : argile de Bangkok, état déstructuré, compression, ligne d’état intrinsèque, perméabilité, état structuré, résistance
au scissomètre.
[Traduit par la Rédaction] Horpibulsuk et al. 187

Introduction The Bangkok plain is nearly featureless, with elevations

Bangkok is situated on the Bangkok plain or the Lower
Central plain, which has an area of about 13 800 km2 and
lies between the city of Ayutthaya and the Gulf of Thailand.
Received 9 May 2005. Accepted 18 August 2006. Published
on the NRC Research Press Web site at http://cgj.nrc.ca on
12 April 2007.
S. Horpibulsuk,1 and W. Katkan. School of Civil
Engineering, Suranaree University of Technology,
111 University Avenue, Muang, Nakhon Ratchasima 30000,
Thailand.
S. Shibuya. Department of Architecture and Civil
Engineeering, Kobe University, Kobe, Japan.
K. Fuenkajorn. School of Geotechnology, Suranaree
University of Technology, 111 University Avenue, Muang,
Nakhon Ratchasima 30000, Thailand.
1
Corresponding author (e-mail: suksun@yahoo.com).
ranging from 0 to 2 m above mean sea level (MSL), and
merges with a slightly higher alluvial plain at Ayutthaya. In
general, the topography of the Bangkok plain reflects the
fact that it was covered by a shallow marine sea from 5000
to 3000 years ago, at which time a soft clay was deposited in
shallow nearshore waters (Fig. 1). During most of the middle
to late Holocene, the plain was probably a vast tidal flat that
gradually subsided, resulting in the Bangkok clay with a
thickness ranging from 0 to 20 m. The sea withdrew about
2700 years ago and the soft clay was exposed at the surface.
The uppermost 2 m of clay has been weathered (Nutalaya
and Phienwej 2002). The Bangkok plain can be viewed,
therefore, as a large bay that was fed by estuaries emerging
from both the western mountain belt (Kanchanburi) and the
neck of the Bangkok plain (near Ayatthaya). The thickness
of the Bangkok soft clay is represented by the contours in
Fig. 1. Underlying this soft clay are medium stiff and stiff to
very stiff clays. The stiff to very stiff clay is deposited above

Can. Geotech. J. 44: 173–187 (2007) doi:10.1139/T06-101 © 2007 NRC Canada

174
Fig. 1. Contour of thickness of soft Bangkok clay (Nutalaya and Rau 1981).
Table 1. Soil types with their physical and engineering properties (Horpibulsuk and Rachan 2004).
Soil type Thickness (m) wn (%)
Soft clay 10±3 71±15
Medium stiff clay 4±1 55±9
Stiff to very stiff clay 5±3 28±5
First sand layer 5±4 21±6
Hard clay 16±4 21±3
Note: Gs, specific gravity; wn, natural water content; na, data not available.
the first sand layer, which overlies hard clay. The physical
and engineering properties of these layers are presented in
Table 1. The Atterberg limits (liquid limit, LL, and plastic
limit, PL) of the stiff to very stiff clay and the hard clay are
practically identical, but differ from those of the soft and
medium stiff clays. This is because the stiff to very stiff and
hard clays were formed near the end of the Pleistocene,
whereas the soft and the medium stiff clays were formed
during the Holocene. The soft and the medium stiff clays are
designated as Bangkok clay.
Ohtsubo et al. (2000) investigated the mineralogy and pore-
water chemistry of Bangkok clay at a site 36 km east of
Bang Na and concluded that the Bangkok clay profile consists
of three zones: a middle zone (soft clay) of marine clay, an
upper zone (0–2.0 m depth) of weathered clay, and a bottom
zone (medium stiff clay) of intertidal clay. They also
concluded from X-ray diffraction (XRD) patterns of the Mg-
saturated clay fraction (<2 µm) that the clay fraction contains
montmorillonite as a principal clay mineral in the range of
54%–74%, followed by kaolinite and mica. Based on the
difference in the sediment volume between the Na and Ca
clay fractions (<2 µm), the montmorillonite in Bangkok clay
is classified as a high swelling type clay. Cox (1968) noted
that the presence of montmorillonite in Bangkok clay would
characterize the high liquid limit and activity. Numerous
studies have been conducted on the engineering properties of
Can. Geotech. J. Vol. 44, 2007
LL (%) PL (%) Su (kPa) Gs
74±14 27±4 16±2 2.64±2
70±10 26±4 32±8 2.64±3
50±13 22±5 117±25 2.65±2
— — — na
48±14 21±4 270±52 na
Bangkok clay (e.g., Muktabhant 1963; Cox 1971; Ladd et al.
1971; Balasubramaniam 1973, 1975; Brenner et al. 1979;
Akagi 1981; Bergado et al. 1990; Kim et al. 1994; Suzuki
1995; Horpibulsuk and Rachan 2004), but few attempts have
been made to assess the engineering properties based on
structural considerations. The soil structure (fabric and inter-
particle force) is the prime factor controlling the engineering
behavior of the soil (Mitchell 1996).
Strength, deformation, and seepage analyses normally
require measurements of the undrained shear strength, com-
pression curve, and coefficient of permeability, which are
usually obtained from field and laboratory tests on undis-
turbed samples. For soft to medium stiff clay, it is hard to
obtain truly undisturbed samples from conventional sampling
(wash boring and sampling by thin-wall tube) because they
are prone to mechanical disturbance. In addition, the distur-
bance can be caused by handling and testing. Because of this
inevitable disturbance, the engineering properties obtained
from laboratory tests may deviate from the in situ values.
Extensive investigations have been reported in the literature
on the different methods of sample quality evaluation based
on partially disturbed samples. Ladd and Lambe (1963),
Okumura (1971), Nakase et al. (1985), and Onitsuka and
Hong (1995) have proposed approaches to correct the
unconfined compressive strength for sample disturbance.
Nagaraj et al. (1990, 2003) have introduced a method of
© 2007 NRC Canada
Horpibulsuk et al.
determining the probable field – in situ yield stress from
undisturbed samples. Schmertmann (1953), Holtz et al. (1986),
Shogaki (1991), and Shogaki and Kaneko (1994) have intro-
duced approaches to evaluate the field compression curve
taking the effect of sample disturbance into account. These
methods are useful to determine a field engineering property
(either strength or compression) from the results of the
corresponding laboratory test. Undrained shear strength can
thus be determined from compression test results using available
empirical equations between undrained shear strength and
stress history (Ladd and Foott 1974; Nagaraj et al. 1990; and
others) or vice versa.
In practice, it is desirable to develop an appropriate method
of assessing field engineering properties for Bangkok clay.
The aim of the present paper is to develop a method of eval-
uating the field compression curve from undisturbed samples
and formulate an empirical relationship between the field
undrained shear strength and the field yield stress for Bang-
kok clay. An attempt has also been made to generalize the
void ratio and permeability relationship of Bangkok clay.
The analysis of the test results gives a simple and rational
method that facilitates engineering decisions on the assess-
ment of field engineering properties (strength, compression,
permeability) with a given test result, either strength or con-
solidation tests. The framework of the proposed method is
based on microstructural considerations.
Methodology
Investigation sites
Samples of Bangkok clay were collected from two sites,
namely the campus of the Asian Institute of Technology
(AIT) in Bangkok, and Bangpee district, Samutpakarn. The
location of both sites is shown in Fig. 1. The Bangpee site is
closer to the Gulf of Thailand and has a thicker layer of the
soft clay. As such, the pore chemistry is different for both
sites and is illustrated in the section titled Pore chemistry
and soil expansivity. The elevation of the ground surface at
both sites is approximately the same, that is, 0.38 m above
MSL at AIT and 0.25 m above MSL at Bangpee. A fixed
piston sampler (Japanese standard piston) was used and had
a diameter of 75 mm, length of 1000 mm, and thickness of
1.5 mm. The sampling was carried out until the first sand
layer was reached, which is about 10 m at AIT and 26 m at
Bangpee. Soil samples were kept in the sampling tubes and
transported to Suranaree University of Technology, Nakhon-
Ratchasima, for testing. The physical and engineering prop-
erties were also compiled from boring logs around Bangkok
as recorded by various consulting companies in Thailand.
Laboratory testing
Basic index and physicochemical tests
The basic index and physicochemical tests were carried
out to illustrate the basic soil characteristics of both investi-
gated sites. The analyses were carried out on intact soil
specimens. Basic index properties were determined according
to the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)
standards. Chemical tests included organic matter content
(obtained from ignition loss test), pH, and cation and anion
concentration in the pore water measured by ion chroma-
tography. The pore water was prepared by adding distilled
175
water to the soil sample to adjust the solid concentration to
10 wt.%. The soil suspensions were shaken for 1 h, followed
by centrifugation and filtration.
The soil expansivity and probable dominant clay mineral
of Bangkok clay were investigated by the free swell test pro-
posed by Prakash and Sridharan (2004), since it is a simple
methodology to obtain an approximate and fairly satisfactory
prediction of the dominant clay mineralogy of soil. The free
swell ratio (FSR) is defined as the ratio of equilibrium sedi-
ment volume of 10 g of oven-dried soil passing a 425 µm
sieve in distilled water (Vd) to that in carbon tetrachloride
or kerosene (Vk). This test examines the degree of soil
expansivity and probable dominant clay mineral rather than
indicating the types of clay minerals and their quantities
from XRD patterns of the clay fraction (<2 µm) as studied
by Ohtsubo et al. (2000). Even though it is reported that the
clay mineralogy of Bangkok clay is primarily montmorillo-
nite followed by illite and mica, the variation in the presence
of montmorillonite in the overall soil fraction (not in the
clay fraction) is in the range of only 20%–40% (Ohtsubo et
al. 2000). Hence, montmorillonite in the soil might not be a
dominant parameter controlling the soil expansivity. The other
parameters such as other clay minerals, nonclay fraction,
and pore medium chemistry can also play a significant part
in masking the role of montmorillonite. As such, it is possible
that the soil can be classified as a non-swelling or low-
swelling type, even though the primary clay mineral in the
clay fraction (<2 µm) is montmorillonite. For instance,
although the clay mineralogy of Ariake clay is primarily
montmorillonite followed by illite, kaolinite, and vermiculite
(Egashira and Ohtsubo 1981, 1982; Ohtsubo et al. 1996),
Ariake clay is classified as a non-swelling soil based on the
free swell test (El-Shafei 2001; Modmoltin 2002). This is
because the variation in montmorillonite in the soil is in the
range of 10%–23% (the clay fraction varies over a range of
about 20%–60% in the soil) (El-Shafei 2001).
Consolidation test
Consolidation tests at both sites on the undisturbed and
remolded samples were run at 1 m depth intervals according
to the ASTM standards. The remolded samples were
prepared by thoroughly mixing the undisturbed samples to
attain an initial water content of 1.5–2.0 times the liquid
limit. The specimens were 60 mm in diameter and 20 mm in
height. The load increment applied was twice as large as the
previous load, and the duration of each load was 24 h. For
each load increment, the coefficient of permeability at the
average effective vertical stress was determined by the
following equation:
[1] k = cvmvγw
where k is the coefficient of permeability, cv is the coeffi-
cient of consolidation determined by the rectangular hyper-
bola method proposed by Sridharan et al. (1987), mv is the
coefficient of volume change, and γw is the density of water.
In addition, overconsolidated samples were made up to
investigate the permeability characteristics of the clay at pre-
and post-yield states. The samples were prepared by thor-
oughly mixing disturbed clay (excavated from AIT at 3 m
depth) with water to achieve a water content of about 1.5–
2.0 times the liquid limit. The uniform paste was transferred
© 2007 NRC Canada
176
to a 100 mm mold and reconstituted to 10 kPa to have
enough effective stress and hence shear strength. The recon-
stituted sample was dismantled after 90% consolidation was
attained. The sample was then cut and trimmed for consoli-
dation testing. Each sample was consolidated to the required
preconsolidation pressures (σp′ ) with a load increment of 1.0.
The required preconsolidation pressures (σp′ ) were 80, 160,
and 320 kPa. When the preconsolidation pressure was reached,
the load was rebounded to 10 kPa and the conventional con-
solidation test was conducted.
The permeability of the undisturbed samples from AIT
and Bangpee and that of undisturbed soft and hard clay
samples compiled from a consulting company at Pranakhon
(5 m depth), Wattana (37 m depth), and Bangkapi (53 m
depth) districts were taken to generalize the permeability
characteristics of the natural soft to hard clays. The locations
of these three districts are also shown in Fig. 1.
Field vane shear test
A penetration-type vane shear test (Geonor type) without
a borehole was used at both sites. The vane was 13.0 cm in
height and 6.5 cm in diameter. Sleeved torque rods were
used to eliminate friction between the vane rod and the sub-
soil. The vane was withdrawn into a protective shoe to avoid
damage during penetration and was inserted 30 cm farther
into the ground at the test depth. The shear test was run
immediately after insertion of the vane with a rotation speed
of about 6°/min. Remolded shear strength was measured
after 15 rotations of the vane.
The analysis of the field vane shear and laboratory test
results brings about a simple and rational method of assessing
engineering properties of natural Bangkok clay. Test results
by Seah and Juirnarongrit (2003) (compression) and Seah et
al. (2004) (field vane shear) have been used to verify the
proposed method.
Pore chemistry and soil expansivity
The chemistry of the clay profile at AIT and Bangpee is
presented in Figs. 2 and 3. The clay profile at AIT consists
of two zones, namely weathered clay (0–2 m depth) and
intertidal clay (2–8 m depth). The Na+ concentration of the
intertidal clay is almost constant with depth and has a value
between 0.01 and 0.03 mol/L, which is much less than that
of seawater. The concentrations of K+, Ca2+, and Mg2+ are
less than 0.003 mol/L. The pH is between 7.0 and 8.5, and
the organic matter content is between 8% and 10%. The Na+
concentration at Bangpee decreases with depth below the
weathered clay, showing the effect of leaching of salt with
depth. Its value decreases from 0.60 mol/L at 2 m depth to
0.3 mol/L at 15 m depth and is approximately constant at
about 0.15–0.20 mol/L below 15 m depth. The Na+ concen-
tration is high compared with that at the AIT site, probably
because this site is closer to the sea. The concentrations of
K+, Ca2+, and Mg2+ also significantly decrease with depth
and are almost constant below 15 m depth. At a depth of 2–
15 m, the K+, Ca2+, and Mg2+ concentrations vary from
0.030 to 0.012, 0.004 to 0.002, and 0.04 to 0.01 mol/L,
respectively. These values are close to those of seawater
(Sverdrup et al. 1942). This finding confirms that the Bangkok
clay profile at Bangpee consists of three zones. The middle
Can. Geotech. J. Vol. 44, 2007
zone is a marine clay, and the bottom zone is an intertidal
clay. This profile is similar to that at Bang Na as reported by
Ohtsubo et al. (2000).
The study of the physicochemical behavior has indicated
that all fine-grained soils can be classified as either non-
expanding lattice type soils (kaolinitic soils) or expanding
lattice type soils (montmorillonitic soils) (Sridharan and
Prakash 1999a, 1999b). The free swell test results show that
the FSR at AIT ranges between 1.00 and 1.50 (Fig. 4). Con-
sequently, the dominant clay mineralogy type is probably
both kaolinite and montmorillonite and the soil is of a low-
swelling type. For Bangpee, the FSR is between 0.71 and
0.86 at 3–17 m depth (soft and medium stiff clays), and
hence the dominant clay mineral in the soil is probably a
non-swelling type and can be treated as kaolinite. The effect
of montmorillonite is clearly seen at 19–25 m depth (stiff to
very stiff clay), where the FSR is between 1.15 and 1.70.
The soil is classified as low to moderately swelling type. It
is concluded that the clay from both investigated sites is
classified as non-swelling to moderately swelling soil based
on the free swell test. The intertidal clay deposit exhibits
higher swelling potential.
Geotechnical characteristics
The geotechnical properties of the clay profiles at AIT
and Bangpee are presented in Figs. 5 and 6, respectively.
The liquid limit is in the range of 60%–95% for AIT and
80%–110% for Bangpee. At both sites, the natural water
content is close to the liquid limit (liquidity index is about
1.0) near the ground surface and decreases with depth.
Specific gravity of the clay is not significantly different with
depth at both sites, being about 2.67 ± 2.00. The activity at
both sites mostly varies between 0.5 and 1.0, which is lower
than that investigated by Ohtsubo et al. (2000) (ranging from
0.75 to 2.00). This may be due to the variation in pore fluid
and clay minerals. The difference in the activity of a soil
from different areas is also noted in the results reported by
Ohtsubo et al. (2000; 0.75 < activity < 1.25) and Tanaka et
al. (2001; 1.0 < activity < 2.0) for Ariake clay. Figure 7
shows the activity of Bangkok clay (from both investigated
sites) compared with that of other clays (collected from Tanaka
et al. 2001). With the exception of Ariake and Bothkennar
clays, the activity of Bangkok clay and others is in the same
range, and the clays are classified as inactive to normal clay.
Even though the liquid and plastic limits and activity vary
significantly with depth and sites due to the difference of
clay minerals and pore fluid, the (PI, LL) points from different
depths and between sites lie above the A line in the plasticity
chart, as shown in Fig. 8. The relationship between plasticity
index (PI) and liquid limit (LL) of Bangkok clay from seven
different areas is shown. It is indicated that the plasticity
index of soils bears a functional relationship with the liquid
limit.
The sensitivity of Bangkok clay changes slightly with depth,
being in the order of 4.0–7.0 at the AIT campus. The strength
at a depth of 5 m is higher than that at other depths, since
the soil is composed of a greater amount of sand particles,
and hence the lowest sensitivity. The measured yield stress,
σy′ , changes slightly with depth, being between 80 and
110 kPa. It was obtained from the undisturbed sample as the
© 2007 NRC Canada
Horpibulsuk et al.
Fig. 2. Pore-water chemistry of clay profile at AIT.
Fig. 3. Pore-water chemistry of clay profile at Bangpee district.
point of intersection of two straight lines extended from the
linear portions on either end of the compression curve plot-
ted as log(1 + e) against log σv′ (Butterfield 1979; Sridharan
et al. 1991), where e is the void ratio and σv′ is the effective
vertical stress. The overconsolidation ratio (OCR) is in the
177
order of 2.2–3.2. For Bangpee, the sensitivity of the marine
clay deposit is low at about 2.2–3.2. In this zone, the measured
yield stress is 50–70 kPa and changes slightly with depth,
and the OCR is close to 1.0. For the intertidal clay deposit,
the measured yield stress and the OCR are about 100–
© 2007 NRC Canada
178
Fig. 4. Classification of soils as swelling and non-swelling types
according to Prakash and Sridharan (2004).
200 kPa and 1.1–2.0, respectively, at a depth of 15–18 m
and 420–480 kPa and 3.5–3.8, respectively, at a depth of
18–25 m.
Intrinsic state line of Bangkok clay
The reference compression line (intrinsic state line) for a
clay–water system devoid of any stress history, time, and
cementation effects is the path obtained by compression of a
remolded clay. Liquid limits of clays have the same order of
pore-water suction (5–6 kPa) (Russell and Mickle 1970;
Wroth and Wood 1978; Whyte 1982). Under this state, clays
exhibit the same order of undrained shear strength (1.7–
2.5 kPa) and hydraulic conductivity (10–7 cm/s) (Nagaraj et
al. 1993).
This line is intrinsic because it is inherent to the material
and independent of the natural state, which is influenced by
time and environment. Figure 9 shows the compression
behavior of remolded Bangkok clay samples having different
liquid limits from AIT and Bangpee. The difference in the
compression index is due to the variation in Atterberg’s
limits, which control the fabric pattern (Nagaraj et al. 1990).
Since the PI and LL relation is unique for different Bangkok
clayey soil, either PI or LL can be used to analyze the com-
pression behavior. Liquid limit, which is widely used in
correlating physical properties with remolded engineering
properties (Nagaraj et al. 1998; Burland 1990), is used in
this analysis and shows that the sample with a higher liquid
limit exhibits a higher slope (compression index). The intrinsic
state line is developed in terms of the liquid limit as follows:
[2] eR/eL = 1.387 – 0.342 log σv′
where eR is the void ratio in the remolded state, and eL is the
void ratio at the liquid limit. The reference state is useful in
the analysis of the compression behavior of natural soils
whose formation is dependent on several physical, chemical,
and environmental conditions (Burland 1990; Nagaraj and
Miura 2001). This relation has the same pattern as that pro-
posed by Nagaraj et al. (1998), and yet the slope for Bangkok
Can. Geotech. J. Vol. 44, 2007
clay is slightly greater. This difference might be due to the
difference in clay minerals and pore fluid (difference in the
relationship between PI and LL).
In situ state of Bangkok clay
The inherent nature and diversity of the geotechnical process
involved in soil formation are responsible for the wide varia-
tion in soil structure. Natural clay can be designated as
“structured clay” (Leonards 1972; Leroueil et al. 1979; Mitchell
1996; Shibuya 2000; and others). The term “soil structure”
is determined by both the particle associations and arrange-
ments (fabric) and the interparticle forces. The resistance of
soil structure is responsible for the difference in the engineering
behavior of natural soils between the structured and
destructured (remolded) states (Leroueil et al. 1979, 1983;
Hanzawa and Adachi 1983; Leroueil and Vaughan 1990;
Mitchell 1996; Shibuya 2000). The development of the soil
structure during the depositional and postdepositional pro-
cesses has been described by many researchers (Locat and
Lefebvre 1985; Mitchell 1986; Schmertmann 1991).
To examine the in situ state of Bangkok clay and the stiff
to very stiff clay deposit under Bangkok clay, their natural
state with reference to the intrinsic state line (eq. [2]) is
presented in Fig. 10. It is shown that the values for Bangkok
clay are above the intrinsic state line and those for the stiff
to very stiff clay are below the line. Moreover, from the (e, σy′ )
points at AIT and Bangpee (Fig. 11), it is found that the
points for Bangkok clay lie above the intrinsic state line and
those for the stiff to very stiff clay are below the line. These
findings indicate that Bangkok clay is stable in a metastable
state, whereas the stiff to very stiff clay is stable in an
overconsolidated state, probably as a result of secondary
compression. The initial fabric of Bangkok clay after sedi-
mentation is probably open and involves some amount of
edge-to-edge and edge-to-face association in a “card-house”
arrangement. A large void ratio is sustained because of the
effect of structure. Figure 12 shows typical compression
behavior of Bangkok clay and the stiff to very stiff clay. The
compression curve of soft structured (undisturbed) Bangkok
clay lies above the destructured (remolded) line even at very
high effective vertical stresses, whereas the compression
curve of the stiff to very stiff structured clay lies below the
destructured line. The behavior below the destructured line
has also been reported for some structured soils, which are
very stiff and fissured (Stark and Duncan 1991; Picarelli and
Olivares 1998).
Modeling for assessment of the compression
curve
Based on extensive consolidation test results, a material
idealization for the compression behavior of the Bangkok
and stiff to very stiff clays is introduced in Fig. 13. For
Bangkok clay, the in situ void ratio is in a metastable state.
The compression behavior of Bangkok clay is an inverse
S-shaped curve and consists of three zones (Nagaraj et al.
1990). The compression strain is negligible up to the yield
stress, σy′ , due to the contribution of structure. Beyond this
yield stress, there is sudden compression of a relatively high
magnitude, indicated by the steep slope and caused by the
© 2007 NRC Canada
Horpibulsuk et al.
Fig. 5. Geotechnical profile at AIT. LL, liquid limit; PL, plastic limit; wn, natural water content; σv′, effective vertical stress; σy′, mea-
sured yield stress.
Fig. 6. Geotechnical profile at Bangpee district.
destructuring. On further loading, the difference in void ratio
between structured and destructured clays (es) with the loga-
rithm of stress decreases to reach a nearly constant value
beyond a particular stress level, identified herein as the tran-
sitional stress, σt′. This constant value is designated as the
residual additional void ratio sustained by the structure, esr.
This shows that the effect of structure exists even at very
high effective vertical stresses beyond yield, which is in
agreement with the work of Horpibulsuk et al. (2004).
For the stiff to very stiff clay, the in situ state of stress is
below the destructured line. The clay shows measurable
strains when it is consolidated from the in situ effective
vertical stress to slightly less than its yield stress. Beyond
the yield stress, it is noted that es is negative and its abso-
lute value decreases with the increase in effective vertical
stress. This finding has also been reported by Liu and
Carter (2000).
179
From Fig. 13, the void ratio at a particular effective vertical
stress can be expressed as follows:
[3] e = eR + es
where e is the void ratio for a structured clay, eR is the void
ratio for the corresponding destructured clay, and es is the
additional void ratio attributed to soil structure. The term eR
is the void ratio supported by the intrinsic soil fabric of a
completely remolded sample.
Liu and Carter (1999, 2000) have analyzed the compres-
sion behavior of over 20 different structured clays and found
that the additional void ratio due to soil structure, es, at the
post-yield state is inversely proportional to (σv′ )b, where b is
the destructuring index, quantifying the rate of destructuring.
They revealed that the b value depends on soil type and
structure, and generally b ≥ 1 for structured soft clay and b < 1
for stiff clay. This finding and the assumption that the addi-
© 2007 NRC Canada
180
Fig. 7. Activity of Bangkok clay compared with other clays.
Fig. 8. Plasticity index versus liquid limit of Bangkok clay. r,
correlation coefficient.
tional void ratio would exist even at a very high effective
vertical stress are fundamental for analyzing the virgin com-
pression curve. The analysis is limited to Bangkok (soft and
medium stiff) clay. Based on the test results for Bangkok
clay, it is found that b can be taken as 1.0 and the additional
void ratio is expressed in the following form:
[4] es = esy(σy′ /σv′ ) + esr
where esy is the additional void ratio corresponding to the
yield stress, and esr is the residual additional void ratio
sustained by the structure that cannot be eliminated by an
increase in effective vertical stress (when σv′ approaches
Can. Geotech. J. Vol. 44, 2007
Fig. 9. Consolidation behavior at different liquid limits and in-
trinsic state line.
infinity, es = esr). The value of esy can be determined by con-
sidering that, when σv′ = σy′ ,
[5] esy + esr = ey – eRy
where ey and eRy are the void ratios of structured and destruc-
tured curves, respectively, corresponding to the yield stress.
Based on this model, the experimental virgin compression
curve of Bangkok clay can be assessed, once σy′ and ey are
known. Figure 14 shows an example of the prediction of the
experimental compression curves of Bangkok clay from AIT
and Bangpee. The remolded lines are obtained directly from
the consolidation tests on the remolded samples. The lines
are in reasonably good agreement, lending support to the
proposed approach. From the results shown in Fig. 14 and
the analysis of extensive data on Bangkok clay, it is revealed
that esr is practically constant at about 0.20 for soft clay and
0.12 for medium stiff clay. To explore the possibility of
obtaining the field compression curve, the pattern of com-
pression curves of disturbed samples with different degrees
of sample disturbance is examined further.
Sample disturbance
Figures 15 and 16 show the compression behavior of the
alluvial marine and Montalto di Castro clay samples sub-
jected to different levels of disturbance. The degree of rigidity
reflected by the compression curve up to the yield stress and
the value of the yield stress itself decrease as the sample
disturbance increases. The reduction of the yield stress is
© 2007 NRC Canada
Horpibulsuk et al.
Fig. 10. Relative disposition of natural state and effective over-
′ , effective
burden stress with reference to intrinsic state line. σv0
overburden stress.
Fig. 11. Effective yield stress versus generalized state parameter
at AIT and Bangpee with reference to the intrinsic state line.
clearly noted by the broken line in Figs. 15 and 16, where
the yield stress values were approximated by the method
proposed by Butterfield (1979) and Sridharan et al. (1991).
In addition, the compression behavior tends towards the
remolded line as the sample disturbance increases. This
suggests the possibility of scaling the degree of sample
disturbance in relation to the intrinsic state line, which
represents thorough remolding and hence total disturbance.
For ideal conditions of zero disturbance, near rigidity can
be expected, as it is the characteristic feature of a perfectly
nonparticulate response. On this premise, the most probable
value of the yield stress corresponding to the truly undis-
turbed state (field yield stress) is defined by extrapolation of
the line through the yield stress points intersecting the hori-
zontal line from the void ratio of the in situ state. Moreover,
the analysis shows that this line is perpendicular to the
intrinsic state line, which agrees with the results of Nagaraj
et al. (1990). Using this technique, the field yield stress is
181
Fig. 12. Compression behavior of structured natural Bangkok
clay and the stiff to very stiff clays.
Fig. 13. Typical compression behavior of the structured clays
(modified from Nagaraj et al. 1990 and Liu and Carter 1999).
eR, void ratio in the remolded state; eRy, void ratio of de-
structured curve corresponding to the yield stress; es, additional
void ratio sustained by the structure; esr, residual additional void
ratio sustained by the structure; esy, additional void ratio sus-
tained by the structure corresponding to the yield stress.
determined for both clays. The virgin compression curves of
all partially disturbed samples can be well predicted by eq. [3].
The parameters for the analysis are presented in Table 2. For
a particular clay, the value of esr of partially disturbed
samples is constant for all degrees of sample disturbance
considered. Hence, it is possible to assume that esr for the
field curve is equal to that for partially disturbed samples.
This implies that the sample disturbance insignificantly
affects the residual additional void ratio, and the structure
would be destroyed (esr = 0) only when the soil is com-
pletely remolded. With the known esr, the value of esy can be
© 2007 NRC Canada
182 Can. Geotech. J. Vol. 44, 2007

Fig. 14. Analysis of compressibility of disturbed Bangkok clay from sample disturbance: (a) AIT campus; (b) Bangpee. σyf′ , predicted
field yield stress.

Fig. 15. Analysis of compressibility of disturbed alluvial marine Fig. 16. Analysis of compressibility of disturbed Montalto di
clay from sample disturbance (data from Shogaki and Kaneko Castro clay from sample disturbance (data from Holtz et al.
1994). Ra, area ratio of the sampler. 1986).

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Horpibulsuk et al. 183

Table 2. Soil sample parameters for the compression model. Fig. 17. Relationship between field yield stress and vane shear
strength for different clays.
Type of sample ey σy′ (kPa) esr esy
Marine clay
Ra = 71.2% 1.57 100 0.15 0.01
Ra = 80.3% 1.76 150 0.15 0.30
Ra = 100.0% 1.84 200 0.15 0.50
Field 1.93 240 0.15 0.55
Montalto di Castro clay
Piston 1.23 380 0.12 0.03
Block 1.28 660 0.12 0.22
Field 1.32 920 0.12 0.35
Bangkok clay at AIT (3 m depth)
Piston 2.20 60 0.20 0.16
Field 2.31 85 0.20 0.40
Bangkok clay at AIT (7 m depth)
Piston 1.37 90 0.20 0.15
Field 1.45 110 0.20 0.27
Bangkok clay at Bangpee (7 m depth)
Piston 2.88 50 0.20 0.45
Field 3.04 70 0.20 0.78
clay, the permeability is controlled only by the clay fabric.
Bangkok clay at Bangpee (17 m depth) The higher the pore space (high void ratio), the greater the
Piston 1.18 200 0.12 0.01 permeability. Since natural Bangkok clay is the structured
Field 1.24 260 0.12 0.14 clay, it is necessary to examine the role of the structure for
Note: Ra, area ratio of the sampler. practical assessment of the permeability coefficient.
Figure 19 shows the permeability of Bangkok clay in destruc-
tured (remolded) and structured (undisturbed) states. The
determined from eq. [5] by taking ey = e0. It is noted that esy permeability of the clay is identical at the same void ratio.
decreases with an increase in the degree of sample distur- This leads to the conclusion that the fabric of the clay in
bance. Figures 14–16 show the probable field compression both states (destructured and structured) has the same pattern
curves for Bangkok clay, alluvial marine clay, and Montalto at the same void ratio, and hence the same coefficient of per-
di Castro clay, respectively. Due to the absence of the meability. This finding is consistent with the results pre-
remolded line for Montalto di Castro clay, this line is sented by Yamadera et al. (1998) and Yamadera (1999).
approximated using the intrinsic state line proposed by Nagaraj Figure 20a shows the relationship between the void ratio
et al. (1998). and the coefficient of permeability of the structured natural
For the structured natural clay, both the field yield stress clay samples from five districts. The e – log k relation is
and the field undrained shear strength are the reflections of approximately linear for a particular range of void ratios. Ck
the same structure. It is therefore logical to correlate these (de/d(log k)) decreases for very large decreases in void ratio.
two parameters for different clays. In Fig. 17, the relation- The nonlinear relationship is clearly shown for the AIT and
ship is presented based on Bangkok clay from AIT and Bangpee samples, in which the void ratios vary from 1 to
Bangpee and the published data on sensitive Canadian clays about 5 times the initial void ratio. It is also noted that the
(Nagaraj et al. 1990). It is found that the relation is unique permeability of the clays can be the same even though the
for both Bangkok clay and Canadian clays and can be shown void ratios are different. This implies that the pore channels
in the following form: constituting the microfabric responsible for the same order
of flow have the same pattern, despite the void ratios being
[6] ′ = 3.78Su + 7
σyf
distinctly different. This possibility is depicted when the
′ is the predicted field yield stress, and Su is the compression curve of the clays and the corresponding void
where σyf
ratio and permeability relationship are normalized by the
uncorrected vane undrained shear strength (in kPa).
respective void ratios at the liquid limit water content
(Fig. 20b). Since the e – log k relationship is nonlinear, its
Permeability characteristic generalization would also be nonlinear. For practical assess-
Figure 18 shows the permeability characteristic of the over- ment, two linear relationships obtained from linear regres-
consolidated samples with different preconsolidation pres- sion analysis are introduced as follows:
sures of 80, 160, and 320 kPa, which were made up from
remolded Bangkok clay at 3 m depth from AIT. The clay [7a] e/eL = 1.934 + 0.196 log k
exhibits the same coefficient of permeability as long as the for 0.2 < e/eL < 0.5
void ratio is the same, and the stress history does not play a
significant role. This implies that for a given overconsolidated and

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184
Fig. 18. (a) Consolidation behavior for different pre-consolidation pressures. (b) Corresponding e – log k relationship.
Fig. 19. Effective vertical stress (a) and permeability (b) of Bangkok clay in destructured (remolded) and structured (undisturbed)
states.
[7b] e/eL = 6.096 + 0.765 log k
for 0.5 < e/eL < 1.2
where k is in cm/s. Equations [7a] and [7b] suggest that the
fabric of clay would be proportional to that at the liquid
limit. When e/eL = 1.0, the coefficient of permeability
amounts to 2.18 × 10–7 cm/s, which is in agreement with the
findings of Nagaraj et al. (1993) and Mitchell (1996). These
equations show that, although the water content and void
ratio at the liquid limit of different clays are different, the
permeability is of the same order of 10–7 cm/s. Equations
[7a] and [7b] are useful for assessing the coefficient of per-
meability at different effective stresses of Bangkok clay, stiff
to very stiff clay, and hard clay from different areas, once
the liquid limit is known.
Assessment of field engineering properties
From the basic consideration discussed in this paper and
the subsequent analysis, the two simple procedures for
Can. Geotech. J. Vol. 44, 2007
assessment of the engineering characteristics of structured
natural Bangkok clay are summarized as follows. The first
procedure involves known consolidation test results for a
partially disturbed sample and includes the following steps:
(i) determine in situ void ratio, overburden stress, index
properties, compression curve, and yield stress of the undis-
turbed (partially disturbed) sample; (ii) draw an e – log σv′
line of the clay in a destructured (remolded) state, which can
be directly obtained from a consolidation test of remolded
clay or estimated from eq. [2]; (iii) determine esr; (iv) draw a
line through the yield stress of a partially disturbed sample
perpendicular to the compression line of remolded clay;
(v) extrapolate this line so that it intercepts the horizontal
line from the in situ void ratio (this is based on the assump-
tion that for a truly undisturbed case, rigidity is expected due
to a perfectly nonparticulate response), where the stress
corresponding to this intersection is regarded as the most
probable yield stress of a field sample; (vi) use esr, e0, and σy′
to determine esy and draw the field compression curve;
(vii) use eq. [6] to determine the uncorrected vane shear
© 2007 NRC Canada
Horpibulsuk et al.
Fig. 20. (a) Void ratio and coefficient of permeability relations
for different clays. (b) Normalized void ratio and permeability
relationship.
strength; and (viii) use eq. [7] to determine the permeability
coefficient versus void ratio.
The second procedure involves known field vane shear
test results and includes the following steps: (i) determine
the uncorrected vane shear strength, in situ void ratio, and
index properties; (ii) from the uncorrected vane shear strength,
determine the field yield stress using eq. [6]; (iii) draw the
compression line in the destructured state; (iv) assuming that
there is no compression at the pre-yield state, draw the hori-
zontal line from e0 to the (σy′ , e0) point; (v) by taking esr =
0.20 for the soft clay and esr = 0.12 for the medium stiff
clay, draw the compression curve at the post-yield state
using eqs. [3]–[5], starting from the (σy′ , e0) point; and (vi) use
eq. [7] to determine the permeability coefficient versus void
ratio.
It should be kept in mind that the predicted field yield
′ , is the probable highest value, which may be
stress, σyf
overestimated because the approach assumes zero strain at
pre-yield stress. In addition, the consolidation settlement esti-
mated from the predicted field curve might be underestimated
when σv0′ << σy′ . Due to the high plasticity index of Bangkok
clay, the correction of vane shear strength (Bjerrum’s correc-
tion) is necessary for stability analysis.
185
Fig. 21. Predicted field consolidation curve for Bangkok clay
from AIT at 4.5 m depth (data from Seah and Juirnarongrit
2003).
The suggested procedures are applied to predict labora-
tory and field compression curves and the uncorrected vane
shear strength of Bangkok soft clay at the AIT campus
(4.5 m depth) by Seah and Juirnarongrit (2003) and Seah et
al. (2004). Drawing the remolded line from eq. [2], this
exercise gives esr = 0.19 and σy′ = 87 kPa. The predicted lab-
oratory (partially disturbed) and field compression curves
are presented in Fig. 21. The predicted laboratory curve is in
good agreement with the experimental data, and the pre-
dicted field yield stress is 123 kPa. Based on the relationship
between the field yield stress and the vane shear strength
(eq. [6]), the uncorrected vane shear strength is determined
and found equal to 30.7 kPa (versus 31.3 kPa by Seah et al.
2004). The error of this prediction is only 1.6%. Conse-
quently, the accuracy of the prediction can be regarded as
adequate. The e – log k relation of the natural clay can be
assessed using eq. [7] as shown in Fig. 22.
Conclusions
This paper mainly involves the assessment of engineering
properties of natural Bangkok clay. The following conclu-
sions are made:
(1) The compression line of destructured (remolded) Bangkok
clay is intrinsic and dependent upon clay minerals and
pore fluid, reflecting the value of the liquid limit. The
higher the liquid limit, the greater the compressibility.
Taking the void ratio at the liquid limit as a prime pa-
rameter, the intrinsic state line for Bangkok clay is in-
troduced.
(2) At any effective vertical stress, the void ratio of natural
Bangkok clay is the summation of eR, which is inherent
to the stress, and es, which is attributed to structure.
Based on this premise, the (e, log σv′ ) curves of partially
disturbed and truly undisturbed samples can be assessed.
(3) Since both the yield stress and the undrained shear
strength of structured natural clays are reflections of the
same structure, it is logical to correlate these two pa-
rameters for different clays. It was found in this investi-
© 2007 NRC Canada
186
Fig. 22. Predicted e – log k relationship for Bangkok clay from
AIT at 4.5 m depth.
gation that the field yield stress of both Bangkok clay
and Canadian clays bears a functional relationship with
the uncorrected field vane shear strength.
(4) The coefficient of permeability varies with fabric (void
ratio), irrespective of the stress history and structure.
The relationship between the generalized state parame-
ter, e/eL, and the coefficient of permeability is valid for
Bangkok clay, stiff to very stiff clay, and hard clay.
(5) A simple step-wise procedure has been suggested for
the assessment of engineering properties of natural
Bangkok clay. This procedure is useful in terms of engi-
neering and economics.
Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge the financial support provided
by the Commission on Higher Education and the Thailand
Research Fund under the contract MRG4780195. The authors
are indebted to Miss Runglawan Rachan and Ms. Chanchira
Ruchirawan for their technical assistance. The authors also
appreciate the reviewers’ excellent comments, which improved
the quality of the paper.
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