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Devi Akella

Understanding
Workplace Bullying
An Ethical and
Legal Perspective
Understanding Workplace Bullying
 Devi Akella

Understanding
Workplace Bullying
An Ethical and Legal Perspective
Devi Akella
Albany State University
Albany, GA, USA

ISBN 978-3-030-46167-6    ISBN 978-3-030-46168-3 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-46168-3

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer
Nature Switzerland AG 2020
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the
Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of
translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on
microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval,
electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now
known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are
exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information
in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the
­publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to
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­institutional affiliations.

This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature
Switzerland AG.
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
 Preface

I have more than 17 years of work experience in academia, and I would be

dishonest if I state that I have never faced any form of workplace bullying
and incivility during my working years. I often complain about my stu-
dents, colleagues, and superiors and my working environment in general.
I consider this an acceptable practice, a daily occurrence to relieve myself
of my frustrations and stress, something which revitalizes me and stimu-
lates me to get back to my duties and responsibilities back at work.
I have, however, never really paid much attention to these “daily office
events” until I started researching the topic of workplace bullying a few
years back. A colleague of mine approached me to write a case study with
her on workplace bullying. During the literature review, I found myself
drawn to this field of workplace mistreatment and violence. Being a man-
agement critic, whose doctoral thesis was heavily inspired by critical man-
agement studies and its ideologies; I realized that workplace bullying was
primarily dominated by the functionalist perspective. These initial thoughts
supported with empirical evidence from the healthcare sector got pub-
lished in the form of a journal paper in 2016. This book is a further
endeavor in that direction. It reconstructs workplace bullying outside its
usual functionalist theoretical framework. Workplace bullying is investi-
gated within the boundaries of power and control and the doctrine of the
capitalist regime of society. Workplace bullying is examined from a con-
tested labor relations angle within the historical structuration of society, as
a capitalist employment outcome.
Workplace bullying is developed as a control weapon, highly potent in
the short term to increase employee productivity and levels of

v
vi PREFACE

performance, but with severe long-term psychological impacts for the

employees. I feel such an approach to workplace bullying will allow in-­
depth exploration of this phenomenon as a new type of managerial style
and control technique, thereby increasing its educational boundaries as a
management topic and control mechanism.
For me, these last 18 months, the time it took me to get this manu-
script ready for printing, drastically changed my perspective about work-
places, be it a college, a hospital, a nonprofit organization, or a corporate
organization. My interviewees made me think and reflect about how much
we adjust and compromise while at work every day, which is ironical
because work should not really hurt one at all (Namie & Namie, 2009).

Albany, GA, USA Devi Akella

Reference
Namie, G., & Namie, R. (2009). U.S. Workplace bullying: Some basic consider-
ations and consultation interventions. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice
and Research, 61(3), 202–219.
 Acknowledgments

For me writing this book was not easy; it required time, time which was
very difficult to spare with a growing girl back at home, who complained
and grumbled continuously about me spending hours before the com-
puter during the weekends, summer, and winter break. So, I would like to
thank my “little girl” for her patience, understanding, and support. Also,
to my parents, who always listened to me and motivated me when I got
tired of writing. To my younger sister, for reading the entire manuscript,
for editing it, and for giving me her feedback. Thank you Chinna for being
such a great help.
Also, I would like to acknowledge a few of my colleagues: Dr. Ashok
Jain, Ms. Lisa Jenkins and Dr. Melissa Jordan, and the Dean of the College
of Professional Studies, Dr. Alicia Jackson, for her support during the ini-
tial stages of this book. A word of thanks to Dr. Grace Khoury for looking
at the entire book and for giving me feedback.
Also, a special thanks to all my interviewees, who participated in this
study anonymously, nurses in hospitals, employees at a nonprofit organi-
zation and a private organization, and faculty working at a college. I
appreciate your invaluable time, feedback, and insights from your work-
place. This book would have remained incomplete without all of you.

vii
 Contents

1 Introduction  1

2 Workplace Bullying: The Critical Paradigm Approach 11

3 Investigating Workplace Bullying 25

4 Workplace Bullying in a Private Corporation 39

5 Bullying Employees in a Nonprofit Organization 71

6 Nursing Bullying in Hospitals101

7 Workplace Bullying in Academia: A Case Study137

8 Workplace Bullying and Ethical Issues169

9 Workplace Bullying Laws in the United States and Canada183

10 Workplace Bullying Laws in Europe and the United

Kingdom203

11 Workplace Bullying Laws in Asia221

ix
x Contents

12 Workplace Bullying Laws in Australia and New Zealand237

13 Workplace Bullying Laws in Africa and Middle East251

14 Conclusion265

Appendix279

Index285
 List of Figures

Fig. 6.1 Stages of CR. (Source: Mingers, J. & Willcocks, L. (2004).

Social theory and philosophy for information systems. John
Wiley: Chichester, West Sussex, England) 109
Fig. 6.2 CR stages and empirical analysis themes and stages. (Source:
The three stages of CR mentioned: empirically observed
phenomena, actual events & real events adapted from Fletcher,
A. (2017). Applying critical realism in qualitative research:
methodology meets method. International Journal of Social
Research Methodology, 20 (2), p. 187) 110

xi
 List of Tables

Table 4.1 Workplace bullying at the motel themes and quotes 49

Table 5.1 Bullying in the nonprofit sector themes and interview quotes 81
Table 6.1 Critical realism (CR) and nurses bullying themes and quotes 111
Table 7.1 Information about the interviewees 146
Table 7.2 Academia and workplace bullying 147

xiii
 CHAPTER 1

Introduction

1.1   Workplace Bullying: The Beginning

There has been an increase in scholarly interest in the area of workplace
mistreatment in the last few decades. Degrading work environments and
treatments such as sexual harassment, workplace bullying, and workplace
incivility and its implications in terms of safety, integrity, and dignity of
employees have caught the attention of organizational behavior scholars
and researchers (Akella, 2016; Beale & Hoel, 2011; Roscigno, Hodson,
& Lopez, 2009 to mention a few). Among these negative work practices,
workplace bullying has been acknowledged, ethically and legally, as a
harmful, abusive organizational phenomenon which has drastic long-term
recuperations for employees, organizational performance, and productiv-
ity (Hutchinson, Vickers, Jackson, & Wilkes, 2005).
The Oxford English Dictionary defines a bully as an individual who
oppresses others through use of fear and threats (Kumar, Jain, & Kumar,
2012). Commonly found in schools, bullying takes the form of physical
and verbal intimidation and social exclusion (Rayner & Hoel, 1997).
Brodsky (1976) was the first to discuss bullying at workplaces in her book
The Harassed Worker, while Namie and Namie (2003) used “bullying” as
a vocabulary term specific to American employment relations. Workplace
bullying is also referred to as mobbing, psychological terror, workplace
harassment, and emotional abuse (Kumar, Jain, & Kumar, 2012). It con-
stitutes “repeated and persistent negative actions aimed at one or more
individuals” with a singular intent to hurt, intimidate, and humiliate the

© The Author(s) 2020 1

D. Akella, Understanding Workplace Bullying,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-46168-3_1
2 D. AKELLA

individual or individuals (Akella, 2016). Workplace bullying evolves from

a desire to hurt, subjugate, and suppress another individual, a combina-
tion of “desire to hurt + hurtful action + power imbalance + repetitive
aggressor + a sense of being oppressed by the victim” (Rigby, 2002, p. 6).
An employee is exposed continuously to constant abuse, offensive remarks,
ridicule, and criticism. These repetitive and negative physical, verbal, or
psychological acts wear down a person (Rayner & Hoel, 1997), make
him/her feel demeaned, inadequate, and incompetent causing distress,
anxiety, stress, and harm to the individual (i.e., victim) (Hershcovis, 2011).
It is a painful process which “persistently provokes, pressurizes, frightens,
intimidates … discomforts another person” (Brodsky, 1976, p. 2), raising
concerns about human rights violations, ethical code of conduct, and legal
protections for individuals while at work (Carbo, 2009).
Bullying at the workplace would involve assigning heavy workloads to
one’s employees, professionally attacking the victim, unfairly criticizing
them, and allocating menial tasks to them (Fox & Stallworth, 2006;
Yildirim, 2009). It also involves ignoring someone, not returning their
phone calls and emails, and ridiculing and making fun of them (Randle,
Stevenson, & Grayling, 2007). Workplace bullying thus results in employee
turnover, absenteeism, higher stress levels, workplace injuries, and illnesses
(Carbo, 2009). Exposure to bullying while at work interferes with one’s
ability to work, heightens anxiety levels, burnout, depression, and help-
lessness, induces negative emotions such as anger, resentment, and fear,
and lowers one’s self-esteem and self-efficacy (Keashly & Neuman, 2004).
Bullying has also been linked with suicidal thoughts, suicide contempla-
tions, and posttraumatic stress disorders (Rayner, Hoel, & Cooper, 2002).
In fact, illness, suicide, and death could be the final chapters in a victim’s
life (Davenport, Schwartz, & Elliot, 2002). Workplace bullying is a “crip-
pling and devastating problem for [all] employees” (Einarsen, 1999, p. 16).
But surprisingly despite these dire consequences, unlike sexual harass-
ment and racial discrimination, which are legally prohibited within organi-
zations, workplace bullying to a large extent lacks legal protection, with
the bully not being punished by the management (Akella, 2016; Baillien,
Neyens, De Witte, & De Cuyper, 2009). Bully’s behavioral tendencies are
ignored or interpreted as an authoritative style of management, which can
be a little aggressive at times (Baillien et al., 2009; Cortina, 2008), and
dismissed as “it’s all in the mind” of an overly, sensitive employee
(McIntyre, 2005, p. 60). Workplace bullying gets managerial acceptance
in this unequal quotient of power and hierarchy between employees and
 1 INTRODUCTION 3

management. It gets approved as a political strategy exercised to achieve

organizational goals and objectives (Hutchinson, Vickers, Jackson, &
Wilkes, 2010). Managers, after all, need to exercise different types of
power strategies to get things done by their subordinates (Cortina, 2008;
Hutchinson et al., 2010). In these circumstances, workplace bullying con-
veniently gets legitimized as a rational tool to “influence and control
employees when seeking achievement of organizational goals” (Hutchinson
et al., 2010, p. 29). It is a political tactic adopted by managers encompass-
ing petty tyrannical behavior consisting of harassment, intimidation, and
fear to gain an advantage over the employees to ensure completion of
official duties and responsibilities. It is a part of the disciplinary process
used by the ruling managerial class (Burrell & Morgan, 1979) to sustain
order and authority within the organization (Hazen, 1994), similar to
scientific management (Taylor, 1947), bureaucracy (Weber, 1947), theory
X ideology (McGregor, 1960), or the direct form of control advocated by
Friedmann (1977). Thus, all forms of abusive behaviors, instead of being
questioned for their ethical nature, get legitimized as disciplinary mea-
sures used by the management to control employees effectively.
It is possible to expose these hidden power dynamics in workplace bul-
lying (Samnani, 2013), and its relationship to the capitalist framework of
society using different types of theoretical approaches integrated within
the critical management studies (CMS) paradigm. A critique using differ-
ent types of theoretical lens would enable portrayal of diverse and varied
facets and pictures of workplace bullying as a psychological and degrading
type of control measure often used by managers daily at work (Akella, 2016).

1.2   Rationale for the Book

This book will argue for a fresh perspective on workplace bullying that
exposes the dark side of workplace bullying, not as psychological harmful
component, not as a health-related stress issue, but instead as a manage-
ment tool used to exercise totalizing control over the employees (Akella,
2016). Experimenting with different facets of CMS paradigm such as criti-
cal theory, critical realism, labor process theory, and poststructuralism, the
book will revisit issues pertaining to power, control, and domination origi-
nating within a capitalist employment relationship to provide a better
holistic and comprehensive understanding of workplace bullying. A single
phenomenon can be visualized and understood in multiple ways, and
knowledge derived by using multiple theoretical approaches can generate
4 D. AKELLA

a more complete and detailed analysis. Therefore, diversity in terms of

theoretical and methodological approaches can significantly advance
knowledge on a topic, area, or field (Hazlett, McAdam, & Gallagher,
2005). However, to avoid the issues which can arise within a multi-­
paradigmatic approach, such as those apparent in Hassard (1993)’s four
different accounts of work behavior in the British Fire Service, where none
of the accounts were compatible with each other (Johnson & Duberley,
2000), the author decided to adhere to a critical approach, to develop four
critiques which would question workplace bullying as a managerial control
mechanism, and engage in resolving the dilemma of human rights of the
employees while at work.
A critical paradigm, or critical management studies (CMS), unlike the
mainstream thinking and practice, questions the authority and status quo
associated with the capitalist economic system, thereby deviating from a
functionalist perspective so far affiliated with workplace bullying research.
Critical of “established social practices and institutional arrangements”
(Alvesson, Bridgeman, & Willmott, 2009, p. 2), CMS challenges all forms
of domination and exploitation existing within the society with a singular
focus on giving voice to the powerless and emancipating them from their
suffering by developing alternative narratives (Akella, 2003; Alvesson &
Willmott, 1996; Alvesson et al., 2009). Loosely built on different theo-
retical frameworks and ideologies such as labor process theory (LPT),
critical theory, critical realism, feminism, postmodernism, racism, and
environmentalism, CMS has the unequivocal agenda to be critical of prac-
tices such as “profit imperative, patriarchy, racial inequality and ecology
irresponsibility” (Alvesson et al., 2009, p. 15). CMS is passionate about
critique which changes the society by “generating radical alternatives”
(Alvesson et al., 2009, p. 15).
This book also mirrors a similar agenda to deconstruct workplace bul-
lying and generate alternative narratives which are firmly entrenched in
control, power, and suffering. Workplace bullying will be investigated
under four theoretical lenses embodied within the CMS paradigm: critical
realism, critical theory, labor process theory, and poststructuralism. Critical
realism (CR), within the parameters of CMS, provides an analytical focus
on the shifts in the domination structures existing within capitalist systems
(Welsh & Dehler, 2007). CR enables an in-depth understanding of the
micro-political power relations and processes existing in organizational
settings and their connections with wider institutional frameworks of the
society (Reed, 2009). Critical theory seeks to analyze organizations, their
 1 INTRODUCTION 5

structures, and their cultures to conceptualize them as sources of domina-

tion and control (Barker, 1993; Willmott, 1993). A critical approach to
workplace bullying would dwell on “the ethically questionable nature of
management practices” (Samnani, 2013, p. 32) and provide suggestions
on how to create more ethical and fair organizations and management
practices (Phillips, 2006). Labor Process Theory (LPT) divides the entire
society and corporations into two groups, labor and management, which
are always in conflict with each other. Labor sells its skills to the manage-
ment, while the management is interested in utilizing the labor to its maxi-
mum capacity at a minimum wage to maximize its surplus. The management
therefore keeps enforcing different types of control mechanisms, direct
and indirect, to exert control over employees to increase its profits.
Workplace bullying under this theoretical framework can be conceptual-
ized as another form of management control method to accomplish maxi-
mum amount of work within a short period of time. Similarly, the
poststructuralism perspective researches notions of power and control
focusing more on exploring how control is exerted within organizations.
Drawing upon Lukes’ three-dimensional power (1974, 2005), Foucauldian
disciplinary discourse (1977), power ideologies, and other types of hege-
monic theories, this perspective highlights how workplace bullying can be
conceived as a control measure. This allows understanding of how certain
organizational practices and measures can stimulate negative behaviors
from employers.
The book would thus allow critical reflection on workplace bullying,
management responsibilities, and the power enforcement strategies used
by managers. It would force the readers to question the ethical modalities
which managers traverse to accomplish organizational goals and objectives
on behalf of the corporation, and its implications for the employees and
the society at large. The focus of the book is on how workplace bullying
might be used by managers as a control technique. With that purpose, the
book would investigate relationships and interactions between supervisors
and subordinates, managers and employees, or administrators and faculty
members, that is, management and labor. Bullying instances between
peers, customers and managers, and customers and employees, and subor-
dinates bullying their supervisors, will not be covered in this book. Issues
pertaining to racism, gender, and sexual orientation will be explored con-
tingent on context of management control and workplace bullying.
This book while attempting to critique workplace bullying will answer
questions such as the following:
6 D. AKELLA

• Can workplace bullying be conceptualized as a type of control

technique?
• How is power exerted through workplace bullying?
• What are the implications of workplace bullying on a short-term and
a long-term basis?
• What legal protections for workplace bullying are currently existing
globally across the world?

Workplace bullying, with a few exceptions as mentioned earlier, is

grounded in the functionalist literature with deep roots within a positivist
epistemology and a quantitative methodology which measure and gener-
alize all empirical findings. This book deviates from the functionalist para-
digm and therefore from the positivist-based methodologies as well.
Qualitative methods will be used to capture the meanings of the partici-
pants and to give voice to their experiences in workplaces. Case studies
and phenomenological interviews will be used to bring alive the work-
places, the experiences of the participations and allow critical reflection on
the events which took place in the lives of the participants while at work.
To generalize and validate empirical findings, all research issues will be
tested on employees working within a healthcare sector, an academic envi-
ronment, a nonprofit organization, and a private organization.

1.3   The Structure of the Book

The entire book is divided into four parts. Part 1 covers relevant theoreti-
cal and methodological issues. Chapter 1 is the introduction, which intro-
duces the readers to the topic of workplace bullying and provides the
rationale and structure of the book. Chapter 2 covers different manage-
ment theories with a nonfunctionalist perspective which could be used to
conceptualize workplace bullying as a management control strategy.
Critical approaches such as critical realism, critical theory, labor process
theory, and poststructuralism theories, Lukes’ (1974, 2005) third dimen-
sion power, and Foucault disciplinary discourses will be discussed along
with their effectiveness in making sense of workplace bullying as a short-­
term control mechanism. Chapter 3 discusses various methodological
issues, which may arise when investigating workplace bullying, and how it
lends itself to qualitative methods. The following chapter details different
types of qualitative methodologies emphasizing new and innovative meth-
odologies suitable to the changing nature of work and employment.
 1 INTRODUCTION 7

Part 2 consists of four chapters documenting four critiques on work-

place bullying within the corporate sector, healthcare sector, educational
sector, and nonprofit organizations within the United States. The essence
of these four chapters is to empirically support the assertions that work-
place bullying can be an outcome of the capitalist regime of the society.
Chapters 4 and 5 detail case studies from the private sector and the non-
profit sector. Chapter 6 uses qualitative interviews gathered from nurse
practitioners employed in hospitals to expose the various power and con-
trol forces existing within workplace bullying. Chapter 7 is a case study
from an academic institution.
Part 3 looks at the ethical implications of workplace bullying and at the
legal laws dealing with workplace bullying within the United States and
worldwide. Chapter 8 considers ethical issues which may arise by using
workplace bulling as a short-term management control strategy. The
chapter explores different outcomes of workplace bullying such as stress
factors, health-related long-term issues, and employee productivity.
Empirical data from Chaps. 4, 5, 6, and 7 will be integrated as needed to
support relevant theoretical arguments. Chapters 9, 10, 11, 12, and 13
discuss legal laws in place on workplace bullying at the organizational level
in the United States and Canada, Australia and New Zealand, Middle East
and Africa, Europe and the United Kingdom, and Asia. These five chap-
ters are comprehensive literature reviews on legal protections for work-
place bullying globally. Part 4 consists of Chap. 14, the concluding chapter,
which summarizes the book and suggests possible research directions.

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 34. Park and Burgess, Introduction to the Science of Sociology, p. 509.
35. Although the actions of individuals may be designed and controlled, the
total effect of individual action is neither designed nor anticipated.
36. Human Geography, p. 52.
37. Brunhes points out by a series of maps the very intimate relation between
the distribution of human habitations and the water systems of different countries.
He also demonstrates the relation of the modern industrial community to the
regions of coal deposits.
38. The close relation existing between the coal and iron areas and the
location of modern industrial communities has frequently been pointed out. L. C.
A. Knowles says: “Apart from special and exceptional circumstances industry in
Europe and the United States tends to grow up within easy railway access to the
great coal areas and on these areas the population is massed in towns” (The
Industrial and Commercial Revolutions in Great Britain during the Nineteenth
Century, p. 24).
39. To be sure, if the interests in question are commercialized, the growth of
the community is subject to the same laws of competition as the other types of
communities, with the exception that change is likely to be more rapid and
fanciful.
40. See H. P. Douglass, The Little Town, p. 44.
41. F. E. Clements, Plant Succession, p. 3. Carr-Saunders refers to the point of
population adjustment to resources as the “optimum.”
42. J. Russell Smith, Industrial and Commercial Geography (1913), p. 841.
43. A. T. Hadley, “Economic Results of Improvement in Means of
Transportation,” quoted in Marshall, Business Administration, p. 35.
44. L. C. A. Knowles, The Industrial and Commercial Revolutions in Great
Britain during the Nineteenth Century (1921), p. 216.
45. See Gillette, Rural Sociology (1922), pp. 472–73.
46. For a good statistical summary of the decline in village population in the
United States from 1900 to 1920 see Gillette, op. cit. (1922), p. 465.
47. Warren H. Wilson, “Quaker Hill,” quoted in Sims, Rural Community, p.
214.
48. In actual count of some thirty-odd communities in and around Seattle this
was about the sequence of development.
49. The axial or skeletal structure of civilization, Mediterranean, Atlantic,
Pacific, is the ocean around which it grows up. See Ramsay Traquair, “The
Commonwealth of the Atlantic,” Atlantic Monthly, May, 1924.
50. Compare F. E. Clements, Plant Succession, p. 6.
 51. For good discussions of the effect of new forms of transportation upon
communal structure see McMichael and Bingham, City Growth and Values (1923),
chap. iv; also Grupp, Economics of Motor Transportation (1924), chap. ii.
52. By actual count in the city of Seattle over 80 per cent of the disorderly
houses recorded in police records are obsolete buildings located near the
downtown business section where land values are high and new uses are in process
of establishment.
53. A term used by members of the Department of Sociology in the University
of Chicago.
54. This has also been suggested by the Chicago group.
55. Walter Lippmann, Public Opinion, pp. 361–62.
56. Michael MacDonagh, The Reporters’ Gallery. Pp. 139–40.
57. George Henry Payne, History of Journalism in the United States, p. 120.
58. William I. Thomas, The Unadjusted Girl—with Cases and Standpoint for
Behavior Analysis, Criminal Science, Monograph No. 4, Boston, 1923.
59. Thomas and Znaniecki, The Polish Peasant, I, 87–97, quoted in Park and
Miller, Old-World Traits Transplanted, p. 34.
60. Ibid., II, 259, quoted in Park and Miller, Old-World Traits Transplanted,
pp. 39–40.
61. W. I. Thomas, The Unadjusted Girl, p. 71.
62. Robert E. Park, “The Significance of Social Research in Social Service,”
Journal of Applied Sociology (May-June, 1924), pp. 264–65.
63. J. Graham Cruickshank, Black Talk, p. 8.
64. Archbishop E. J. Hanna, head of the Catholic diocese of California,
recently, during the drouth on the Pacific Coast, issued formal instructions to the
pastors of all Catholic churches to offer the following prayer immediately after
mass: “O God, in whom we live and move and are, grant us seasonal rain that we,
enjoying a sufficiency of support in this life, may with more confidence strive after
things eternal.”—From Los Angeles Evening Herald, January 17, 1924.
65. Thomas and Znaniecki, The Polish Peasant in Europe and America
(Boston, 1918), I, 3: “The oldest but most persistent form of social technique is that
of ‘ordering-and-forbidding’—that is, meeting a crisis by an arbitrary act of will
decreeing the disappearance of the undesirable or the appearance of the desirable
phenomena, and the using arbitrary physical action to enforce the decree. This
method corresponds exactly to the magical phase of natural technique. In both, the
essential means of bringing a determined effect is more or less consciously thought
to reside in the act of will itself by which the effect is decreed as desirable, and of
which the action is merely an indispensable vehicle or instrument; in both, the
process by which the cause (act of will and physical action) is supposed to bring its
effect to realization remains out of reach of investigation.”
66. The following telegram was recently in the San Francisco Bulletin:
“Stanford University, Jan. 24, 1924—Stanford has established what is termed a
unique course in the curriculum of western universities. It teaches scientific yell-
leading, according to the rally committee, which sponsors the course. The course is
open to sophomores only. Practices will be held in Encina gymnasium.”
67. Frederick A. Ober, A Guide to the West Indies Bermudas, New York, 1908,
p. 351.
68. J. B. Baillie, Studies in Human Nature, p. 242.
69. A distinction made by Professor Robert E. Park.
70. Park and Burgess, Introduction to the Science of Sociology, p. 163.
71. P. 163.
72. One of the committees of the Chicago Council of Social Agencies has a
subcommittee which is studying this problem in connection with the subject of
uniform districts for social agencies. Several departments of the city government
are interested in considering the possibilities of uniform administrative districts.
73. See chapter “The Growth of the City” for a more elaborate analysis of
urban expansion (pp. 47–62).
74. Numbers in parentheses after titles indicate that the work cited contains
material bearing on the topics in the outline corresponding to these numbers.
 TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES
1. Silently corrected palpable typographical errors;
retained non-standard spellings and dialect.
2. Reindexed footnotes using numbers and collected
together at the end of the last chapter.
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